Foundation on Difficult

Subsoil
 Foundation on weak soil
When foundations are constructed on weak or problematic soils, special design precautions are necessary to ensure safety, stability, and
serviceability of the structure. The following factors must be carefully considered while construction on weak soil:
Bearing Capacity of Soil
Low bearing capacity refers to the inability of weak soils such as soft clay or loose sand to safely support structural loads. This can lead
to problems like shear failure of the soil, excessive settlement, and ultimately tilting or sinking of the structure, making it unsafe and
unstable.
Settlement of Soil
Excessive settlement occurs when the soil compresses significantly under structural loads, causing the foundation to move downward.
This may lead to cracks in the structure, uneven floors, and damage to structural elements, affecting the safety and serviceability of the
building.

Groundwater Conditions
Groundwater conditions play an important role in foundation design, as the presence of water reduces the effective stress and strength
of soil. High groundwater levels can cause problems such as soil softening, uplift pressure, and difficulties during excavation, which may
affect the stability and construction of the foundation.

Construction Feasibility
Construction feasibility refers to the practicality of executing the foundation design at the site. Factors such as soil condition,
groundwater level, availability of equipment, and site accessibility must be considered, as difficult conditions can make excavation and
construction challenging and affect project time and safety.
Type of Problematic Soil
1. Expansive Soil
Expansive soils are characterized by high shrink–swell potential due to the presence of clay minerals such as montmorillonite. These soils undergo
significant volume changes with variation in moisture content, resulting in swelling upon wetting and shrinkage upon drying.
This cyclic volumetric change induces uplift pressures and differential movements in foundations, leading to cracking and structural distress.
Engineering measures such as under-reamed pile foundations, moisture control, and provision of non-expansive cushion layers are adopted to mitigate
these effects.

2. Collapsible Soil
Collapsible soils are typically loose, unsaturated, and metastable soils that exhibit a sudden reduction in volume upon wetting under load. The soil
structure, which is initially stable due to capillary forces, collapses when water is introduced.
This results in abrupt settlement and loss of bearing capacity, posing serious risks to structural integrity. Preventive measures include pre-wetting,
controlled compaction, chemical stabilization (lime/cement), or the use of deep foundations to transfer loads to stable strata.

3. Loose Sand
Loose sand is a cohesionless soil with low relative density, resulting in reduced shear strength and bearing capacity. Due to its loose packing, it is highly
compressible under applied loads.
Such soils are prone to excessive settlement and liquefaction under dynamic loading conditions, particularly during seismic events, where effective
stress reduces significantly. Ground improvement techniques such as vibro-compaction, dynamic compaction, and densification methods are employed
to enhance its engineering properties.

4. Soft Clay
Soft clay is a highly compressible, low shear strength soil with high water content and low permeability. It undergoes significant primary and secondary
consolidation settlement when subjected to structural loading.
The low permeability leads to slow dissipation of pore water pressure, causing time-dependent settlement (long-term consolidation). Engineering
solutions include preloading, installation of vertical drains (PVDs), and deep foundations such as piles to ensure adequate load transfer and control
settlement.
Foundation on expansive soil
1. Criteria for Identification of Expansive Soil
Expansive soils are identified based on index properties, mineralogy, and swelling characteristics.
Common Criteria:
•Liquid Limit (LL) > 50% → indicates high plasticity
•Plasticity Index (PI) > 25 → highly expansive nature
•Shrinkage Limit → low values indicate higher expansion potential
•Free Swell Index (FSI):
•< 50% → Low expansion
•50–100% → Moderate
•100% → Highly expansive
•Presence of montmorillonite mineral (high swelling clay)
•High activity ratio of clay
2. Technical Aspects of Expansive Soil
•Expansive soils exhibit volume change behavior due to moisture variation
•Swelling occurs due to adsorption of water by clay minerals
•Shrinkage occurs during drying, leading to cracks
•Generates swelling pressure, which can uplift foundations
•Shows low shear strength when wet and high compressibility
3. Problems in Construction on Expansive Soil
1. Heaving of Foundation:
Swelling of soil due to water absorption generates uplift pressure, causing upward movement of the foundation. This
leads to cracking and distortion of structural elements.
2. Shrinkage Cracks:
Loss of moisture during dry periods causes soil to shrink and form deep cracks. These cracks allow water entry, increasing
future swelling effects.
3. Differential Settlement:
Non-uniform moisture variation results in uneven expansion and contraction of soil. This causes differential movement
and structural damage.
4. Moisture Variation Issues:
Maintaining uniform moisture content is difficult due to seasonal and environmental changes. This leads to continuous
volume changes in soil.
5. Damage to Pavements and Floors:
Swelling pressure lifts and cracks slabs and pavements resting on ground. Light structures are more vulnerable to such
damage.
6. Reduced Strength in Wet Conditions:
Soil loses shear strength when saturated, reducing bearing capacity. This increases the risk of failure during construction.
 6. Design Solutions / Foundation Systems in Expansive Soil

(a) Under-Reamed Pile Foundation

An under-reamed pile is a bored cast-in-situ concrete pile provided with one or more enlarged bulbs (under-reams), usually at
its base. These bulbs increase the bearing area and provide strong anchorage, enabling the pile to effectively resist uplift forces
caused by swelling pressure in expansive soils. The pile is extended below the active zone, where moisture variation is minimal,
ensuring stable load transfer. The shaft contributes through skin friction, while the bulb provides both end bearing and
resistance against uplift. This type of foundation is highly suitable for black cotton soils and is widely recommended due to its
effectiveness and economy.

Design Aspects:
•Bulb diameter = 2–3 × shaft diameter
•Spacing between bulbs ≈ 1.5 × bulb diameter
•Depth must be below active zone (1.5–3 m or more)
Advantages:
•Best suited for highly expansive (black cotton) soil
•Controls both heave and settlement
•Economical and widely used in India
(b) Raft Foundation
A raft foundation consists of a thick reinforced concrete slab that covers the entire area of the structure and supports all
columns and walls. It distributes the structural load over a large area, thereby reducing the contact pressure on the soil. In
expansive soils, the raft behaves as a rigid unit, allowing the structure to undergo uniform movement in response to soil
expansion or shrinkage, thus minimizing differential settlement. The thickness and reinforcement of the raft are designed to
resist bending moments and shear forces. It is commonly adopted for structures on moderately expansive soils where loads are
relatively low to medium, often in combination with a sand cushion layer.

Technical Working:
•Spreads load over a large area → reduces contact pressure
•Acts as a rigid plate, minimizing differential settlement
•Allows uniform movement in case of soil expansion
Design Considerations:
•Thickness depends on load and soil pressure
•Reinforcement designed to resist bending moments
•Often combined with sand cushion layer
Suitability:
•Moderate expansive soil
•Low to medium rise buildings
(c) Pier and Beam Foundation
The pier and beam foundation system consists of vertical piers or short piles that transfer the load to deeper, stable soil layers,
along with horizontal beams (grade beams) that support the superstructure. In this system, the structure is effectively separated
from the ground surface, thereby avoiding direct contact with the expansive soil in the active zone. The beams rest on piers,
and a gap is maintained between the ground and the structure, allowing the soil to expand or contract freely without affecting
the building. This system is particularly suitable for light structures and is effective in minimizing structural damage due to soil
movement.

Technical Working:
•Piers transfer load to stable soil below active zone
•Beam keeps structure above ground movement zone
•Soil movement does not directly affect structure
Design Features:
•Gap maintained between ground and beam
•Suitable for areas with high swelling/shrinkage variation
Advantages:
•Eliminates direct contact with expansive soil
•Reduces risk of cracking and distortion
(d) Sand Cushion Foundation
A sand cushion foundation involves placing a layer of coarse sand or granular material between the foundation and the
expansive soil. This layer acts as a compressible medium or buffer that absorbs part of the swelling and shrinkage movements
of the soil. It reduces the transmission of swelling pressure to the foundation and helps in achieving more uniform load
distribution. Additionally, the sand layer improves drainage and minimizes moisture fluctuations in the underlying soil. Typically,
the thickness of the sand cushion ranges from 0.3 m to 1 m, and it must be properly compacted. This method is simple and
economical and is often used in conjunction with shallow foundations in moderately expansive soils.

Technical Working:
•Acts as a compressible buffer layer
•Absorbs part of swelling and shrinkage movement
•Improves drainage and reduces moisture variation
Design Aspects:
•Thickness: typically 0.3 m to 1 m
•Should be well compacted
•Often used with shallow foundations
Advantages:
•Simple and economical
•Reduces transmission of swelling pressure
 Foundation on Collapsible soil
1. Criteria for Identification of Collapsible Soil
Collapsible soils are identified based on density, structure, and behavior upon wetting.

Common Criteria:
• Soil is loose, porous, and low density
• High void ratio and open structure
• Appears strong in dry condition but weak when wetted
• Significant collapse potential when soaked under load
• Usually unsaturated soil (e.g., loess)
• Identified using Collapse Potential Test (CP Test)

2. Technical Aspects of Collapsible Soil

• Collapsible soils show sudden volume reduction upon wetting
• Strength is initially due to capillary forces and bonding
• Water entry destroys soil structure → causes collapse
• Results in rapid settlement under load
• Exhibits low shear strength after saturation
3. Problems in Construction on Collapsible Soil
1. Sudden Settlement:
Wetting of soil causes collapse of structure leading to rapid settlement.
This can occur without warning and damage the foundation.
2. Differential Settlement:
Non-uniform wetting leads to uneven collapse of soil.
This results in cracks and structural instability.
3. Loss of Bearing Capacity:
Soil loses strength when saturated due to breakdown of structure.
This reduces its load carrying capacity significantly.
4. Water Infiltration Issues:
Leakage or rainfall can trigger collapse behavior.
Even minor water entry can cause major settlement.
5. Construction Difficulties:
Soil appears stable in dry state but behaves unpredictably when wet.
This makes design and construction risky.
6. Damage to Structures:
Buildings, roads, and pipelines may suffer sudden damage.
Light structures are especially vulnerable.
 WHAT IS SOIL REINFORCEMENT?
• Soil reinforcement is method concerned with increase of strength properties of soil. In soil
reinforcement, the reinforcements or resisting element are of different materials and of
various forms depending upon the intended use. The reinforcement can be provided
permanently or temporarily to increase strength of adjacent structures

• In geotechnical engineering, soil is restored and reinforced with the distribution of minerals
and soil nutrients. Soil reinforcement is necessary in lands where chances of erosion are
high. It is particularly useful in areas with soft soil as it cannot provide adequate support to
any construction or building. This type of soil is also highly susceptible to various
environmental and natural factors such as high compressibility, poor shear strength,
temperature changes, etc.
Geosynthetic Reinforcement
Geosynthetics are materials made from various types of polymers , used with geological
materials like soil, rock etc. to enhance, improve or modify the behaviour of various civil
engineering works.

Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly
different use. These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in
many geotechnical, transportation, hydraulic, and private development applications
including roads, airfields, embankments ,retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams,
erosion control, sediment control, landfillliners, landfill covers, mining, and agriculture.
1 Geotextiles 5 Geosynthetic clay liner

2 Geogrids 6 Geocells

3 Geonets 7 Geofoam

4 Geomembranes 8 Geocomposites
Geotextiles are permeable fabrics which when used in
association with soil, have the ability to separate, filter,
reinforce, protect, or drain.

Characteristics-

▪Porous and allow flow of water through it.

▪Most used Geosynthetics.
▪Available in rolls of 5.6m wide and 50-
150m long.
❖ Uniform and regular interweaving of threads or yarns in two directions.
❖ Regular Visible Construction Pattern.
❖ Function: Soil Separation, Reinforcement, Load distribution, Filtration, Drainage
❖ Have high tensile strength and relatively low strain.
❖Formed by heat bonding, resin bonding or needle punching.
❖No visible thread pattern.
❖Function: Soil separation, stabilization, load distribution, but not used for reinforcement.
❖They have high strain and stretch considerably under load.
A Geogrid is geosynthetic material used to reinforce soils
and similar materials. Geogrids are commonly used to
reinforce retaining walls, as well as sub bases or subsoil's
below roads or structures.

❖They have open grid like configuration i.e.

they have large aperture between individual
ribs.
❖They have Low strain and stretch about 2%
under load.
❖Strength is more that other common
geotextiles.
❖Function: Used exclusively for
reinforcement
Uneven distribution
Of load causes
wear & tear
of Roads
Load is distributed
Evenly After the
use of Geogrid

Geogrid used beneath the Road surface

The Pathway deforms
after a certain
period of time
 ❖ Geonets are also planar products.
❖ Consists of ribs in two directions.
❖ Apertures are of diamond shape.
❖ Thickness is larger than that of geogrids.
❖ Are also known as “geospacers”.

❖ Geonets are made of stacked, criss-

crossing polymer strands that provide
in-plane drainage.
❖ Two layers of strands are called “bi-
planar”.
❖ Three layers are called “tri-planar”.
APPLICATION

❖ Erosion control : ribs acts as small

check dams to slow down the
surface runoffs which decrease
erosion potential of water.
❖ Drainage layers: water flows along
the geonets because of large
thickness.
A Geomembrane is very low permeability synthetic membrane barrier used to control
fluid or gas migration in a structure, or system.

❖ Thickness impervious plastic sheet.

❖Thickness 0.5mm to 3mm approximately.
❖Used as a fluid barrier in designing drainage systems,
etc.
❖Used as damp proof course in floors, roofs etc.
APPLICATION
❖ Land filling lining
❖ Canal lining
❖ Tunnel lining
It is a woven fabric-like material, combination of geotextiles and geomembranes used as a
barrier for liquid or solid waste

❖Applied below and above geomembrane

layers in landfills
❖Self repair mechanism.
❖Provide sub-base support.
Geocells are 3-dimensional honeycomb-like structures, made of strips of polymer sheet.

Characteristics-
❖Similar to geotextiles or
geogrids but have depth.
❖provides both a physical
containment of a depth of soil and a
transfer of load through
❖Allow water through it.
❖Used in slopes with soft sub-grade
❖Used in erosion control in channels
Geofoam is manufactured into large lightweight blocks by polymeric expansion process. They
are large but extremely light materials with gas filled cells.

❖Low density/ high strength: Geofoam is 1% to 2% the

density of soil with equal strength.
❖Quick to install and can be installed during any type of
weather.
❖ If geofoam comes in contact with a petroleum solvent, it
will immediately turn into a glue-type substance, making it
unable to support any load.
❖Untreated geofoam is a Fire hazard
Uses-
❖within soil embankments built over soft, weak soils;
❖under roads, airfield pavements and railway track systems subject to
excessive freeze-thaw conditions.
❖thermal insulation in storage tanks containing cold liquids.
❖separation, lightweight fill, compressible inclusions,
These are combination of two different types of geosynthetics to take advantage of each
This is prepared to extract all the major properties of the geosynthetics into a single unit with
minimum cost.

The various types of Geocomposites

are :-
Geotextile-Geonet Composites
Geotextile –Geomembrane
Composites
Geotextile –Geogrid Composites
Geomembrane –Geogrid Composite
Geotextile-Polymer Core Composite
 Types Of Re-
Separation Filtration Drainage Containment
Geosynthetics inforcement

Geotextile YES YES YES YES

Geogrid YES

Geonet YES

Geomembrane YES

G. Clay Liners YES

Geocells YES YES

Geofoam YES

Geocomposites YES YES YES YES YES

Retaining walls are structures designed to restrain soil to
unnatural slopes.
If Geocells are used then even for steeper slopes, steel
reinforcements are not neccessary.
 Ground Improvement Techniques
Ground improvement refers to a set of engineering techniques used to enhance the properties of
soil so that it becomes suitable for construction. In many cases, natural soil conditions such as low
bearing capacity, high compressibility, excessive settlement, or poor drainage make it unsuitable for
supporting structures. Ground improvement methods are therefore adopted to modify these properties
and ensure safety and performance.

These techniques aim to increase shear strength, improve bearing capacity, reduce settlement,
and enhance drainage characteristics of the soil. Depending on soil type and project requirements,
different methods such as densification, reinforcement, drainage, and consolidation are used.
Common techniques include stone columns, vibro-flotation, preloading, vertical drains, and sand
drains.

Ground improvement is widely applied in the construction of foundations, embankments, highways,

railways, ports, and industrial structures, especially on soft or problematic soils. Compared to deep
foundations, these methods are often more economical and efficient, making them an important part
of modern geotechnical engineering practice.
Ground Improvement Techniques

Technique Category
Vibro-Flotation (Vibro-Compaction) Densification

Stone Columns (Granular Piles) Reinforcement

Preloading (Surcharge Loading) Consolidation

Vertical Drains (PVD) Drainage
Sand Drains Drainage
Stone Column
 Stone Columns
Load bearing columns of well compacted coarse
aggregate installed in the ground to serve various
purposes such as reinforcement, densification and
drainage.

➢ Improving the engineering performance

➢ Stiffer column creates a composite

material of lower overall compressibility
and higher shear strength

➢ Provides a Drainage Path and

accelerates the Consolidation
Stone Column Technology
Stone column
Also known as vibro-replacement or vibro-displacement, is a ground
improvement process where vertical columns of compacted aggregate are
formed through the soils to be improved.

The vibrator first penetrates to the required depth by vibration and air or water
jetting or by vibration alone.

Gravel is then added at the tip of the vibrator and progressive raising and
repenetration of the vibrator results in the gravel being pushed into the
surrounding soil.

The soil-column matrix results in an overall mass having a high shear strength
and a low compressibility.
 Functions
➢Improve the bearing capacity of weak soils.

➢Carry high shear stresses by acting as stiff elements and

hence increase the stability of embankments founded on
soft ground.

➢Facilitate radial drainage (by acting as vertical drains)

and dissipate rapidly the excess pore water pressure
leading to acceleration of consolidation process and
reduced post-construction settlements.

➢Mitigate the potential for liquefaction and damage by

preventing build up of high pore pressure, providing a
drainage path and increasing the strength and stiffness of
the ground.
Due to high angle of internal friction and stiffness of stone column when compared
to that of in-situ weak soil, majority of applied load is transferred to stone column.
As a result, less load is transferred to surrounding weak soil which leads to reduction
in settlement.
 Load Carrying Mechanism

➢Lateral earth pressure/radial confining stress

against bulging from surrounding soil.
➢Surface resistance or frictional resistance
developed between the column material and
surrounding weak soil acting upwards within
the critical length.
➢Passive resistance mobilized by column
material.
➢Load carrying capacity of stone columns =
100 to 400 kN.
Note: End bearing is not considered in
estimation of load carrying capacity because
load carrying mechanism is local perimeter
shear.
 Diameter of stone column
• Installation of stone
column is self
compensating process,
softer the soil, bigger is
the diameter of stone
column formed
• Diameter of column
varies between 0.6m in
case of stiff clays to 1.5
The diameter of stone column is always bigger than diameter
m in very soft cohesive of hole made by probe
soils
Pattern of stone
column
• Stone Column should be installed
preferably in an equilateral
triangular pattern which provides
the densest packing, although a
square pattern may also be used (IS:
15284-1:2003).

• Figure shows the triangular and

square arrangements of stone
columns adopted commonly to
improve the soil.
Stone column positions with a) Triangular pattern
b) square pattern
Column spacing
• The column spacing may range from 2 to 3 times the diameter of the column
depending upon the site conditions, loading pattern, installation technique,
design load, soil tolerances (IS:15284-2003).

• Ambily, A.P., and Gandhi, S.R. (2007), stated that stone column with spacing
more than 3 times the diameter of the column does not give any significant
improvement.

• Dash, S.K and Bora, M. C. (2013), suggested that for maximum improvement an
optimum spacing of 2.5 times the diameter of stone column is required.
Unit cell concept
• The stone column is
associate with
surrounding influenced
soil
• The resulting composite
ground of stone column
and surrounding soil with
equivalent circular area Unit cell idealizations (Barksdale and Bachus 1983)
is called unit cell
Replacement Ratio (as) • Replacement ratio is the ratio of area of stone
column after compaction (As) to the total area
within the unit cell (A)
• It may also be expressed as:

where, the constant 0.907 is a function of

pattern used
• Increasing the area ratio, improves the overall
performance of composite ground (Shahu
[Link], 2000)
• For an improved bearing capacity for stone
column treated ground, as of 0.25 or greater
is required (Wood [Link], 2000)
Stress Concentration
Factor (n)
• The stress concentration factor ‘n’ is
defined as the ratio of the stress in
the stone column (σs) to the stress
in the surrounding cohesive soil
(σc).

• ‘n’ value increases with the increase

in area ratio (Shahu [Link],2000).

• The value of ‘n’ generally lies

between 2.5–5 at ground surface (IS
15284-1:2003)
 The stress in the clay and stone using the stress concentration factor
can be calculated by the following equations

where, μc and μs are the ratio of stresses in the clay and stone
respectively, to the average stress (σ) over the tributary area

These above equations are extremely useful in both settlement and

stability analysis (Ayadat, T and Hanna, A.M., 2008)
 Drainage Function of Stone Columns
➢Load carrying capacity of stone columns is generated by the
top section of the column which extends to about 4 times the
diameter of the stone column.
➢The length below 4d allows for radial drainage and
acceleration of settlements.
➢To retain continuity of drainage path, it is necessary to
provide a 150 mm thick drainage blanket on top of the stone
columns.
 Applications of Stone columns
1. Soft Clay and Silty Soil Improvement
Stone columns are used to strengthen weak soils like soft clay and silt. They increase shear strength and reduce compressibility, making the ground
suitable for construction.

2. Foundation Support for Buildings

They are provided below shallow and raft foundations to improve bearing capacity. This helps in reducing total and differential settlement of structures.

3. Highway and Railway Embankments

Stone columns are used under embankments to improve stability on soft soil. They control excessive settlement and prevent failure of roads and rail
tracks.

4. Industrial Structures and Storage Tanks

Used for supporting heavy loads of tanks, silos, and industrial plants. They distribute load safely and minimize uneven settlement.

5. Liquefaction Mitigation
In seismic areas, stone columns reduce the risk of soil liquefaction. They densify the soil and provide drainage during earthquake loading.

6. Drainage and Consolidation Improvement

Stone columns act as vertical drains, allowing faster dissipation of pore water pressure. This accelerates consolidation of soft soils.

7. Slope and Embankment Stability

They improve stability of slopes and embankments by increasing soil strength. This helps in preventing landslides or shear failure.
Stone Column after Installation
Ipoh-Rawang Electrified Double Track
(Malaysia)
Ipoh-Rawang Electrified Double Track
(Malaysia)
KVMRT Kajang Maintenance Depot
(Malaysia)
Bridge Approaches and Abutments

Putrajaya, Malaysia
Offshore Bridge Abutments

Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Airport Runways and Taxiways

Alor Setar Airport Project, Malaysia

 Storage Tanks

Hazira LNG Terminal, Gujarat

Example-Palm island (Dubai)
Vibro-Floatation
7
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Vibro Compaction – Examples
Process of vibro compaction
Vibro-Floatation
Vibro-flotation (or vibro-compaction) is a ground improvement
technique used to densify loose granular soils such as sand and
gravel. It involves the use of a vibrating probe called a vibroflot to
rearrange soil particles into a denser configuration.
This method is highly effective in cohesionless soils, where
vibration reduces void ratio and increases relative density. The
process results in improved bearing capacity, reduced settlement,
and enhanced resistance to liquefaction.
The technique works on the principle of vibration-induced
densification. When the vibroflot penetrates the ground,
vibrations reduce inter-particle friction, causing soil grains to
rearrange into a denser state.
Simultaneously, water jets or air jets are used to facilitate
penetration and reduce resistance. As the probe is gradually
withdrawn, surrounding soil collapses into the voids, resulting in
compaction and densification.
Vibro-floatation
Main Components

•Vibroflot (vibrating probe): Generates

vibrations using an eccentric weight system

•Electric motor: Powers the vibroflot

•Water/Air jet system: Assists penetration and

flushing

•Crane or rig: Supports and lowers the vibroflot

•Control system: Regulates depth, vibration,

and operation
Vibro-flotation
 Process
1. Penetration of Vibroflot into Ground
The vibroflot is positioned vertically at predetermined grid points and lowered into the soil using a crane or
supporting rig. High-pressure water or air jets are activated at the tip to reduce soil resistance. Under the combined
action of jetting, vibration, and self-weight, the probe penetrates the ground up to the specified design depth.

2. Densification of Soil at Required Depth

Upon reaching the target depth, the vibroflot generates intense horizontal vibrations through an eccentric rotating
mass. These vibrations reduce inter-particle friction and temporarily disturb the soil structure, enabling granular
particles to rearrange into a denser configuration, thereby decreasing void ratio and increasing relative density.

3. Controlled Withdrawal with Progressive Compaction

The vibroflot is gradually withdrawn in a controlled manner, typically in stages of 0.5 to 1.0 m. Continuous vibration
is maintained during withdrawal, allowing surrounding soil to collapse inward and undergo compaction. This staged
process ensures uniform densification along the entire depth of treatment.

4. Surface Adjustment and Grid Completion

Due to volume reduction during densification, surface settlement may occur, which is corrected by reworking or
adding granular material if necessary. The process is systematically repeated over a predetermined grid pattern
(square or triangular), ensuring overlapping zones of influence and uniform improvement of the soil mass.
7
6
7
7
4. Technical Aspects
•Suitable Soil Type:
Clean sands and gravels with less than 10–15% fines
•Depth of Improvement:
Typically up to 10–30 m
•Spacing of Points:
Usually 2 m to 4 m (triangular or square pattern)
•Diameter of Influence:
Approx. 1.5 m to 3 m
•Relative Density Achieved:
Increased to 70–85% or more
•Backfill Material:
Generally not required (for pure vibro-compaction), but sand may be added
•Water Requirement:
High water flow is required for jetting and flushing
•Vibration Frequency:
Typically 30–50 Hz
 Applications
1. Densification of Loose Sandy Soils
Vibro-flotation is primarily used to densify loose granular soils such as sand and gravel deposits. The process reduces void ratio and
increases relative density, thereby improving soil strength.
This results in higher bearing capacity and reduced settlement, making the soil suitable for construction of foundations and infrastructure.
2. Foundation Improvement for Structures
The technique is widely applied to improve the ground conditions beneath shallow foundations, rafts, and machine foundations. It ensures
uniform load distribution and minimizes differential settlement.
It is particularly useful for large structures where uniform ground support is essential for stability and serviceability.

3. Liquefaction Mitigation in Seismic Areas

Vibro-flotation increases soil density, thereby reducing the susceptibility of loose sands to liquefaction during earthquakes. Denser soils
exhibit higher resistance to cyclic loading.
This makes the technique highly effective for projects located in earthquake-prone regions, such as coastal and reclaimed lands.

4. Land Reclamation Projects

In reclaimed areas, soil is often loose and highly compressible. Vibro-flotation is used to densify these soils and improve their engineering
properties.
This enables safe construction of ports, airports, and urban infrastructure on reclaimed land.
5. Improvement of Bearing Capacity for Heavy Structures
The method is suitable for supporting heavy loads from structures such as storage tanks, silos, and industrial plants. It enhances soil
stiffness and load-carrying capacity.
This reduces the need for deep foundations, leading to economical construction solutions.

6. Reduction of Settlement in Embankments

Vibro-flotation is used under highway and railway embankments constructed on loose sandy soils. It minimizes post-construction
settlement.
This ensures long-term stability and serviceability of transportation infrastructure.
8
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8
1
8
2
Pre Loading
 Preloading
Preloading is a widely used ground improvement technique in which a temporary load (surcharge)
is applied on weak compressible soils to induce consolidation before construction. The objective is
to expel excess pore water and increase the strength of the soil.
This method is particularly effective in soft clays and silty soils, where natural consolidation is slow.
By preloading, most of the settlement occurs in advance, thereby minimizing post-construction
settlement and improving stability.
 Preloading
• Preloading works on the principle of soil consolidation
and effective stress increase. When a surcharge load is
applied, excess pore water pressure is generated within
the soil mass.
• With time, this pore water pressure dissipates, leading
to a transfer of stress from water to soil particles. As a
result, the soil becomes denser, its shear strength
increases, and compressibility reduces. The use of
vertical drains accelerates this process by shortening
drainage paths.
• Surcharge fills are typically 10-25 feet thick and
generally produces settlement of 1 to 3 feet.

• Most effective in clay soil

Technical Aspects

•Suitable Soil Type:

Soft clays, silts, and organic soils with high compressibility
•Height of Surcharge:
Typically 10–30% greater than design load
•Depth of Improvement:
Up to 10–40 m, depending on compressible layer
•Time for Consolidation:
Few months to several years (reduced significantly with
drains)
•Degree of Consolidation Achieved:
Typically 90% or more before construction
 Applications
1. Highway and Railway Embankments
Preloading is extensively used for embankments constructed on soft clay deposits. The surcharge load induces consolidation before the placement
of pavement layers.
This reduces long-term settlement and improves stability, ensuring durability and serviceability of transportation infrastructure.

2. Land Reclamation Projects

In reclaimed areas, soils are usually loose and highly compressible. Preloading helps in densifying these soils and improving their engineering
properties.
It enables safe construction of ports, airports, and coastal infrastructure by minimizing post-construction settlement.

3. Foundation Preparation for Buildings

Preloading is applied prior to construction of buildings on soft soils to improve bearing capacity. It ensures that most settlement occurs before
foundation construction.
This technique is especially useful for large buildings where uniform settlement control is critical.
4. Industrial Structures and Storage Tanks
Heavy structures such as tanks and silos require stable ground conditions. Preloading improves soil stiffness and reduces differential settlement.
This ensures safe load transfer and long-term performance of industrial facilities.
5. Airport Runways and Pavements
Preloading is used to prepare subgrade for runways and pavements built on soft ground. It enhances load-bearing capacity and reduces
deformation under repeated loads.
This improves performance and reduces maintenance requirements.

6. Port and Marine Structures

For docks, harbors, and quay walls, preloading improves soft marine clay deposits. It increases soil strength and reduces settlement under heavy
loading conditions.
This ensures stability and longevity of marine infrastructure.
Advantages of Preloading Disadvantages of Preloading
•Simple and Conventional Technique Very Slow Consolidation Process
Drainage occurs only vertically, leading to long consolidation
Involves only placement of surcharge load without
time (months to years).
specialized installation equipment, making it easy to
execute. •Project Delays
Construction must wait until desired degree of consolidation is
•Economical for Suitable Projects
achieved.
Uses locally available soil as fill material, reducing
•Risk of Instability During Loading
overall construction cost.
Excess surcharge may cause shear failure or lateral spreading in
•Improves Soil Strength very soft soils.

Consolidation under surcharge increases effective •Requires Large Quantity of Fill Material
stress, thereby improving shear strength and bearing Significant amount of soil is needed to create surcharge load.
capacity.
•Limited Effectiveness in Thick Clay Layers
•Reduces Post-Construction Settlement For deep compressible strata, consolidation becomes extremely
slow.
Major portion of settlement occurs before construction,
ensuring better long-term performance. •Continuous Monitoring Required
Settlement and pore pressure must be monitored to ensure
•Suitable for Large Open Areas safety and effectiveness.
Effective for projects like embankments, airfields, and
reclamation where sufficient space is available.
Sand Drains
 SAND DRAINS
The sand drain technique is a commonly used method of ground improvement for soft and
compressible soils such as clay and silt, which have very low permeability and therefore
exhibit slow drainage and long consolidation periods.

Due to this slow dissipation of pore water pressure, structures constructed on such soils may
undergo excessive and prolonged settlement. To overcome this problem, vertical sand drains
are installed by creating boreholes in the ground and filling them with clean sand, thereby
forming artificial drainage paths within the soil. When an external load is applied, excess
pore water pressure is generated, and instead of draining slowly in the vertical direction,
water flows horizontally towards these sand drains and then moves upward through the
sand columns to the surface. This process, known as radial drainage, significantly reduces the
drainage path length and accelerates the rate of consolidation.

As a result, the soil gains strength more rapidly and settlement occurs in a shorter duration.
Sand drains are generally installed in a regular pattern, such as square or triangular spacing,
depending on design requirements and soil conditions.

Overall, the method is economical, effective, and widely used in projects like embankments,
land reclamation, and construction on weak soils where faster stabilization is required.
When a surcharge is applied at
ground surface, the pore water
pressure in the clay will increase,
and there will be drainage in the
vertical and horizontal directions.

The horizontal drainage is induced

by the sand drains. Hence, the
process of dissipation of excess pore
water pressure created by the
loading (and hence the settlement)
is accelerated.
Installation Method
Installation Method
Installation Method

Borehole
Installation Method

Borehole
Sand
Installation Method

Borehole
Sand
Installation Method

Borehole
Sand
Installation Method

Boreholes
Installation Method

Boreholes
Dia= 200~400 mm

Length=
Over 30 m
 Pattern of Sand Drains
The pattern of sand drains refers to the arrangement of
vertical drains in the ground to achieve uniform and effective
consolidation of soft soil. Proper spacing and layout are very
important because they control the rate of drainage and
settlement.
1. Square Pattern
In this arrangement, sand drains are installed at the corners of
squares, forming a grid pattern. The spacing between drains is
equal in both directions. This pattern is simple to set out and
commonly used in practice. However, it provides slightly less
efficiency compared to triangular patterns because the
drainage coverage is not as uniform.
2. Triangular (Equilateral) Pattern
In this pattern, the drains are arranged at the corners of
equilateral triangles. This layout provides more uniform
coverage of the soil and reduces the maximum drainage
distance. As a result, consolidation occurs faster, making it
more efficient than the square pattern.
 Installation Method
Step 1: Marking and Positioning
The locations of sand drains are marked on the ground in a square or triangular pattern as per design.
The installation rig is positioned at each point.
Step 2: Driving the Casing/Mandrel
A steel casing or mandrel is driven vertically into the soil up to the required depth, creating a borehole
and preventing collapse of surrounding soil.
Step 3: Filling with Sand
Clean, well-graded sand is poured into the casing. As the casing is gradually withdrawn, the borehole
gets filled with sand, forming a vertical drain.
Step 4: Finishing and Connection
After complete withdrawal of the casing, the top of the sand drain is connected to a drainage blanket
at the surface to allow proper discharge of water.
1. Highway and Railway Embankments
Sand drains are widely used in the construction of highways and railway embankments over soft clay soils. They accelerate
consolidation by providing drainage paths, which helps in reducing settlement time and increasing the stability of the
embankment.

2. Land Reclamation Projects

In coastal and reclaimed areas, the soil is usually very soft and saturated. Sand drains help remove excess pore water quickly,
improving soil strength and making the land suitable for construction.

3. Foundations of Storage Tanks and Heavy Structures

For structures like oil storage tanks, silos, and industrial foundations, sand drains are used to reduce long-term settlement.
They ensure uniform consolidation and prevent uneven or differential settlement.

4. Airport Runways and Pavements

Sand drains are used in airport runways, highways, and large pavements constructed on weak soils. They improve load-
bearing capacity and reduce settlement, ensuring a stable and durable surface.

5. Dams and Earth Structures

In earth dams and similar structures, sand drains help in controlling pore water pressure and improving stability. They reduce
the risk of failure by allowing faster dissipation of excess water within the soil.
Vertical Drains
 VERTICAL DRAINS
These consist of a column of pervious material
placed in cylindrical vertical holes at sufficiently
close spaces.
All drains should be connected at the ground
surface to a drainage blanket.
Vertical drains are installed under a surcharge load
to accelerate the drainage of impervious soils and
thus speed up consolidation
These drains provide a shorter path for the water to
flow through to get away from the soil
Time to drain clay layers can be reduced from years
to a couple of months
Vertical drains are laid out in rows, staggered, or
aligned to form patterns of equilateral triangles or
squares.
 Vertical Drain

Horizontal Radial
Drainage

Vertical
Drainage
 Working Principle

The primary consolidation

accelerated by the vertical
drains is due to the shortening
of the drainage path of the pore
water.

In clayey soils the pore water has to travel through the soil vertically up, or down, to dissipate
and it can take decades before a new equilibrium between the effective stress of the soil
particles and the pore water pressure is reached.
Through Vertical drains the excess pore water can flow horizontally into the drain and
dissipate vertically through the drain
1
0
9
Step 1: Positioning and Driving the Mandrel
A hollow steel mandrel containing the vertical drain (wick drain roll) is positioned at the required location using a rig or
excavator. The mandrel is then driven vertically into the compressible soft soil up to the desired depth.

Step 2: Reaching the Required Depth

The mandrel pushes the drain into the ground while protecting it from damage. At the bottom, an anchor plate is
attached to the drain to keep it fixed in position when the mandrel is withdrawn.

Step 3: Anchoring and Withdrawing the Mandrel

Once the required depth is reached, the mandrel is slowly extracted. The anchor plate holds the drain in place, ensuring
it remains embedded in the soil while the mandrel is pulled out.

Step 4: Cutting and Finishing the Drain

After full extraction of the mandrel, the drain is cut at the ground surface, leaving a small portion exposed. This allows
connection to the drainage blanket for consolidation of the soft soil.
 Prefabricated
Vertical Drain(P.V.D)

Sandwick
Wick Drain
Prefabricated Drain
Sandwick Prefabricated
Geotextile
Drain
A Sandwick Prefabricated Drain is a type of vertical drain used
in soft, compressible soils to speed up consolidation. It consists
of a sand-filled core enclosed within a geotextile filter, which
helps in removing excess pore water efficiently.
Components
The drain is made up of two main parts. The outer layer is a
geotextile stocking, usually made of woven polypropylene,
which acts as a filter allowing water to pass while preventing
soil particles from entering. Inside this, clean sand is filled to
form the core, providing a highly permeable path for water
flow.
Working Principle
When installed in soft soil, excess pore water from the
surrounding soil enters the drain through the geotextile filter.
The water then flows vertically through the sand core and is
discharged at the ground surface. This process reduces pore
water pressure and accelerates the consolidation of soil.
 WICK DRAIN Geotextile
• A wick drain is usually about, 4 inches
wide, 1/8-inch thick which acts as a high-
permeability conduit for water to flow out
of the soil and to the surface.

• Most common application of wick drains

is for accelerating the settlement rate of Plastic Core
compressible soils.

• Wick Drains have a channeled or studded

plastic core wrapped with a geotextile. The
plastic core functions as support for the filter.
fabric, and provides longitudinal flow paths
along the drain length.
Vertical Drains - Equipment
 Applications
• 1. Highway and Railway Embankments
Vertical drains are widely used in the construction of highways and
railway embankments on soft clay soils. They accelerate
consolidation and reduce settlement time, allowing the
embankment to gain strength quickly and become stable for traffic
loads.
• 2. Land Reclamation Projects
In coastal and reclaimed areas, the soil is usually very soft and
waterlogged. Vertical drains help in removing excess pore water,
improving soil strength, and making the land suitable for
construction activities.
• 3. Foundations of Storage Tanks and Structures
For heavy structures like oil storage tanks, silos, and industrial
buildings, vertical drains are used to minimize long-term settlement.
They ensure uniform consolidation of soil and prevent differential
settlement.
• 4. Airport Runways and Industrial Yards
Vertical drains are applied in the construction of airport runways,
ports, and large industrial yards where large areas of soft soil exist.
They help in achieving faster ground improvement and provide a
stable base for heavy loads.
Criteria Stone Columns Vibro-Flotation Preloading (No Drains) Vertical Drains (PVD) Sand Drains

Soft clays, silts, loose Clean sands & gravels Soft clays, compressible
Suitable Soil Type Soft clays, silts Soft clays, silts
sands (<10–15% fines) soils

Consolidation by Radial drainage Radial drainage

Principle Reinforcement + drainage Densification by vibration
surcharge acceleration acceleration

Pore water expulsion Shortens drainage path Radial flow through sand
Main Mechanism Load sharing + drainage Particle rearrangement
(vertical) (radial flow) columns

Depth of Treatment ~10–20 m ~10–30 m ~10–40 m ~10–40 m ~10–30 m

Time Required Moderate Very fast Very slow Fast (with preload) Moderate to fast

Drainage Role Acts as vertical drain Improves drainage Natural drainage only Highly effective drainage Effective drainage

Bearing Capacity
High High (in sand) Moderate Moderate (indirect) Moderate
Improvement

Settlement Reduction Significant Moderate High (long-term) High (accelerated) High

Liquefaction Control Good Very effective Limited Limited Limited

Suitability for Large Areas Good Good Very good Very good Good

Major Limitation Not for very soft clay Not for cohesive soil Very slow process Needs preloading Installation difficulty