COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (CST)
Faculty of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering (WREE)
Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics Engineering (CEGE)
CCE 2161 – CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
ASSIGNMENT 1
Unit I: Stones and Bricks
Topics Covered:
Clay and its Classification • Physical Properties of Clay
Classification of Bricks • Manufacturing of Bricks • Defects of Bricks
Submitted to:
Dr. MUABARUKA Jean de Dieu
Course: CCE 2161 – Construction Materials
Academic Year: 2019–2020
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1. Clay and Its Classification
Clay is an earthen mineral mass or fragmentary rock capable of mixing with water to form a
plastic, viscous mass that retains its shape when moulded and dried. When heated to high
temperatures, clay masses acquire significant hardness and strength, making clay the most
important raw material in brick manufacturing.
Clay is composed of several key chemical ingredients in the following proportions:
• Silica (SiO₂): 50–60%
• Alumina (Al₂O₃): 20–30%
• Lime (CaO): up to 10%
• Magnesia (MgO): less than 1%
• Ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃): less than 7%
• Alkalis: less than 10%
• Carbon dioxide, sulphur trioxide, and water: present in very small percentages
1.1 Classification of Clay
Clay can be broadly classified based on its chemical composition and physical properties as
follows:
a) Argillaceous (Clay-rich) Type
The principal constituent of this type is alumina (Al₂O₃). These rocks are dense, compact and
hard; however, they are brittle and cannot withstand shock. When used in brickmaking, excess
alumina causes the clay to absorb too much water and crack upon drying. Examples include
slate and laterite.
b) Siliceous (Sand-rich) Type
The principal constituent is silica (SiO₂). This type is very hard, durable, and not easily
affected by weathering agents. Silica gives clay the ability to retain shape and prevents
shrinkage and warping during firing. However, excess silica makes the brick brittle and weak
after burning. Examples include sandstone, granite, basalt, and quartzite.
c) Calcareous (Lime-rich) Type
The principal constituent is calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). Lime in clay reduces shrinkage during
drying. However, excess lime causes the brick to melt and lose its shape. Examples include
limestone, marble, and dolomite.
2. Physical Properties of Clay
Clay possesses a number of distinctive physical properties that make it suitable for brick
manufacturing. These properties arise from its mineral composition and its behaviour when
mixed with water and subjected to heat.
2.1 Plasticity
Plasticity is the key property of clay that allows it to be permanently deformed without
cracking when mixed with a moderate amount of water. This property is primarily imparted by
the alumina content. During the preparation process (tempering), clay is kneaded to achieve the
necessary stiffness and plasticity required for moulding. Excess moisture reduces dimensional
accuracy, while too little moisture reduces workability.
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2.2 Shrinkage
Clay undergoes shrinkage during both the drying and burning stages. Drying shrinkage occurs
as moisture is removed, while burning shrinkage happens during vitrification. Silica reduces
shrinkage and warping, while excessive alumina or water content increases it. To minimise
shrinkage, sandy loam, fly ash, rice husk ash, or ground burnt clay may be added during
preparation.
2.3 Colour
The colour of clay and the resulting brick is influenced primarily by its iron oxide content.
When sufficient oxygen is available during burning, ferric oxide gives the brick a characteristic
deep red or cherry colour. In oxygen-deficient conditions, the colour tends to dark brown or
black. Magnesia makes the brick appear yellowish. A uniform deep red colour in a finished
brick indicates consistency in composition and thoroughness of burning.
2.4 Porosity and Water Absorption
Raw clay is naturally porous. During drying, moisture content is reduced from 7–30%
(depending on the manufacturing method) down to approximately 3%. The degree of burning
significantly affects the final porosity of the brick: well-burned bricks have lower water
absorption (typically 12–15% for first class bricks), while under-burned bricks remain highly
porous and absorb excessive moisture.
2.5 Hardness and Strength
In its raw (unfired) state, clay is soft and plastic. After burning to vitrification temperatures
(900–1250°C depending on clay type), the clay gains considerable hardness and compressive
strength. A properly fired brick should resist finger-nail scratching and produce a metallic
ringing sound when struck. The minimum compressive strength for good bricks is 10 N/mm².
2.6 Fusibility (Vitrification)
Clay has the property of fusing (softening and becoming glassy) at high temperatures. Low-
melting clays vitrify between 900–1100°C, while high-melting clays require 1000–1250°C.
Vitrification closes the pores of the clay mass, imparting strength, impermeability, and
durability to the finished brick.
3. Classification of Bricks
Bricks can be classified on several bases including field practice, strength, use, finish,
manufacture, burning, and type.
3.1 Classification Based on Field Practice
i. First Class Bricks
These are thoroughly burnt, deep red or cherry in colour, with smooth rectangular surfaces,
sharp edges, and uniform texture. They produce a metallic sound when struck together and
have a water absorption of 12–15% and compressive strength of not less than 10 N/mm². Used
for pointing, exposed face work, flooring, and reinforced masonry.
ii. Second Class Bricks
Similar to first class but permit small cracks and distortions. Water absorption is 16–20% and
compressive strength not less than 7.0 N/mm². Suitable for important and hidden masonry
works and centering of RCC structures.
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iii. Third Class Bricks
These are underburnt, soft, light-coloured and produce a dull sound when struck. Water
absorption is about 25% of dry weight. They are used only for temporary structures.
iv. Fourth Class Bricks
These are overburnt, badly distorted, and brittle in nature. Their ballast is used for foundations,
floors in lime concrete, and road metal.
3.2 Classification Based on Compressive Strength (IS: 1077)
The Bureau of Indian Standards classifies bricks by their average compressive strength into
grades such as 3.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 N/mm². Bricks with
compressive strength exceeding 40 N/mm² are classified as heavy duty bricks, used in bridges,
foundations of industrial and multi-storey buildings, with water absorption limited to 5%.
3.3 Classification Based on Use
• Common Bricks: General multi-purpose units manufactured economically without
special attention to appearance. Used for filling, backing, and walls where appearance is
of no consequence.
• Facing Bricks: Made primarily for appearance (colour or texture). Durable under severe
exposure; used on the fronts of building walls.
• Engineering Bricks: Strong, impermeable, smooth, hard, and conform to defined limits
of absorption and strength. Used for all load-bearing structures.
3.4 Classification Based on Finish
• Sand-faced Bricks: Have a textured surface produced by sprinkling sand on the inner
surfaces of the mould.
• Rustic Bricks: Have a mechanically textured finish, varying in pattern.
3.5 Classification Based on Manufacture
• Hand-made Bricks: Produced by hand moulding.
• Wire-cut Bricks: Clay extruded as a column and cut to brick sizes by wires.
• Pressed Bricks: Manufactured from stiff plastic or semi-dry clay pressed into moulds.
• Machine-moulded Bricks: Moulded by machines imitating hand mixing.
3.6 Classification Based on Burning
• Pale Bricks: Underburnt, obtained from the outer portion of the kiln.
• Body Bricks: Well burnt, occupying the central portion of the kiln.
• Arch Bricks (Clinker Bricks): Overburnt, obtained from the inner portion of the kiln.
3.7 Classification Based on Type
• Solid Bricks: Small holes not exceeding 25% of the volume, or frogs not exceeding
20% of volume.
• Perforated Bricks: Small holes may exceed 25% of the total volume.
• Hollow Bricks: Total holes may exceed 25% of volume; about 1/3 the weight of normal
bricks; sound and heat proof.
• Cellular Bricks: Holes closed at one end exceed 20% of the volume.
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4. Manufacturing of Bricks
The manufacturing of bricks involves several well-defined stages: preparation of clay,
moulding, drying, and burning. Each stage is critical to the quality of the final product.
4.1 Preparation of Clay
The preparation of clay involves five key operations:
a) Unsoiling
The top 20 cm layer of earth, which typically contains stones, pebbles, gravel, roots, and other
organic matter, is removed. The soil is processed to be free of gravel, coarse sand (particle size
> 2 mm), lime, and organic matter.
b) Digging
Additives such as fly ash, sand loam, rice husk ash, and stone dust are spread over the ground
surface and mixed on a volume basis with the excavated soil. The soil mass is manually
excavated, puddled, watered, and left for weathering. Digging is best done before the rains.
c) Weathering
The dug earth is heaped in layers of 60–120 cm and exposed to weather for at least one month.
This develops homogeneity in the soil, oxidises impurities, and erodes soluble salts that could
cause scumming during kiln burning. The soil is turned at least twice and kept moist
throughout the weathering period.
d) Blending
The weathered earth is mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in suitable proportions
using spades and a moderate amount of water to achieve the correct consistency for moulding.
Excessive moisture can affect the size and shape of the finished brick.
e) Tempering
Tempering consists of kneading the earth to make the clay mass stiff and plastic. It is
preferably carried out by storing the soil in layers of about 30 cm for not less than 36 hours to
ensure homogeneity. For large-scale production, tempering is mechanically done using pug
mills — a process known as pugging.
4.2 Moulding
Moulding gives the brick its required shape and is done either by hand or machine.
• Ground Moulding: The ground is levelled and sand sprinkled on it. Moulded bricks are
left on the ground for drying. They do not have a frog and the lower surface becomes
rough.
• Table Moulding: Bricks are moulded on stock boards nailed to a moulding table. Stock
boards have projections for forming the frog. A pallet is placed over the mould after
filling, and the mould is inverted and removed at the drying site.
• Machine Moulding (Plastic Method / Wire-cut): Pugged clay is forced through a
rectangular opening and cut into brick sizes by wires. Quick and economical.
• Dry-press Method: Moist powdered clay is fed into mechanically operated moulds
under high pressure. Produces dense, smooth, and uniform bricks but these must be
burned carefully to avoid cracking.
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4.3 Drying
Green (freshly moulded) bricks contain 7–30% moisture content. Drying removes this moisture
to control shrinkage and save fuel and time during burning. Moisture content is reduced to
approximately 3% within three to four days under exposed conditions. Bricks may be dried in
open-air driers or in artificial driers (hot floor driers or tunnel driers). Addition of sand or
ground burnt clay reduces shrinkage, increases porosity, and speeds up drying.
4.4 Burning
Burning is the most critical stage and takes place in three main phases:
• Dehydration (400–650°C): Also called the water smoking stage. Pore water is driven
off, clay loses plasticity, carbonaceous matter is burnt, and sulphur is distilled from
pyrites. Too rapid heating causes cracking; too slow may produce scum.
• Oxidation (650–900°C): Remaining carbon is eliminated and ferrous iron is oxidised to
the ferric form. Proper oxidation must be completed before the clay softens and closes
its pores. Sand is often added to the raw clay to keep the structure open for gas escape.
• Vitrification (900–1250°C): The clay converts into a glass-like substance. This stage is
subdivided into incipient vitrification (adherence without pore closure), complete
vitrification (maximum shrinkage), and viscous vitrification (soft molten mass, leading
to loss of shape). Paving bricks are burnt to complete vitrification for maximum
hardness.
Burning is carried out in a clamp (temporary structure) or kiln (permanent structure).
Continuous kilns such as Bull's Trench Kiln and Hoffman's Kiln enable ongoing production;
intermittent kilns are loaded and fired in batches.
5. Defects of Bricks
Several defects can arise during the manufacture of bricks, each affecting the quality and
suitability of the brick for construction.
5.1 Over-burning
If bricks are burned beyond the required temperature, a soft molten mass is produced and the
bricks lose their shape. Such bricks are not suitable for use in construction.
5.2 Under-burning
When bricks are not burned to achieve complete vitrification, the clay is not sufficiently
softened and the pores remain open. This results in high water absorption and low compressive
strength, making such bricks unsuitable for construction.
5.3 Bloating
Bloating appears as a spongy, swollen mass on the surface of burned bricks. It is caused by the
presence of excess carbonaceous matter and sulphur in the brick clay. The gases produced
during burning cannot escape and cause the brick surface to swell.
5.4 Efflorescence
Efflorescence is a crystalline white or grey powder deposit that appears on brick surfaces upon
drying. It is caused by soluble alkalis crystallising on the surface. This defect can be minimised
by selecting proper clay, preventing moisture contact with masonry, providing waterproof
coping, using water-repellent mortar, and installing damp proof courses.
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5.5 Black Core
When brick clay contains bituminous matter or carbon that is not completely removed during
oxidation due to improper burning, the brick develops a black core at its centre. This indicates
poor firing conditions.
5.6 Checks or Cracks
Cracks in bricks may result from two causes: (1) lumps of lime in the clay — when these
absorb moisture, they expand and cause disintegration of the brick; and (2) excess water added
during manufacturing, leading to shrinkage cracks during drying and burning.
5.7 Chuffs
Chuffs are deformations in the shape of bricks caused by rain water falling on hot bricks while
they are still in the kiln or clamp. These cause surface damage and loss of dimensional
accuracy.
5.8 Spots
Dark surface spots are caused by iron sulphide in the brick clay. While not structurally harmful,
such bricks are unsuitable for exposed masonry work due to their poor appearance.
5.9 Blisters
Broken blisters on the surface of bricks are caused by air imprisoned during the moulding
process. These are particularly common on the surface of sewer pipes and drain tiles.
5.10 Laminations
Laminations are caused by air trapped in the voids of clay during moulding. They produce thin
lamina on the brick faces that weather out upon exposure, leaving the bricks structurally weak.
References
1. MUABARUKA, J.D. (2019–2020). CCE 2161 – Construction Materials, Unit I: Stones
and Bricks. College of Science and Technology (CST), Department of Civil
Engineering and Geomatics Engineering.
2. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). IS: 1077 – Common Burnt Clay Building Bricks –
Specification.
3. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). IS: 3495 – Methods of Tests of Burnt Clay Building
Bricks.
4. Rajput, R.K. (2010). Engineering Materials. S. Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi.
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