Types of Number Systems

Some of the important types of number system are

1. Decimal Number System

2. Binary Number System
3. Octal Number System
4. Hexadecimal Number System
These number systems are explained below in details.

Binary Number System

Generally, a binary number system is used in the digital computers. In this number system, it
carries only two digits, either 0 or 1. There are two types of electronic pulses present in a binary
number system. The first one is the absence of an electronic pulse representing '0'and second one
is the presence of electronic pulse representing '1'. Each digit is known as a bit. A four-bit
collection (1101) is known as a nibble, and a collection of eight bits (11001010) is known as a
byte. The location of a digit in a binary number represents a specific power of the base (2) of the
number system.

Examples:

(10100)2, (11011)2, (11001)2, (000101)2, (011010)2.

Decimal Number System

The decimal numbers are used in our day to day life. The decimal number system contains ten
digits from 0 to 9(base 10). Here, the successive place value or position, left to the decimal point
holds units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

The position in the decimal number system specifies the power of the base (10). The 0 is the
minimum value of the digit, and 9 is the maximum value of the digit. For example, the decimal
number 2541 consist of the digit 1 in the unit position, 4 in the tens position, 5 in the hundreds
position, and 2 in the thousand positions and the value will be written as:

(2×1000) + (5×100) + (4×10) + (1×1)

(2×103) + (5×102) + (4×101) + (1×100)
2000 + 500 + 40 + 1
2541

Octal Number System

The octal number system has base 8(means it has only eight digits from 0 to 7). There are only
eight possible digit values to represent a number. With the help of only three bits, an octal
number is represented. Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0 and 7.

Below, we have described certain characteristics of the octal number system:

Number Octal Number

0 000

1 001

2 010

3 011

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

Examples:

(273)8, (5644)8, (0.5365)8, (1123)8, (1223)8.

Hexadecimal Number System
It is another technique to represent the number in the digital system called
the hexadecimal number system. The number system has a base of 16 means there are
total 16 symbols(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F) used for representing a number.
The single-bit representation of decimal values10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are represented
by A, B, C, D, E, and F. Only 4 bits are required for representing a number in a hexadecimal
number. Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0 and 15.

Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

0000 0

0001 1

0010 2

0011 3

0100 4

0101 5

0110 6

0111 7

1000 8

1001 9

1010 A

1011 B

1100 C

1101 D

1110 E

1111 F
Examples:

(FAC2)16, (564)16, (0ABD5)16, (1123)16, (11F3)16.

Number Base Conversion
In our previous section, we learned different types of number systems such as binary, decimal, octal,
and hexadecimal. In this part of the tutorial, we will learn how we can change a number from one
number system to another number system.

As, we have four types of number systems so each one can be converted into the remaining three
systems. There are the following conversions possible in Number System

1. Binary to other Number Systems.

2. Decimal to other Number Systems.
3. Octal to other Number Systems.
4. Hexadecimal to other Number Systems.

Binary to other Number Systems

There are three conversions possible for binary number, i.e., binary to decimal, binary to octal, and
binary to hexadecimal. The conversion process of a binary number to decimal differs from the
remaining others. Let's take a detailed discussion on Binary Number System conversion.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting binary to decimal is quite simple. The process starts from multiplying the
bits of binary number with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add all those
products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from binary to decimal.

Example 1: (10110.001)2

We multiplied each bit of (10110.001)2 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.

(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+
(0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+
(0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10

Binary to Octal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and octal are 2 and 8, respectively. In a binary number, the pair of three
bits is equal to one octal digit. There are only two steps to convert a binary number into an octal
number which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will
be one or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme
sides.
2. In the second step, we write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (111110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 110 101 011.001 1

On the right side of the binary point, the last pair has only one bit. To make it a complete pair of
three bits, we added two zeros on the extreme side.

111 110 101 011.001 100

2. Then, we wrote the octal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(111110101011.0011)2=(7653.14)8

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and hexadecimal are 2 and 16, respectively. In a binary number, the
pair of four bits is equal to one hexadecimal digit. There are also only two steps to convert a binary
number into a hexadecimal number which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will
be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on
extreme sides.
 2. In the second step, we write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (10110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 1010 1011.0011

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has three bits. To make it a complete pair of four
bits, add one zero on the extreme side.

0111 1010 1011.0011

2. Then, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(011110101011.0011)2=(7AB.3)16

Decimal to other Number System

The decimal number can be an integer or floating-point integer. When the decimal number is a
floating-point integer, then we convert both part (integer and fractional) of the decimal number in
the isolated form(individually). There are the following steps that are used to convert the decimal
number into a similar number of any base 'r'.

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on integer and successive part with base 'r'. We
will list down all the remainders till the quotient is zero. Then we find out the remainders in reverse
order for getting the integer part of the equivalent number of base 'r'. In this, the least and most
significant digits are denoted by the first and the last remainders.
2. In the next step, the multiplication operation is done with base 'r' of the fractional and successive
fraction. The carries are noted until the result is zero or when the required number of the equivalent
digit is obtained. For getting the fractional part of the equivalent number of base 'r', the normal
sequence of carrying is considered.

Decimal to Binary Conversion

For converting decimal to binary, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with
the base of binary(2).
 2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
binary(2).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 2.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/2 76 0 (LSB)

76/2 38 0

38/2 19 0

19/2 9 1

9/2 4 1

4/2 2 0

2/2 1 0

1/2 0 1(MSB)

(152)10=(10011000)2

Step 2:

Now, perform the multiplication of 0.27 and successive fraction with base 2.

Operation Result carry

 0.25×2 0.50 0

0.50×2 0 1

(0.25)10=(.01)2

Decimal to Octal Conversion

For converting decimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with
the base of octal(8).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
octal(8).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/8 19 0

19/8 2 3

2/8 0 2

(152)10=(230)8

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 8.
 Operation Result carry

0.25×8 0 2

(0.25)10=(2)8

So, the octal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.2

Decimal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting decimal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with
the base of hexadecimal (16).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
hexadecimal (16).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/16 9 8

9/16 0 9

(152)10=(98)16

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 16.
 Operation Result carry

0.25×16 0 4

(0.25)10=(4)16

So, the hexadecimal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.4.

Octal to other Number System

Like binary and decimal, the octal number can also be converted into other number systems. The
process of converting octal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's start understanding
how conversion is done.

Octal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting octal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process starts from
multiplying the digits of octal numbers with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add
all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from octal to decimal.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the products
of all the bits with its weight.

(152.25)8=(1×82)+(5×81)+(2×80)+(2×8-1)+(5×8-2)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+(2×1⁄8)+(5×1⁄64)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+0.25+0.078125
(152.25)8=106.328125

So, the decimal number of the octal number 152.25 is 106.328125

Octal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting octal to binary is the reverse process of binary to octal. We write the three
bits binary code of each octal number digit.

Example 1: (152.25)8

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Octal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting octal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of number 25.
2. Next, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one,
two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides
and write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Step 2:

1. Now, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

0 0110 1010.0101 01

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has only one digit, and on the right side, the last
pair has only two-digit. To make them complete pairs of four bits, add zeros on extreme sides.

0000 0110 1010.0101 0100

2. Now, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(0000 0110 1010.0101 0100)2=(6A.54)16

Hexa-decimal to other Number System

Like binary, decimal, and octal, hexadecimal numbers can also be converted into other number
systems. The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's
start understanding how conversion is done.

Hexa-decimal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process
starts from multiplying the digits of hexadecimal numbers with its corresponding positional weights.
And lastly, we add all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from hexadecimal to decimal.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152A.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.

(152A.25)16=(1×163)+(5×162)+(2×161)+(A×160)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=(1×4096)+(5×256)+(2×16)+(10×1)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=4096+1280+32+10+(2×1⁄16)+(5×1⁄256)
(152A.25)16=5418+0.125+0.125
(152A.25)16=5418.14453125

So, the decimal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 5418.14453125

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to binary is the reverse process of binary to hexadecimal.
We write the four bits binary code of each hexadecimal number digit.

Example 1: (152A.25)16
We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, A, 2, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of the hexadecimal number 152.25 is (1010100101010.00100101)2

Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion

For converting hexadecimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of the hexadecimal number.
2. Next, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one or
two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides and
write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, A, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of hexadecimal number 152A.25 is (0011010101010.010101)2

Step 2:

3. Then, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

001 010 100 101 010.001 001 010

4. Then, we write the octal digit, which corresponds to each pair.

(001010100101010.001001010)2=(12452.112)8

So, the octal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 12452.112

Example 1: (10110.001)2
We multiplied each bit of (10110.001)2 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.

(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+
(0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+
(0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10

Binary to Octal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and octal are 2 and 8, respectively. In a binary number, the pair of
three bits is equal to one octal digit. There are only two steps to convert a binary number into an
octal number which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.
If there will be one or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number
of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (111110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 110 101 011.001 1

On the right side of the binary point, the last pair has only one bit. To make it a complete
pair of three bits, we added two zeros on the extreme side.

111 110 101 011.001 100

2. Then, we wrote the octal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(111110101011.0011)2=(7653.14)8

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and hexadecimal are 2 and 16, respectively. In a binary
number, the pair of four bits is equal to one hexadecimal digit. There are also only two
steps to convert a binary number into a hexadecimal number which are as follows
 1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary
point. If there will be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add
the required number of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (10110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 1010 1011.0011

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has three bits. To make it a complete pair
of four bits, add one zero on the extreme side.

0111 1010 1011.0011

2. Then, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(011110101011.0011)2=(7AB.3)16

Decimal to other Number System

The decimal number can be an integer or floating-point integer. When the decimal
number is a floating-point integer, then we convert both part (integer and fractional) of
the decimal number in the isolated form(individually). There are the following steps that
are used to convert the decimal number into a similar number of any base 'r'.

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on integer and successive part
with base 'r'. We will list down all the remainders till the quotient is zero. Then we
find out the remainders in reverse order for getting the integer part of the
equivalent number of base 'r'. In this, the least and most significant digits are
denoted by the first and the last remainders.
2. In the next step, the multiplication operation is done with base 'r' of the fractional
and successive fraction. The carries are noted until the result is zero or when the
required number of the equivalent digit is obtained. For getting the fractional part
of the equivalent number of base 'r', the normal sequence of carrying is
considered.
Decimal to Binary Conversion
For converting decimal to binary, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the
successive quotient with the base of binary(2).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of binary(2).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 2.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/2 76 0 (LSB)

76/2 38 0

38/2 19 0

19/2 9 1

9/2 4 1

4/2 2 0

2/2 1 0

1/2 0 1(MSB)

(152)10=(10011000)2

Step 2:

Now, perform the multiplication of 0.27 and successive fraction with base 2.
 Operation Result carry

0.25×2 0.50 0

0.50×2 0 1

(0.25)10=(.01)2

Decimal to Octal Conversion

For converting decimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the
successive quotient with the base of octal(8).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of octal(8).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/8 19 0

19/8 2 3

2/8 0 2

(152)10=(230)8

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 8.
 Operation Result carry

0.25×8 0 2

(0.25)10=(2)8

So, the octal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.2

Decimal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting decimal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which
are as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the
successive quotient with the base of hexadecimal (16).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of hexadecimal (16).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/16 9 8

9/16 0 9

(152)10=(98)16

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 16.

Operation Result carry

 0.25×16 0 4

(0.25)10=(4)16

So, the hexadecimal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.4.

Octal to other Number System

Like binary and decimal, the octal number can also be converted into other number
systems. The process of converting octal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's
start understanding how conversion is done.

Octal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting octal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process
starts from multiplying the digits of octal numbers with its corresponding positional
weights. And lastly, we add all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from octal to decimal.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add
the products of all the bits with its weight.

(152.25)8=(1×82)+(5×81)+(2×80)+(2×8-1)+(5×8-2)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+(2×1⁄8)+(5×1⁄64)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+0.25+0.078125
(152.25)8=106.328125

So, the decimal number of the octal number 152.25 is 106.328125

Octal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting octal to binary is the reverse process of binary to octal. We
write the three bits binary code of each octal number digit.

Example 1: (152.25)8
We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Octal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting octal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of number 25.
2. Next, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will
be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of
zeros on extreme sides and write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Step 2:

1. Now, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

0 0110 1010.0101 01

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has only one digit, and on the right side, the last
pair has only two-digit. To make them complete pairs of four bits, add zeros on extreme sides.

0000 0110 1010.0101 0100

2. Now, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(0000 0110 1010.0101 0100)2=(6A.54)16

Hexa-decimal to other Number System

Like binary, decimal, and octal, hexadecimal numbers can also be converted into other number
systems. The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's
start understanding how conversion is done.

Hexa-decimal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process
starts from multiplying the digits of hexadecimal numbers with its corresponding positional
weights. And lastly, we add all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from hexadecimal to decimal.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152A.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.

(152A.25)16=(1×163)+(5×162)+(2×161)+(A×160)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=(1×4096)+(5×256)+(2×16)+(10×1)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=4096+1280+32+10+(2×1⁄16)+(5×1⁄256)
(152A.25)16=5418+0.125+0.125
(152A.25)16=5418.14453125

So, the decimal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 5418.14453125

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to binary is the reverse process of binary to hexadecimal.
We write the four bits binary code of each hexadecimal number digit.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, A, 2, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of the hexadecimal number 152.25

is (1010100101010.00100101)2
Step 2:

3. Then, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

001 010 100 101 010.001 001 010

4. Then, we write the octal digit, which corresponds to each pair.

(001010100101010.001001010)2=(12452.112)8

So, the octal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 12452.112

LOGIC GATES

 Introduction:
 Gate: A Gate is a simply an electronic circuit which operates on one or more
input signals and always produces an output signal.
 Gates are digital (two state) circuits because the input and output signals are
either low voltage (0) or high voltage (1).
 Gates are often called logic circuits because they can be analyzed with
Boolean algebra.
 Gates are classified into two types:
logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. Most logic
gates
have two inputs and one output. At any given moment, every terminal is in
one of
the two binary conditions low (0) or high (1), represented by different
voltage
levels.
Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates
are the
AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates. The basic
operations
are described below with the aid of truth tables.
 Logic Gates
 AND gate
 OR gate
 NOT gate
 NAND gate
 NOR gate
 Ex-OR gate
 Ex-NOR gate

Truth Tables

Truth tables are used to help show the function of a logic gate. If you are
unsure about truth tables and need guidance on how go about drawning them
for individual gates or logic circuits then use the truth table.
The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will
give a low output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The
symbol is an EXOR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.

The NAND and NOR gates are called universal functions since with either
one the AND and OR functions and NOT can be generated.
Laws of Boolean Algebra
There are six types of Boolean algebra laws. They are:
 Commutative law
 Associative law

 Distributive law

 AND law

 OR law

Those laws are explained in detail here.

Commutative Law
Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the
variables does not have any effect on the output of a logic
circuit.
 A. B = B. A
 A+B=B+A

Associative Law
It states that the order in which the logic operations are
performed is irrelevant as their effect is the same.
  ( A. B ). C = A . ( B . C )
 ( A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C)

Distributive Law
Distributive law states the following conditions:
 A. ( B + C) = (A. B) + (A. C)
 A + (B. C) = (A + B) . ( A + C)

AND Law
These laws use the AND operation. Therefore they are called
AND laws.
 A .0 = 0
 A.1=A
 A. A = A

OR Law
These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called OR
laws.
 A +0=A
 A+1=1
 A+A=A


Boolean Algebra Theorems

The two important theorems which are extremely used in
Boolean algebra are De Morgan’s First law and De Morgan’s
second law. These two theorems are used to change the Boolean
expression. This theorem basically helps to reduce the given
Boolean expression in the simplified form. These two De
Morgan’s laws are used to change the expression from one form
to another form. Now, let us discuss these two theorems in
detail.

De Morgan’s First Law:

De Morgan’s First Law states that (A.B)’ = A’+B’.
The first law states that the complement of the product of the
variables is equal to the sum of their individual complements of
a variable.
The truth table that shows the verification of De Morgan’s First
law is given as follows:

A B A’ B’ (A.B)’ A’+B’
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0

The last two columns show that (A.B)’ = A’+B’.

Hence, De Morgan’s First Law is proved.
De Morgan’s Second Law:
De Morgan’s Second law states that (A+B)’ = A’. B’.
The second law states that the complement of the sum of
variables is equal to the product of their individual complements
of a variable.

The following truth table shows the proof for De Morgan’s

second law.
 A B A’ B’ (A+B)’ A’. B’
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0

The last two columns show that (A+B)’ = A’. B’.

Hence, De Morgan’s second law is proved.
The other theorems in Boolean algebra are complementary
theorem, duality theorem, transposition theorem, redundancy
theorem and so on. All these theorems are used to simplify the
given Boolean expression. The reduced Boolean expression
should be equivalent to the given Boolean expression.
What is an Adder?
An adder is a digital logic circuit in electronics that is extensively used for the
addition of numbers. In many computers and other types of processors, adders
are even used to calculate addresses and related activities and calculate table
indices in the ALU and even utilized in other parts of the processors. These can
be built for many numerical representations like excess-3 or binary coded
decimal. Adders are basically classified into two types: Half Adder and Full
Adder.
What is Half Adder and Full Adder Circuit?
The half adder circuit has two inputs: A and B, which add two input digits and
generates a carry and a sum. The full adder circuit has three inputs: A and C,
which add three input numbers and generates a carry and sum. This article
gives detailed information about what is the purpose of a half adder and full
adder in tabular forms and even in circuit diagrams too. It is already mentioned
that the main and crucial purpose of adders is addition. Below are the
detailed half adder and full adder theory.

Half Adder
So, coming to the scenario of half adder, it adds two binary digits where the
input bits are termed as augend and addend and the result will be two outputs
one is the sum and the other is carry. To perform the sum operation, XOR is
applied to both the inputs, and AND gate is applied to both inputs to produce
carry.
Whereas in the full adder circuit, it adds 3 one-bit numbers, where two of the
three bits can be referred to as operands and the other is termed as bit carried
in. The produced output is 2-bit output and these can be referred to as output
carry and sum.

By using a half adder, you can design simple addition with the help of logic
gates.

Let’s see an example of adding two single bits.

The 2-bit half adder truth table is as below:

0+0 = 0
0+1 = 1
1+0 = 1
1+1 = 10
These are the least possible single-bit combinations. But the result for 1+1 is
10, the sum result must be re-written as a 2-bit output. Thus, the equations
can be written as
 0+0 = 00
0+1 = 01
1+0 = 01
1+1 = 10

The output ‘1’of ‘10’ is carry-out. ‘SUM’ is the normal output and ‘CARRY’ is
the carry-out.

Now it has been cleared that a 1-bit adder can be easily implemented with the
help of the XOR Gate for the output ‘SUM’ and an AND Gate for the ‘Carry’.

For instance, when we need to add, two 8-bit bytes together, then it can be
implemented by using a full-adder logic circuit. The half-adder is useful when
you want to add one binary digit quantities.

A way to develop two-binary digit adders would be to make a truth table and
reduce it. When you want to make a three binary digit adder, the half adder
addition operation is performed twice. In a similar way, when you decide to
make a four-digit adder, the operation is performed one more time. With this
theory, it was clear that the implementation is simple, but development is a time
taking process.

The simplest expression uses the exclusive OR function:

Sum= A XOR B
Carry = A AND B
Full Adder
This adder is difficult to implement when compared to half-adder.

The difference between a half-adder and a full-adder is that the full-adder has
three inputs and two outputs, whereas half adder has only two inputs and two
outputs. The first two inputs are A and B and the third input is an input carry as
C-IN. When a full-adder logic is designed, you string eight of them together to
create a byte-wide adder and cascade the carry bit from one adder to the next.

The output carry is designated as C-OUT and the normal output is represented
as S which is ‘SUM’.

With the above full adder truth-table, the implementation of a full adder circuit
can be understood easily. The SUM ‘S’ is produced in two steps:
1. By XORing the provided inputs ‘A’ and ‘B’
2. The result of A XOR B is then XORed with the C-IN
This generates SUM and C-OUT is true only when either two of three inputs
are HIGH, then the C-OUT will be HIGH. So, we can implement a full adder
circuit with the help of two half adder circuits. Initially, the half adder will be
used to add A and B to produce a partial Sum and a second-half adder logic
can be used to add C-IN to the Sum produced by the first half adder to get the
final S output.

If any of the half adder logic produces a carry, there will be an output carry. So,
C-OUT will be an OR function of the half-adder Carry outputs. Take a look at
the implementation of the full adder circuit shown below.

The implementation of larger logic diagrams is possible with the above full
adder logic a simpler symbol is mostly used to represent the operation. Given
below is a simpler schematic representation of a one-bit full adder.