Carbon Capture Utilization Storage (CCUS) Course

[Link]. Modules

1 Global status of CO2 emission trends, CCUS Policy and Regulatory interventions, Importance of IPCC, Whole value chain of CCUS.

2 Carbon Credits and carbon footprint, Carbon Cycle, Atmospheric Carbon Inventory and Sources

3 Climate science, global warming, effect of different greenhouse gases, Physical and Chemical Fundamentals

4 Introduction to Carbon Capture systems, Different types of scrubbers used in oil and gas industry

PVT properties of CO2 gas, Minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) of CO2, CO2 rock fluid interactions including wettability, contact angle, interfacial
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tension.

6 Use of captured CO2 including ECBM, CO2 based enhance oil recovery techniques, methane production from gas hydrates

7 Pipeline design for CO2 transportation

Different CO2 storage sites, Underground CO2 geological storage sites, Underlying mechanisms of CO2 geological storage, Screening sites for CO2
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storage activities, CO2 storage estimation for depleted oil and gas reservoirs and saline aquifers.

Different CO2 injection techniques and problems, Interplay of capillary, viscous and buoyancy forces, CO2 flow through porous media, Different CO2
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monitoring techniques, Possible CO2 leakage pathways and leakage mitigation techniques.

10 Global CCS projects & CCS implementation in Indian scenario, Technology gap and perspective
 CO2 Injection Techniques for geo-sequestration

 Types of CO2 Injection techniques are: -

 Pure CO2 flooding

 Co-injection of CO2 and water
 Water alternating gas (WAG) flooding
 Surfactant alternating gas (SAG) flooding
 Carbonated water Injection (CWI)

 CW injection involves dissolving CO2 in water under specific temperatures and pressures before injecting it into the
formation for oil recovery. Upon contact with crude oil in the formation, CW facilitates the gradual transfer of CO2 to the oil
phase.

 This process results in reduced crude oil viscosity, volume expansion, reservoir wettability alteration, IFT reduction, and
mitigation of the water block effect thereby enhancing oil recovery. Compared to CO2 injection, CW injection results in
improved sweep efficiency, markedly reduces the impact of gravity segregation, enhances oil−water mobility ratio, and
diminishes gas fingering in the formation.
 CO2 Injection Techniques for geo-sequestration
 Compared with CO2 injection, CO2 is dissolved in both the water and oil phases during CW injection, which reduces CO2
transport within the reservoir. Moreover, since CW is denser than natural brine, it tends to move down to the bottom of the
reservoir and be stored safely. This reduces the reliance on the cap layer for CO2 storage safety and markedly lowers the risk
of CO2 leakage.

 During CW transport, some CO2 remains stored in the micro-pores of reservoir rocks, whereas the rest flows with water and
oil.

 Over time, carbonate ions react with calcium ions or metal cations, leading to precipitation and facilitating the mineral storage
of CO2. As CO2 exists in a dissolved state in water, carbonate precipitates can form more rapidly, enabling CW injection to
achieve CO2 storage more efficiently

 CO2 storage increases with higher CO2 concentration and pressure but decreases with rising temperature. Lower initial water
saturation and greater water-wet wettability promote higher CO2 storage rates in CW injection. Moreover, the CO2 storage rate
in CW injection is higher in light oil compared to heavy oil.
 CO2 Injectivity problems

 Injectivity problems may be caused by a variety of reasons: -

 Asphaltenes precipitation
 Water blockage
 Salt precipitation
 Fines migration
 Changes in pH
 Effect of geological conditions

 When CO2 is injected into saline aquifers, evaporation of liquid water into the CO2 phase leads to a process where the
dissolved salts precipitate. This phenomenon is broadly called “salting-out”; in this context, salts can precipitate in the
wellbore vicinity
 CO2 injection increases reservoir pressure while decreasing temperature due to dehydration and the dissolution of reactive
carbonate minerals like calcite. This process weakens the rock framework, causing micro-cracking and compaction. The
increased pore pressure also leads to caprock deformation and fracture reactivation, compromising the integrity of the
carbon storage system.
 CO2 Injectivity problems

 Water blockage occurs when the formation water forms a thin film on the rock surface and occupies smaller pores leaving
limited pore space for CO2 to flow necessitating a high injection pressure. In other words, water blockage reduces gas
relative permeability.

 Water blockage is more common in hydrocarbon reservoirs (particularly tight gas reservoirs, water blockage can also take
place when CO2 is stored in deep saline aquifers. The issue is common under strongly water-wet conditions (i.e., rocks
composed predominantly of quartz) in sandstone reservoirs with invaded fluids which are used during drilling, completion,
and fracturing activities
 During the process of CO2 storage, the injection of CO2 may induce changes in the reservoir’s physical and chemical
conditions. These changes can induce fines migration, particularly when there is a substantial alteration in fluid composition,
flow velocity, or pressure.
 The interaction between CO2 and water within the formation can alter the pH levels or introduce new ionic types, which can
further destabilize the fines. CO2 -saturated water exhibits a markedly pH range of 3–4 and reacts with the minerals. These
processes can lead to the dissolution of the cement between grains and the migration of fines, which may then induce pore
blockage. Ion exchange reactions are also observed during the injection. Chemical dissolution increased the exposure of clay
mineral surfaces, which can result in fines migration.
 Asphaltene precipitation and deposition occur during primary production and miscible gas flooding with gases such as CO2.
Asphaltene deposition on pore walls can result in changes to wettability and pore plugging, resulting in reduced oil recovery
and carbon storage.
 CO2 flow through porous media

 The horizontal velocity of CO2 decreases with distance from

the injection well as the pressure gradient decreases. The
vertical velocity of CO2 is a constant due to density
difference only. At some radius from the well the horizontal
and vertical CO2 velocity will be of similar magnitude and a
more noticeable and substantial volume of CO2 will move
upward.

 At a greater radius the vertical pressure gradient will be

much greater than the horizontal pressure gradient, and most
all of the CO2 will move vertically.

 Only when the CO2 reaches the confining interval will the
plume area again grow in size. It is difficult to separate the
affects of vertical and lateral permeability on plume size, so
the plume size discussion will be developed using the ratio of
vertical to horizontal permeability (kv/kh).
 CO2 flow through porous media

 When supercritical CO2 (ScCO2) is injected in deep saline aquifers at pressure greater than aquifer brine pressure, it displaces
the brine while dissolving in the underlying brine. Thus, the migration of a CO2 plume in deep saline aquifer involves both
multi-phase flow and transport processes. At typical saline aquifer temperatures and pressures, ScCO2 is less dense than brine
and the brine with dissolved CO2 is denser than the original brine.
 Due to the density differences, the injection of CO2 into a typical deep saline aquifer with an impermeable caprock can result
in density stratification. Immediately below the caprock a thin layer of ScCO2 with saturation of unity can exist. The thickness
of this ScCO2 layer depends on the injection flux, aquifer permeability, residual water saturation, injection time, and slope at
the bottom of the caprock.

 Below the single phase ScCO2 layer the effective saturation of ScCO2 decreases with depth. This zone is known as capillary
transition zone. Below the capillary transition zone, a diffusive boundary layer with a single phase brine-saturated zone rich in
dissolved CO2 exists.

 The concentration of dissolved CO2 varies with depth due to diffusion. The thickness and horizontal spread of these layers and
distribution of saturation and concentration continuously evolve with time.

 The diffusive mass transport decreases with time and downward fingers of higher density brine saturated CO2 form due to the
increase of diffusive boundary layer thickness reaching a critical point of instability. The mass flux after onset of gravitational
instability is several times more than that due to CO2 diffusion.
CO2 flow through porous media
 CO2 flow through porous media

 The mobility ratio (M) is defined as the mobility of the displacing fluid divided by the mobility of the displaced fluid. For
CO2 and water the mobility formula appears as follows:

 Assuming that the relative permeability's are similar magnitude, the mobility ratio would be 2 to 4, which represents a slightly
inefficient displacement process. For relatively higher brine salinity and increased viscosity, the plume size would be larger
and storage of CO2 less efficient.
CO2 flow through porous media
 CO2 monitoring Techniques

 Time-lapse seismic monitoring

 This technique relies on the acoustic impedance contrast between rock containing water, supercritical CO2 , or
hydrocarbons, and the comparison of successive surveys indicates areas in the subsurface where one fluid has replaced
another or where significant pressure changes have occurred.

 Gravity surveys

 Measurement of the local gravitational field using surface or airborne gravimetry, providing a low-resolution 2D areal
image of changes in pore fluid density due to plume movement
 Soil gas sampling

 Collection and analysis of gas samples from the soil or shallow boreholes. Isotopic analysis can distinguish leakage of
injected from biosphere-generated CO2.

 Fluid sampling

 Collection and analysis of fluid samples from drinking water aquifer wells, and any observation wells located above the
primary seal, to detect elevated CO2 concentration
 CO2 monitoring Techniques

 Injection well pressure and temperature:

 Standard measurement of well pressures, volumes, and temperatures; used as input to dynamic reservoir modeling and
to identify injection well problems
 CO2 leakages pathways

 There are many pathways that may become a conduit for the migration and seepage of CO2 from a storage site: -

 Faults

 Caprock integrity

 Corrosion fatigue in CO2 injection wells

 Cement integrity: Active wells and Abandon wells

 CO2 leakages mitigation pathways

 Use of nanoparticles

 Application of polymer crosslinker gel

 Using CO2 resistive material

 Non-Portland based cement