A1: Polynomials & Rational Expressions |1

 Equality of Polynomials
 Rational expressions
 Degree of a polynomial
 Proper and improper rational expressions
 Division of polynomial
 Values of Polynomials and interpolation

Equality of Polynomials

Polynomials are equal if they obey any of the following definitions

 Polynomials are equal if they can be transformed into one another by using algebraic rules.
 Two polynomials are considered as equal if after substituting any numbers for the variables
they have the same numeric value.

( 1 ) Prove that ( x−1 ) ( x−2 ) ( x −3 ) ( x −4 ) ≠ ( x +1 ) ( x +2 ) ( x+ 3 ) ( x + 4 ) without

computation

( 2 ) ∈the equality : ( x 2−1 ) ( x+ … )=( x−1 )( x +3 ) ( x+ … ) some numbers are replaced by

dots . What arethese numbers ? ¿-1, -3)

Rational expressions
 Division is not allowed in polynomials.
 By dividing one polynomial P by other polynomial Q we get a “rational expression”
represented by P/Q
 The restriction is that divisor Q must not be equal to zero
2 2
( 1 ) Is x −x a rational expression. Justify your answer .
x −x
3 2 2
( 2 ) Can you tarnsform x + x2 + x +1 ¿ x +1 by canceling out the factor . Justify your answer .
x −1 x−1

(3) Convert the following rational expressions into P/Q form:

ab
(a )
c
a /b
(b )
b /c
1
(c )
1
1+
x
1
(d )
1
1+
1
1+
1
1+
x

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x y z
+ +
y z x
(e ) +1
y z x
+ +
x y z
3 2
( f ) x + x + x +1
x+1

1
( g)
( )
1 1
+ /2
a b

(4) Simplify the following expression:

( x−a)( x−b) (x −a)(x−c ) (x−b)( x−c )
+ +
(c−a)(c−b) (b−a)(b−c ) (a−b)(a−c)

(5) Observe the following rational expressions:

1 x
=
1 x +1
1+
x

1 x +1
=
1 2 x+ 1
1+
1
1+
x

1 2 x +1
=
1 3 x +2
1+
1
1+
1
1+
x

Determine a law governing the coefficients of polynomials P and Q of rational expressions obtained.
(Remember, Fibonacci numbers)

Degree of a polynomial

(1) What is the first term of the polynomial (2x + 1)5

(2) Assume that a polynomial P has degree m and the polynomial Q has degree n. Find the degree
of their product P x Q.

(3) (a) What can be said about the degree of the sum of two polynomials having degrees 7 and 9.
(b) What can be said about the degree of the sum of two polynomials both having degree 7.

(4) Consider a polynomial in one variable having degree 10. Substitute y7 + 5y2 – y – 4 for x in this
polynomial and get a polynomial in y. What can be said about its degree.

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Improper & Proper fractions

 Proper fraction: If the degree of numerator is less than the degree of its denominator then
that rational function is called as proper fraction.

Examples of Proper fractions:

10 x 1
2
, 3
x x −1

Examples of Improper fractions:

4 3 3
x x +1 x x +1
, , ,
x−2 x +2 5 x x+1

Any improper fraction can be converted into the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction.

(1) Convert the following improper fractions into the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction:
x+ 3 2
(a ) ( Ans :1+ )
x+ 1 x+1

x 2
(b ) ( Ans :1− )
x+ 2 x+ 2

x 1 1 /2
(c ) ( Ans : − )
2 x +1 2 2 x +1

2
( d ) x ( Ans : ( x +2 ) + 4 )
x−2 x −2

4
( e ) x ( Ans : ( x 3+ 2 x 2 +4 x +8 ) + 16 )
x−2 x−2
3
( f ) x2 +2 x ( Ans : ( x +1 ) + 22 x−1 )
x −x+ 1 x −x +1

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( )
3
( g) x 1 2 3 9 27 /8
( Ans : x + x+ + )
2 x−3 2 4 8 2 x−3

Division of polynomials
Dividend = (Quotient)x(Divisor) + Remainder. For a polynomial P(x) we can write as follows:
P(x) = Q(x) S(x) + R(x)

(1) What can you say about the degrees of the remainder and the quotient if a polynomial of
degree 7 is divided by a polynomial of degree 3?
(Ans: 0, 1, 2 or 3 or undefined, the remainder may be absent)

(2) Prove that the quotient and the remainder with the desired properties do exist and are
unique.
(Hint: Consider P = Q1S + R1 = Q2S + R2 from this reach to a contradiction)

(3) What happen if the degree of the dividend is smaller than the degree of the divisor?
(Ans: Fraction is proper. So, Q = 0 and R = P)

(4) If a polynomial P is divisible by both (x – a) and (x – b). Prove that P must be divisible by
(x – a)(x – b).

(5) What degree is expected of the quotient Q(x) if polynomial P(x) = xn – 1 is divided by x – 1.

(6) From the first principle, find the quotient Q(x) and remainder R(x) if polynomial P(x) = xn – 1 is
divided by x – 1.
(Note: xn – 1 is a special polynomial whose result need to be remembered)

(7) Using the sum formula of a GP find the quotient Q(x) if polynomial P(x) = xn – 1 is divided by x – 1.

(8) Find the quotient and remainder in following:

(a) x3 – 1 by x – 1
(b) x4 – 1 by x – 1
(c) x10 – 1 by x – 1
(d) x3 + 1 by x + 1
(e) x4 + 1 by x + 1

(9) Consider the powers of 2,

1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, … who has the following property: The sum of all members of this
sequence up to any term is 1 less than the next term, for example:

(10) Prove the remainder theorem: P(a) is the remainder if polynomial P(x) is divided by x – a.

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(11) Prove the factor theorem: P(x) is divisible by x – a if P(a) = 0.

( 12 ) If f ( x )=x 4 +3 x 3+ 8 x2 −kx +11i s divisible by x +3 , find k .

( 13 ) If f ( x )=x 4 −a x 2−bx +2 i s divisible by ( x +1 ) ( x +2 ) , find a∧b .

(14) (a) For which n is the polynomial xn – 1 divisible by x – 1?

(b) For which n is the polynomial xn + 1 divisible by x + 1?

(15) Factorize the following polynomials using factor theorem:

( a ) x 4 +5 x−6
( b ) x 4 +3 x 2 +5 x+1
( c ) x3 −3 x−2

(16) The numbers 1 and 2 are roots of a polynomial P. Prove that P is divisible by (x – 1)(x – 2).

(17) What is the maximal possible number of roots for a polynomial having degree 5?

(18) How should you check whether a given polynomial P is divisible by x2 – 1?

(19) For which n is the polynomial xn – 1 divisible by x2 – 1?

(20) The remainder of a polynomial P when divided by x2 – 1 is a polynomial of degree at most 1,

that is, it has the form ax + b for some numbers a and b. How can you find a and b if you know
the values of P when x = -1 and x = 1?
(Hint: P = (x2 – 1)(Quotient) + (ax + b))

(21) Find the remainder in following:

( a ) 3 x 3−5 x+ 6 is divided by x−2
( b )−6 x 4−7 x 2 +8 x +9 is divided by 2 x−1

(22) The polynomial P gives a remainder 5x – 7 when divided by x2 – 1. Find the remainder when P is
divided by x – 1.

(23) The polynomial P = x3 + x2 – 10x + 1 has three different roots denoted by x1, x2, x3. Write a
polynomial with integer coefficients having roots:
( a ) x 1 +1 , x 2 +1 , x 3 +1 ( b ) 2 x 1 ,2 x 2 ,2 x 3

1 1 1
(c ) , ,
x1 x2 x3

(24) Assume that x3 + ax2 + x + b (where a and b are some numbers) is divisible by x2 – 3x + 2. Find a
and b.

(25) If polynomial f ( x ) has remainders 1 , 2, 3 when divided by ( x −1 ) , ( x−2 ) ∧( x−3 ) .

Find theremainder if f ( x ) is divided by ( x−1 ) ( x−2 ) ( x−3 ) .

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(26) Polynomial f ( x ) has degree 3∧its remainder are 2 x−5∧−3 x+ 4 whendivided

2 2
divided by x −1∧x −4. Find f ( x ) .

Values of Polynomials and interpolation

(1) Calculate a table of values P(0),…, P(6) for the polynomial P(x) = x3 – 2.

(2) Let us write the values P(0), P(1), P(2), … for P(x) = x2 – x – 4 :
Under any two adjacent numbers write their differences and repeat the same operation with
sequence of “first differences”:
2
P(x) -4 -4 -2 2 8 16 6 …
1st difference 0 2 4 6 8 10 …
2nd difference 2 2 2 2 2 …
Prove that it is not a coincidence that all subsequent numbers (called “second differences”) are
all 2.

(3) Prove that for any polynomial of degree 2 all second differences are equal.

(4) What can be said about polynomials having degree 3?

(5) Compute the values P(x) = x2 + x + 41 for x = 1, 2, 3, …, 10. Check that all these values are prime
numbers. Might it be that all of the P(1), P(2), P(3), ….are prime numbers for this polynomial
P(x)?

(6) You know that P(x) is a polynomial of degree not exceeding 1 such that P(1) = 7, and P(2) = 5.
Find P(x).

(7) A polynomial P(x) of degree not exceeding 1 satisfies the condition P(1) = 0, P(2) = 0. Prove that
P(x) = 0 for any x.

(8) A polynomial P(x) of degree not exceeding 2 satisfies the condition P(1) = 0, P(2) = 0. Can we
conclude that P(x) = 0?

(9) A polynomial P(x) of degree not exceeding 2 satisfies the condition P(1) = 0, P(2) = 0, P(3) = 4.
Find P(x)

(10) Prove that a polynomial of degree not exceeding 2 is defined uniquely by three of its values.

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(11) Assume the following:

16a + 4b + c = 0
49a + 7b + c =0
100a + 10b + c = 0
Prove that a = b = c = 0.

(12) Prove that a polynomial of degree not exceeding n is defined uniquely by its n + 1 values.

(13) Find a polynomial P(x) of degree not exceeding 2 in following cases:

(a) P(1) = 0, P(2) = 0, P(3) = 4
(b) P(1) = 0, P(2) = 2, P(3) = 0
(c) P(1) = 6, P(2) = 0, P(3) = 0
(d) P(1) = 6, P(2) = 2, P(3) = 4

(14) Find a polynomial P(x) of degree not exceeding 3 such that P(-1) = 2, P(0) = 1, P(1) = 2, P(2) = 7.

(15) Assume that x1, …, x10 are different numbers, and y1,…, y10 are arbitrary numbers. Prove that
there is one and only one polynomial P(x) of degree not exceeding 9 such that P(x1) = y1,
P(x2) = y2, …, P(x10) = y10.

(16) Without any computation prove that there exist numbers a, b and c such that:
100a + 10b + c = 18.37
36a + 6b + c = 0.05
4a + 2b + c = -3

(17) The highest coefficient of P(x) is 1 and we know that P(1) =0, P(2) = 0, P(3) = 0, …, P(9) = 0,
P(10) =0. What is the minimum possible degree of P(x)? Find P(11) for this case.

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