FILTRATION

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 FILTRATION
• Filtration is the process of passing water through
a stationary bed of granular media known as filter
media.

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 THEORY OF FILTRATION:
• Mechanical straining
• Sedimentation
• Biological metabolism
• Electrolytic changes

3
 MECHANICAL STRAINING
• Sand contains small pores. The suspended particles which are
bigger than the size of the voids in the sand layer, cannot pass
through these voids and get arrested.
• These arrested particles forms a mat on the top of the bed
which further helps in straining out the impurities.

4
 SEDIMENTATION
• In mechanical straining only those particles which are coarser
than void size are arrested. Finer particles are removed by
sedimentation.
• The voids between sand grains of filter acts like small
sedimentation tanks.

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 BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM
⚫ Suspended impurities contain some portion of organic
impurities such as algae, plankton, etc., which are food of
various types of micro- organisms.

⚫ These organic impurities form a layer on the top of sand

bed which is known as ‘Schmutzdecke’ or ‘dirty skin’.
⚫ This layer further helps in
absorbing and straining out
impurities
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 ELECTROLYTIC ACTION
• The sand grains in the filter medium and
impurities in water have opposite electric charges
over them
• When the impurities are come in contact with
sand grains, the charges are neutralised and
ultimately particles can be removed by cleaning

7
 FILTERSAND
•Sand used in filter bed should be clean, free from clay and
organic matter
•If the sand is too small,it clogs the filters and if it is too large, the
efficiency of removal of impurities will be decreased
•Filter sand is classified on the basis of effective size (D10) and
uniformity coefficient(D60/D10).
D10 D60/D10
•Slow sand- 0.2-0.35mm 1.8-3.0
•Rapid sand- 0.35-0.55mm 1.2-1.8

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CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS

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CLASSIFICATION
OF FILTERS:
Slow sand
Gravity filters
filters Rapid sand
Filters
Pressue filters
filters

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11
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 SLOW SAND FILTERS
• The water is allowed to pass slowly through a layer of sand placed
above the base material and thus the purification process aims at
simultaneously improving the biological, chemical, and physical
characteristics of water.

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 COMPONENT PARTS
[Link] box
• Open water tight rectangular tank
• Surface area:100m2 to 2000m2
• Depth:2.5 m-3.5 m
• Bed slope:1 in 100
[Link] media
• Clean river sand is used
• Sand bed is 90 to 110 cm
• Effective size(D10):0.2 to 0.35 mm
• Uniformity coefficient:1.8 to 3
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[Link] bed
• Laid below sand bed to keep support to the sand bed
• Also prevent escape of sand along with filtered water
• Thickness:30cm to 75cm
• Size of gravel:3mm to 65 mm

[Link]&Outlet
• Inlet:To apply water uniformly over sand bed without
dispersing sand grain
• Outlet:To collect filtered water

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[Link] drainage system
• Drain below gravel bed to collect filtered water
• Spacing:2m to 5m c/c

[Link] of filtration:100 to 200 l/hr/m2

[Link] removal efficiency 98% to 99%

[Link] and washed by scrapping 1.5 to 3 cm layer of

sand
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RAPID SAND FILTER

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 COMPONENTS OF RAPID SAND
[Link] box
FILTER
• Size:8 to 10 m2
• Depth:2.5m-3.5m
•Bed slope:1 in 100
[Link] sand media
• Clean river sand
• Thickness of sand bed:60-90 cm
• Effective size of sand D10 :0.35 -0.55 mm
• Uniformity coefficient:1.2-1.8
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[Link] bed
Size:60-90 cm
Well graded gravel:3mm to 40 mm
4. Inlet & Outlet
Central drain act as an outlet so no special outlet is provided

5. Under drainage system

Laid below gravel bed and it serves two purposes –
(i) collects the filtered water uniformly over the area of gravel bed and
(ii) provides uniform distribution of backwash water without distributing
or upsetting the gravel bed and filter media

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20
Types of Manifold and lateral type of under drainage system:
i. Perforated pipe type
ii. Pipe and strainer type

i. Perforated pipe type

ii. Pipe and strainer type 21
• Back washing
 Rapid sand filter is cleaned by the method of
backwashing.
 Percentage of water required for back washing is
2% to 6%
 Washing period: 24-48 hours

• Rate of filtration:3000-6000 l/hr/m2

• Particle removal efficiency: 80% - 90%

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24
LOSS OF HEAD
• When a cleared bed is put into operation, the loss of head
through it will be small (usually 15-30 cm)
• As the water is filtered through it, impurities are arrested by
the filter media, due to which the loss of
head goes on increasing
• The loss of head can be measured
by inserting two piezometric tubes
• As the thickness of the suspended
matter on the top of sand bed
increases, head loss is increased

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COMPARISON BETWEEN SLOW AND RAPID SAND FILTERS
Item Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter
Rate of filtration 100-200 litres/hour/m2 3000-6000 litres/hour/m2
Loss of head 15 cm initial to 1m final 30 cm initial to 3m final
Size of bed Requires large area Requires small area
Coagulation Not required Essential
Filter media Effective size: 0.2-0.35mm Effective size: 0.35-0.55 mm
of sand Cu : 1.8-3 Cu : 1.2-1.8
Depth : 105 cm, reduced Depth : 75 cm, not
to not less than 30 cm by reduced by washing
scrapping
Base material Size: 3-65mm Size: 3-40mm
of gravel Depth: 30- Depth: 60-
75cm 90cm
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 Item Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter
Under drainage Split tile laterals discharging Perforated laterals with mains or
system into tile or concrete main drain Wheeler/Leopold
or perforated pipe laterals /Wagner system
Method of Scrapping of top layer of 15- Agitation and backwashing
cleaning 25mm with/without compressed air
Amount of wash 0.2 to 0.6% of water filtered 2 to 4% of water filtered
water
Period of 1-2 months 2-3 days
cleaning
Penetration of Superficial Deep
suspended matter
Supplementary Chlorination Chlorination
treatment of
water
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 Item Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter

Efficiency Very efficient in removing Less efficient in removing

bacteria but less efficient in bacteria, more efficient in
the removal of colour and removing colour and
turbidity turbidity

Economy High initial cost Cheap and economical

Flexibility Not flexible in meeting Quite flexible for reasonable

variations in demand fluctuations in demand

Skilled Not essential Essential

supervision

Depreciation cost Relatively low Relatively high

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35
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37
Velocity of flow in laterals and manifold

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39
 FILTER TROUBLES
Cracking and clogging of filter bed
• Caused by rapid accumulation of solids on the top surface of
fine media
• The compression and shrinkage of soft, gelatinous coating on
the sand grains tend to form cracks in the filter, as the head
loss is increased
• These cracks are more prominent near the wall junctions
• The effect of such cracks is to permit the dirty matter to
penetrate into the filter media, sometimes up to gravel layer
(washing of filter and efficiency of filter is impaired) 40
Formation of mud balls
• Conglomerations of coagulated turbidity, floc, sand and
other binders are formed near the top of filter media
• Caused due to insufficient washing of sand grains
(mud may accumulate on the sand surface to form a
dense mat)
• Formation of mud balls can be eliminated by providing
an adequate backwash flow rate and a properly
designed system for auxiliary scour
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Air binding
• Caused by the release of dissolved air and gases from water
to form bubbles
• The air bubbles occupy the void space of the filter media
and the drainage system
• Likely to appear when water is saturated or super-
saturated with air in solution
• Reasons may be (i) negative head due to excessive loss of
head (ii) increase of temperature of water (iii) release of
oxygen by algae
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Sand incrustation
• May occur due to deposition of sticky gelatinous materials
from the influent water or due to an after- crystallisation of
calcium carbonate in case where heavy lime treatment of
water is practised
• Sand grains enlarge, effective size of sand is changed
• Can be minimised by carbonating the influent, thereby
dissolving both calcium carbonate and manganese that
might have depositions on sand grains

43
Jetting and sand boils

•Occur during backwashing when back wash water follows

the path of least resistance and break through to the scattered
points due to small differences in porosity and permeability
of sand and gravel
• When jetting becomes severe, the sand boils up like
quicksand and gravel as well as sand is lifted to the surface
• Can be minimized by surface wash or air scour in advance of
bed fluidization
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PRESSURE
FILTER

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• Pressure Filter is a rapid sand filter where filtration is carried out
under pressure (300-700 kN/m2)
• These are particularly advantageous for installations where water is
received under pressure, as no pumping after filtration is required
• The filtration rate is much higher than the rapid gravity filter (6000-
15000 litres/hour/m2)
• Considered unreliable in the removal of bacteria (not used for treating
municipal water supplies)
• Used when large amount of water is required with reasonable quality
• Mostly used in clarifying softened water at industrial plants and in
treating swimming pool water that is re-circulated.
• Efficiency:60%-70%

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Disinfection

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 Disinfection
• The purpose of disinfecting drinking water is
to destroy organisms that cause diseases in
human beings.
• Most pathogenic bacteria are removed from water
in varying degrees during the different treatment
processes (coagulation, sedimentation, and
filtration).
• Disinfection is used to ensure satisfactory removal
of pathogens from potable water.
48
 Requirements ofagooddisinfectant
1. Disinfectant shall be effective in killing the
microorganisms.
2. Should be cheap and readily available.
3. Should be safe to handle and easy to apply.
4. It should not make water toxic in nature.
5. It should have ability to persist in residual state.

49
Disinfection Methods
1. Boiling
2. High pH(Excesslime)
3. Silver treatment
4. UV radiation
5. Ozonization
6. Potassium Permanganate
7. Otherhalogens (Iodineand Bromine)
8. Chlorination 50
 1. Boiling
• Water shall be boiled at least for 30mins.
• Most effective
• Can kill bacteria and viruses
• Cannot be used on large scale
• During epidemics it is used in domestic
scale.
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 [Link] pH Treatment(Excess Lime)
• Lime can destruct bacteria at high pH value
• Studies showed that
– higher removal of viruses was obtained with higher
pH values
– Complete destruction of viruses was obtained at pH of
11.0 and contact time of 5hours and 10 minutes
– Lime has got residual power and is a cheapest chemical
but lime cause milky opaqueness in water

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 [Link] Treatment
• Silver when immersed in water has inhibiting
effect on bacterial life.
• Process is known as Electro katadyn process-
adding silver ions to water using Electrolysis
• As silver is costly this method can be used in small
scale.

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 [Link] (UV) radiation
• Can disinfect both water and wastewater.
• It have got very high destructive power
• Amount of destruction depends on intensity of
UV rays and time of exposure
• When compared to chlorination and Ozonation,
UV was found more effective

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 5. Ozonation
Disinfection of water with ozone is known as ozonation
General characteristics of ozone
−−Powerfuland has got residual power
−− More powerful than Hypochlorous acid. It can remove
colour, taste odour and reduce iron, manganese and sulfur
content.
−−Widely used in drinking water treatment
−−Is produced on site and can not be stored in site
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 [Link] Permanganate
• Commonly used in rural areas.
• Used for purification of open well water
supplies.
• KMnO4 is dissolved in bucket and added in well water.
• Water should not be used during first 48 hours after
KMnO4 addition

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 [Link] group of chemical
substances
•Commonly used substances are iodine and bromine
•Available only in the form of tablets and pellets

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 [Link]
Disinfection of water with chlorine or its compounds is
known as chlorination
Chlorine is widely used because
− Effective at low concentration
− Cheap
− High residual power

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 Chlorination Reaction
• Chlorine reacts with water to form
−−Hypochlorous acid(HOCl)
−− Hydrochloric acid ( HCl)

• Hypochlorous acid dissociates to hypochlorite

ion

• The dissociation of the HOCl is a function of pH(<5)

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 Chlorine demand
• When chlorine is added in water it reacts with
organic and inorganic impurities.
• The amount of chlorine utilized for this is known
as chlorine demand.
• The remaining chlorine will appear as
available residual chlorine.

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 Dosages,Demand andResiduals
• Dosage: the amountof chlorine added
• Demand: the amountof chlorine needed to oxidize
materials (reaction)
• Residual: the amountof chlorine remaining after
oxidation.
Residual Chlorine =Dosage –Demand
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 Chlorine canbeappliedinwater
byfollowing forms
1. As Bleaching powder or Hypochlorite
2. As Chloramines
3. As free Chlorine gas
4. As Chlorine dioxide

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 1. Bleaching powder
• Chemical formula is Ca(OCl)2.
• Available chlorine is 30 to 35%.
• When it is added in water following reaction takes place
Ca (OCl)2 + H2O 2HOCl +Ca(OH)2
• Hypochlorous acid acts as disinfectant.
• used in small scales i.e. rural water supply schemes
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 2. Chloramines
• Chlorine react with ammonia and produce
chloramines in water.
• Chlorine in the form of chloramines is known as
combined chlorine
• Mono chloramine (NH2Cl), Dichloramine
(NHCl2), Nitrogen Trichloride (NCl3)
• More effective than chlorine alone. They remain in
water for longer period. Used to disinfect
swimming pools 64
 3. Free chlorine
• Generally applied in gaseous form or liquid form.
• Strong oxidant
• Cheap and readily available
• Works under specific pH.(5.5-7.5)

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 [Link](ClO2)
• Chlorine dioxide is created by mixing solutions of
sodium chlorite and chlorine.
• Chlorine dioxide is generated
2NaClO2 + Cl2 2ClO2 + 2NaCl
• Very effectiveand instantly destroy organisms
• Costly and unstable
•Tablets available
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 Methodsof chlorination
1. Plain Chlorination
2. Pre-Chlorination
3. PostChlorination
4. Double or multiple
Chlorination
5. BreakpointChlorination
6. Super Chlorination
7. De-Chlorination 67
 1. Plain Chlorination
• Application of chlorine to raw water before it enters
into distribution system
• It can be practiced for water with turbidities
20 to 30NTU.
• Dose range –0.5 to 1 mg/ l

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 [Link] Chlorination
• Chlorine is applied before treatment
specially before filtration.
• Sometimes added before sedimentation.
• Advantages
i. Reduces bacterial load on filtration
ii. Reduces coagulant required.
iii. Controls growth of algae
iv. Eliminates tastes and odour. 69
 [Link] Chlorination

• Addition of chlorine after filtration.

• Added before water enters into distribution system.
• Residual chlorine = 0.1-0.2 mg/l

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 4. Double Chlorination
• Application of chlorine at two points in purification
process.
• Usually added -
i. Before sedimentation tank
ii. After filtration
• This is done if water is more contaminated.

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 [Link]
•Chlorine when added to water first reacts with reducing
compounds such as Fe2+ and Mn2+
• The chlorine will be reduced to chloride ion cl- (From 0-A )
•When adding more chlorine free residual chlorine is formed
which will react with ammonia to form chloramines(From A-B)
•When adding more chlorine beyond B organic matter gets
oxidized and hence the residual chlorine falls(From B-C)
•Beyond point C, addition of chlorine will produce free residual
chlorine and point C is called break point chlorination

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73
 7. De Chlorination
• Process of removing excess chlorine from water is
known as De-Chlorination.
• Can be achieved by aeration or using chemicals
such as sodium thiosulphate , sodium bisulphate,
sodium sulphite, Activated carbon, potassium
permanganate.

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 [Link] chlorination

• Addition of excess amount of Chlorine(5-15mg/l).

• Residual chlorine of 1-2mg/l beyond breakpoint
• It is done after filtration with contact time of 30to 60 mins.
• It is practiced when there is epidemics in
the society.

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DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

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 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 Distribution system is used to describe collectively the
facilities used to supply water from its source to the
point of usage.
 The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water
to consumer with appropriate quality, quantity and
pressure.

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Requirements of Good Distribution
System
 Water quality should not get deteriorated in the
distribution pipes.
 It should be capable of supplying water at all the
intended places withsufficientpressure head.
 It should be capable of supplying the requisite
amount of water during fire fighting.

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 The layout should be such that no consumer
would be without water supply, during the repair of
any section of the system.

 All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid

one metre away or above the sewer lines.

 It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due

to leakage to the minimum.
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 Layouts of Distribution System
 Dead End System/Tree system

 Radial System

 Grid Iron System

 Ring System

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Dead End System/Tree system
 It is suitable for old towns and citieshaving no
definite pattern of roads.

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Advantages
 Relatively cheap and simpler system
 Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less
number of valves.
Shorter pipe length and smaller diameters are needed hence laying
of pipe is easier
Disadvantages
 Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.
 Water reaches at a point only through one [Link] consumer
wont be able to get water during repair works

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Radial System...
 The area is divided into different zones.
 The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept in the
middle of each zone.
 The supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the periphery.
 This system is suitable where the roads are laid radially in the city

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Advantages:
 It gives quick service.
 Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.
Ensure high pressure and efficient water distribution system
Disadvantages
 Suitable for towns only with radial layout of roads
 No. of reservoirs are more
 Overall cost is more

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 Grid Iron System...
 In this system the mains ,submains and branches are
interconnected with each other
 Suitable for town with a regular grid of main roads and cross
roads

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Advantages
 Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends.
 In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is available
from some other direction.
 In case of fire, large quantities of water can be drawn from
all directions
Disadvantages
 More number of valves and longer pipes are required
 The overall cost is more
 Design calculations are slightly tedious
86
 Ring System...
 The supply main is laid all along the peripheral roads and sub
mains branch out from the mains.
 This system also follows the grid iron system with the same flow
pattern .

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Advantages
 Water can be supplied to any point from at least two directions.
 Repair works can be done without affecting larger network
 Large quantity of water can be diverted for fire fighting
Design calculations are easy
Disdvantages
 Large number of valves are required
 Pipe length is more
 Overall cost is high

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 Methods of water distribution
 Depending upon the level of source, topography of the area
and other local conditions the water may be forced into
distribution system by following ways –

1. Gravity system
2. Pumping system
3. Combined gravity and pumping system

89
 GRAVITY SYSTEM

 Suitable when source of supply is at sufficient height.

 No need of external energy
 Economical
 The water head available at the consumer is just
minimum required.
 It needs a storage reservoir as a source of supply

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91
92
 Pumping system

 Treated water isdirectly pumped in to the distributionmain

 High liftspumps are required.
 If power supply fails,complete stoppage of water supply.
 This method isnot generally used.

93
94
 Combined gravity and pumping system

 Most common system.

Treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated
distribution reservoir.
 Then supplies to consumer by action of gravity.
 Economical, efficient and reliable system.

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96
 METHODS OF SUPPLY
The water can be supplied to the consumers by the two systems:
1. Continuous system of water supply.
2. Intermittentsystem of water supply.

CONTINUOUS SYSTEM
24x7 supply is achieved when water is delivered continuously to every consumer of the
service 24 hours a day, every day of the year, through a transmission and distribution system that
iscontinuously full and under positive pressure

97
ADVANTAGES:
 In this system water is not stagnant in pipe at any instant & hence
fresh water is always available.
 Lesser pipe sizes are required.
 Fire hazards can be met within time.

DISADVANTAGES:
 If there are some minor leakages etc in the system, great volume of
water is wasted because of long duration of flow.
 More water is required at the source which is difficult in tropical
countries like India, which get rains only during a particular season.
 More wastage of water

98
INTERMITTENTSYSTEM:
If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided
into zones & each zone is supplied with water for fixed hours in a day. As
the water is supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent system

99
ADVANTAGES
 For older distribution systems having weaker joints and more leakage, restrained supply hours can limit
leakage
 Reduced pressure also helps lowering leakage
 Overall scarcity may sometimes be managed by interrupting the water supply and
equally balancing the resources
 Time is available for repair and maintenance out of supply hours

DISADVANTAGES
 Inconvenience to consumers(often, one person per household is devoted to
storing the water at supply times)
 Pipelines are subjected to vacuum condition after supply hours, which can
cause groundwater infiltration into the pipelines with contamination of the pipes
 Consumers need to store water between supplies and tend to throw away [Link] causes
water wastage and storage costs

100
 Distribution of flow using Hardy cross
method
• Applicable to closed loop pipe network
• ▶ The outflows from the system are assumed to occur at the
nodes (NODE: end of each pipe section). This assumption results in
uniform flow in the pipelines.
• ▶ The Hardy-Cross analysis is based on the principles that
• 1. At each junction, the total inflow must be equal to total outflow.)

2. Head balance criterion: algebraic sum of the head losses around

any closed loop is zero.

101
• ▶ If 𝑄𝑎 is the assumed flow and 𝑄 is the actual flow in the pipe then
the correction ∆ is given by
• ∆= 𝑄- 𝑄𝑎
• 𝑄= 𝑄𝑎 + ∆
• Now expressing the head loss(𝐻𝐿 ) as

• 𝐻𝐿= 𝐾𝑄 𝑥
• We have, the head loss in the pipe

• 𝐻𝐿= 𝐾𝑄 𝑥
• 𝐻𝐿= 𝐾(𝑄𝑎 + ∆ ) 𝑥
• = K[𝑄𝑎 𝑥+ 𝑥. 𝑄𝑎 𝑥−1 ∆ +………………. Negligible terms containing
• higher powers of ∆] 102
• ▶ Now around the closed loop summation of the head losses must be zero

• σ K[𝑄𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑥. 𝑄𝑎 𝑥 −1 ∆ ] =0
• σ K𝑄𝑎 𝑥 =- σ K𝑥. 𝑄𝑎 𝑥−1 ∆
Since ∆ is same for all the pipes of the considered loop, it can be taken out of the
summation. Therefore
σ K𝑄𝑎 𝑥 =- ∆ σ 𝑥.K𝑄𝑎 𝑥 −1
Since ∆ is given same sign in all the loop denominator of the above
equation is taken absolute sum of individual items
x=1.85 for Hazen William Formula
=2 for Darcy Weisbach Formula
103
 Hardy-cross method Procedure
1. Select separate loop and assume any distribution of flow such that
flow entering a junction = flow leaving that junction
2. Compute head loss in each pipe considering clock wise flow as positive and
anticlockwise flow as negative,
• ▶ 𝐻𝐿 = 𝐾𝑄𝑎 𝑥
𝐻𝐿 – head loss in pipe. Head loss will be positive if Qa is positive and vice versa
Qa – assumed flow in liter/s or in m3/s
K – a constant
x- constsnt ( x= 1.85 if using Hazen – Williams formula
x= 2 if using Darcy-Weisbatch formula)

3. Compute total head loss Σ 𝐻𝐿 for a loop. 104

[Link] for each pipe and compute Σ for the loop

[Link] the correction for the network as follows,

6. Apply correction to the flow in each pipe in the loop. Common pipe
to two loops will receive both correction with due regard to sign.
7. Apply correction repeatedly to obtain more accuracy

105
Q. Determine the distribution of flow in the pipe network shown below. The head loss
may be assumed as HL=KQa2 . The flow is turbulent and pipes are rough. K value of
each pipe is indicated in the figure. Use Hardy- Cross method.

106
Table for finding corrected Q

107
 Equivalent pipe method
• ▶ In this system complex system of pipes replaced by a single
hydraulically equivalent pipe
• ▶ Equivalent pipe is one which will replace a given system of
pipes with pipes having the same discharging capacities and
causing same head loss
• ▶ The method of equivalent pipe make use of two hydraulic
axioms
1. The head loss through the pipes connected in series are additive
2. Flow through pipes connected in parallel must be distributed so
that head losses are identical 108
HAZEN WILLIAM NOMOGRAM
Discharge l/s, diameter mm, loss of head in m/1000m,
velocity m/s

HL= head loss

Q= Flow in pipe
CH= Coefficient of hydraulic capacity (higher
values for smoother pipes)
d= internal diameter of pipe
L= Length of pipe
109
 Problem
• ABCD represents a pipe circuit with the pipe sizes and lengths as
indicated in figure. Let a flow of 60 l/s be assumed to be flowing
through the routes ABC and ADC. Replace the circuit with a single
pipe of 300 mm diameter (using Hazen Williams Nomogram)

110
• ▶ Head loss, 𝐻𝐿 for pipe ABC = 𝐻𝐿 for pipe AB + 𝐻𝐿 for pipe BC

• Head loss =(𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠/1000 )× 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚

• For circuit ABC head loss= 3.9/1000 × 700 + 9/1000 ×400 =6.33 m
• For circuit ADC head loss= 9/1000× 475 + 5.2/1000 ×450 =6.6 m

• Select highest head loss 6.6m

• ADC And ABC has to be replaced by a single pipe AC of 300mm dia and
discharge 120l/s. the rate of head loss from nomogram is 15m/1000m pipe
length.
• To find the length of the equivalent pipe having HL =6.6m
• 6.6= 15x LE/1000
• LE =440m

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A system of pipe consist of two branches from junction A to junction B as shown in figure.
The diameter of pipe is given in mm and length of pipe is given in m. Determine the
equivalent diameter of a single 600 m long pipe line from A to B that could replace the
given pipe system.

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• Assume HL=5m
• Rate of HL
• 5= Rate of HL x length of pipe/1000
• Rate of HL for ACB – 5x1000/400=12.5m
• Rate of HL for ADB – 5 x1000/1200= 4.17m
• From Nomogram find the discharge using diameter and Rate of head loss
• QACB= 70l/s
• QADB=16 l/s
• Q= 70+16= 86 l/s
• Find rate of head loss
• 5= rate of head loss x600/1000 Rate of head loss =8.33m
• Q=86l/s, Rate of HL=8.33m From Nomogram Diameter of equivalent
pipe=290mm

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