Dam Engineering II Module

CHAPTER ONE
1. Dam Outlet Works
Dam outlets are provided in the body of the dam or its abutments below the crest level of the
spillways so that water can be released for the various purposes for which the dam was
constructed. The outlet of most of the dams consists of one or more sluice ways with their
inlets at about minimum pool level. In most of the cases, a number of outlets are generally
provided at different levels: as a single large capacity outlet may be structurally
unsatisfactory or difficult to construct. In certain instances the outlet works of a dam may be
used as a service spillway in conjunction with an auxiliary or secondary spillway. In other
words, outlet works are “responsible for safe delivery of water that should meet demands in
terms of both quantity and quality. An outlet works regulates or releases water impounded by
a dam.
1.1 Components of outlet work
There are three components of Outlet works, those are:
1. Conveyance Structure: Inlet Channel, Conduit waterway tunnel, Chute and outlet channel
2. Control structure: Intake Structure and Gate Chamber or Downstream Gate Structure
3. Energy dissipation: Terminal structure

Figure 1.1 Components of Outlet works

1.2 Classification of outlets

Outlet works structures can be classified according to their purpose, their physical and
structural arrangement or their hydraulic operation.
a. Classification according to purpose

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 River outlets: Empties directly into the river for river flow requirements
 Canal outlets: Discharges into a canal
 Flood control: To evacuate storage in anticipation of flood inflows
 Emergency drawdown: To empty the reservoir to permit inspection
b. Based on physical and structural arrangement: Open channel conduit and Close conduit
c. Classification based on shape: Circular, Rectangular and Other shapes
d. Based on hydraulic action; Open channel flow and Pipe flow
e. Based on gates ( or valves); Gated outlets and Ungated outlets

1.3 Location and Arrangement of dam outlets

An outlet is a closed conduit formed in the body of the dam. It may also be in the form of a
pipe or tunnel that passes through the hill side at one end of the dam. For a concrete (or
masonry) dam, the outlets pass through the body of the dam and are called sluice ways. For
earthen dams, it is preferred to place the outlets outside the limits of the embankments. But if
no adjacent hill site is available & there is no alternative left but to pass the sluiceways
through the dam, projecting collars, must be provided so as to reduce seepage along the
outside of the conduit. The seepage is thus, reduced by increasing the length of the seepage
path by at least 25 percent.

Figure 1-2Typical outlet arrangement through an earthen dam

If L is the total length of sluiceways from u/s to d/s, the length of the seepage path will be
given as L+ (2x) N  0.25L. Where N is the number of collars, X is the projection of the
collar measured from the outer face of the conduit & L is the length of the conduit.

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Flow in an open-channel outlet works is similar to that in an open-channel spillway. When

unsubmerged radial or slide gates are used, discharge through the control with the gates
completely raised will be open crest flow given by the following equation. Q = CLH3/2
 Where: Q = Discharge, C = A variable coefficient of discharge, L = Effective length of
crest and H = Total head on the crest, including velocity of approach head.

Attention should be given to the design of entrance of outlet. In a square-edge entrance,

separation may occur. To reduce the loss at entry bell mouth entrance is usually provided
for high velocity outlet works. In instances where there is high tail water due to canal water
surfaces or to d/s influences in the streambed, the control openings may be partly or entirely
submerged. For such conditions the discharge through the control will be in accordance with
submerged orifice or tube flow as computed by the equation:

Q  CdA 2 gH
 Where: Q= discharge, A= area of outlet sluice, H= differential head causing flow from
the difference of U/s & d/s water level and Cd= coefficient of discharge whose value
depends up on various factors such as the type of gate & trash rack provided, Conduit
friction, transitions etc…

1.5 Reservoir storage zones

A reservoir is a structure that stores water in periods of excess flow in order to enable a
regulation of the storage to best meet the specified demands. Once it is decided to build a
reservoir on a river by constructing a dam across it, it is necessary to arrive at a suitable
design capacity of the reservoir. The reservoir storage generally consists of three main zones.
Those are:
Active storage: that portion of the storage capacity in which water will normally be stored or
withdrawn for beneficial uses.
Inactive storage: that portion of the storage capacity from which water is not normally
withdrawn, in accordance with operating agreements or restrictions
Flood and surcharge storage: is required as a reserve between Full Reservoir Level and the
Maximum Water level to contain the peaks of floods that might occur when there is
insufficient storage capacity for them below Full Reservoir Level.

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Figur1.3 Reservoir storage zones

Full Reservoir Level is the level corresponding to the storage which includes both inactive
and active storages and also the flood storage. In fact, this is the highest reservoir level that
can be maintained without spillway discharge or without passing water downstream through
sluice ways. Maximum Water Level is the water level that is ever likely to be attained during
the passage of the design flood. It depends upon the specified initial reservoir level and the
spillway gate operation rule. Dead Storage Level is below the level, there are no outlets to
drain the water in the reservoir by gravity.
1.5.1 Sedimentation Reservoir and depositional zones
Reservoir sedimentation is filling of the reservoir behind a dam with sediment carried into the
reservoir by streams. The flow of water from the catchment upstream of a reservoir is capable
of eroding the catchment area and of depositing material either upstream of the reservoir, or
in the still water of the reservoir. The nature of the material in the catchment area and the
slope of the catchment area and the inlet streams are a factor, as is the nature of the ground
cover. Heavy rainfall falling on erodible material on a steep slope with little ground cover
resulting from overgrazing or wildfire is a recipe for substantial sediment transport and
significant reservoir sedimentation.
Consequences of reservoir sedimentation
The loss of storage is one harmful effect of sedimentation in reservoirs; others are: Increased
flood levels upstream of the reservoirs, Retrogression of river bed and water levels
downstream of the dam, the elimination of nutrients carried by the fine sediment, Effect on
reservoir water quality.
The reservoir capacity can be preserved by
 Minimizing the sediment input into the reservoir
 Maximizing the sediment through flow
 The recovery of storage

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Sediment Management: the techniques of Sediment management are:

• Catchment Vegetation
• Construction of coffer dams/low height barriers
• Flushing and desilting of sediments
• Low level outlets / sediment sluicing
1.6 Intake structure
An intake structure is required at the entrance of an outlet conduit when the outlet is not an
integral part of the dam. An independent intake structure is constructed through which the
water is withdrawn from the river (or the reservoir). The primary function of the intake
structure is to permit withdrawal of water from the reservoir (or river) over a predetermined
range of reservoir levels and thus to protect the conduit from being damaged or clogged by
ice, trash, debris, waves etc. An intake structure may vary from a simple concrete blocks
supporting the end of the conduit pipe to huge concrete towers, depending up on the various
factors such as reservoir characteristics, capacity and discharge requirements, climatic
conditions etc.
Functions of Intakes:
 To control flow of water in to the conveyance system.
 To provide smooth, easy and turbulence free entry of water in the conveyance system.
 To prevent entry of coarse river born trash matter such as boulders, tree branches etc.
 To exclude heavy sediment load of the river from interring the conveyance system.

1.6.1 Types of intake structures

There are different Types of Intakes. Those are:
 Simple submerged intakes  Tower intakes
 Run - of - river intakes  Shaft intakes
 Canal intakes  Intakes of special type
 Dam intakes
i) Simple submerged intakes it consists of a simple concrete blocks or a rock filled timber
steal supporting the starting end of the withdrawal pipes as shown below

Figure 1.4 Simple concrete block submerged intake

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Such intake structures should be in the river or the reservoir at a place where they may not get
buried under the sediment. If the capacity of a project is not much and if it is constructed for a
single purpose, then such type of intake devices may be used to justify the cost benefit
analysis. This type of intake is particularly suitable for water supply intake from small rivers.
They are not used on bigger projects as their main disadvantage is the fact that they are not
easily accessible for repairing of their gates.
ii) Intake Towers: Intake towers are generally used on large projects and where there are
large fluctuations of water level. Openings at various levels called ports are generally
provided in these concrete towers, which may help in regulating the flow through the towers
and permits some selection of the quantity of water to be withdrawn. There are two major
types of intake towers. Those are Wet intake towers and Dry intake towers
Wet- intake tower: - A typical section of a wet intake tower consists of a concrete
cylindrical well filled with water to the level of the reservoir. There is a vertical shaft inside
the well which is connected to the withdrawal conduit. The water enters the well through
entry ports. It then enters the vertical shaft through gate- controlled ports (openings). A
control room is usually constructed over wet-intake tower.

Figure 1.5 Wet- intake tower

Dry intake tower

The essential difference b/n a wet intake tower and a dry intake tower is that, in the case of a
wet intake tower the water enters from the entry ports in to the tower and it enters in into the
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conduit pipe through separate gate controlled openings. Whereas in a dry intake tower the
water is directly drawn in to the withdrawal conduit through the gated entry ports as shown.
A dry intake tower will have water inside the tower if its gates are closed, whereas the wet
intake tower will be full of water even if the gates are closed. When the entry ports are closed
a dry intake tower will subjected to additional buoyant force & hence must be of heavier
construction than the wet intake towers. However, the dry intake towers are useful and
beneficial in the sense that water can be withdrawn from any selected level of the reservoir by
opening the port at that level

Fig1.6 dray- intake tower

1.6 Trash racks
The entrance to intakes and dam outlets are generally covered with trash racks so as to
prevent the entry of debris, ice etc in to the conduit. These racks are generally bar screens,
made from steel bars spaced at 5 to 15 cm center to center in both directions depending upon
the maximum size of the debris required to be excluded from entering the conduit.

Figure1.7 Trash Rack

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CHAPTER TWO
2. SPILLWAYS
A spillway is a structure constructed at a dam site, for effectively disposing of the surplus
water from upstream to downstream. Spillways are provided for all dams or canals as a safety
measure against overtopping and the consequent damaged and failure. There are several
spillway designs. The choice of design is a function of the nature of the site, the type of dam
and the overall economics of the scheme. Many failures of dams have been caused by
spillway of insufficient capacity. Sufficient capacity is paramount importance for earth fill
and rock fill dams, which are likely to be overtopped, whereas concrete dams may be able to
withstand moderate overtopping. Usually, increase in cost is not directly proportional to
increase in capacity. Very often, the cost of a spillway of sufficient capacity will be only
moderately higher than that of one which is obviously too small.
2.1 Location of a Spillway
A spillway can be located either within the body of the dam, or at one end of it or entirely
away from it, independently in a saddle. If a deep narrow gorge with steep banks, separated
from a flank by a hillock with its level above the top of the dam is available, the spillway can
be best built independently of the dam. Sometimes, a concrete or a masonry dam along with
its spillway can be constructed in the main valley, while the flanks are closed by earthen
dikes or embankments. The main spillway is constructed to dispose of the designed flood
above the normal pool level and up to the maximum reservoir level. A separate independent
spillway is generally preferred for earthen dams, although due to no availability of sites, a
concrete spillway is sometimes constructed within or at one of the ends of an earth dam.
2.2 Spillway Capacity
The maximum outflow rate through the spillway may be determined by flood routing and
requires the following data:
i) Inflow hydrograph (plot of rate of inflow vs. time)
ii) Reservoir capacity curve (plot of reservoir storage Vs. water surface elevation)
iii) Discharge curve (plot of rate of outflow vs. reservoir water surface elevation).
By flood routing, corresponding to a particular inflow hydrograph, the maximum outflow rate
and maximum rise in the water surface may be determined. However, the required capacity of
a spillway depends on the following factors:
i) The inflow flood;
ii) The available storage capacity;
iii) The discharge capacity of other outlet works;
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iv) Whether the spillway is gated or Ungated

v) The possible damages if a spillway of adequate capacity is not provided.
The selection of the inflow flood for the spillway design depends on the degree of protection
that ought to be provided to the dam, which, in turn, depends on the type of dam, its location,
and consequences of failure of the dam. The spillway capacity is given by
2 Where: cd = coefficient of discharge
Q  Cd 2 g 1/ 2bH 3 / 2
3 b = length of the spillway H = head above crest level
2.3 Estimation of spillway design flood
To determine the spillway design discharge we must convert the inflow hydrograph of the
design flood into the outflow by flood routing which, in turn, is a function of the spillway
type, size, and its operation, and of the reservoir area. This is, therefore, a typical iterative
design procedure in which the outflow at the dam, determining the size (and type) of
spillway, will depend on the inflow and on the spillway type and size. Reservoir flood routing
can be carried out using any of the established methods (iteration, initial outflow, etc.). All
methods are based on the continuity equation, in the form: I – O = dv/dt……………… (1)
Where I is the inflow, O the outflow, and V the reservoir storage
In a finite difference form equation (1) can be written as

I  O  V / t = ………………………….. (2)
In equation (2), O refers to the spillway outflow. If other regulated outflows OR (bottom
outlets, irrigation outlets, hydroelectric power, etc.) are present then these should be included
in the form O R
The solution of equation (2) which contains two unknowns, V2 and O2 (Δt is chosen), is
possible only because in reservoir routing there is a unique relationship between water level
and storage as well as water level and outflow; therefore there is also a unique relationship
between outflow O and storage volume V.
2V2 2V
Equation (2) can be rewritten as  O2  I1  I 2  1  O1 (4)
t t
Thus, on the right hand side, we have known quantities enabling us to establish O = f(t) from
the relationship O x (2V/ Δt + O), which we can derive from some relations. In design we
first estimate the maximum outflow from the reservoir and then choose the spillway size and
type and test our assumption by routing the inflow with the chosen spillway. In this procedure
it is assumed that the crest and maximum permissible water levels are fixed by other
considerations (reservoir use, flooding upstream, economic height of the dam, etc.).

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In flood routing we assume the initial reservoir level to be as high as can be expected at the
start of a major flood (usually at spillway crest level). In general, narrow gated spillways
require higher dams and can be highly effective in flood routing. Wide free or gated spillways
save on dam height, but are usually not very effective for regulating floods. Thus the spillway
type influences the benefits to be gained from flood control. The required size of the
spillway, and hence its cost, decreases with increase of the dam height, which in turn
increases the dam cost; combining the two costs (dam and spillway), the level of the crest for
a minimum total cost can be ascertained, although usually the crest level is determined by
other considerations such as reservoir operation.
Worked example
The inflow hydrograph into a reservoir is given by the first two columns in Table 2. The
relationship between the storage volume in the reservoir (taking storage at crest level as zero)
and the head above the crest is given by the first two columns of Table 1. A simple overflow
spillway is to be designed which could limit the maximum head on the spillway crest to
3.00m. Assume a spillway length of 200 m and a constant discharge coefficient of 0.75.
Table 1 Storage volume-head relationship Table 2 Inflow Hydrograph
T (h) I (m3/s)
H (m) V (x106)
0 200
0.5 45 10 960
20 1720
1 90 30 24800
40 3240
1.5 138 50 2860
60 2480
2 188
70 2100
2.5 243 80 1720
90 1340
3 300 100 9600

Solution: the spillway capacity is given by

2 2
Q  Cd 2 g 1/ 2bH 3 / 2  x0.75x4.43x200H3/2  443H 3 / 2
3 3
H V (x106) O (m3/s) 2
V
(m) O 3
(m/s)
t
0.5 45 157 2657
1 90 443 5443
1.5 138 814 8480
2 188 1253 11697
2.5 243 1751 15251
3 300 2302 18969

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Using the above values and the given inflow hydrograph, now compute the following table
(interpolating values from above as necessary) by using equation (2):

Table 2

The maximum outflow is 2107m3/s) (< 2300m3/s) and the maximum head on the spillway is
H = (2107/443)2/3 = 2.83 m. For a preliminary design this is a satisfactory result. Note that the
maximum outflow is equal to the inflow at that time. Should a more accurate result be
required, a slightly shorter spillway could be considered, as well as the variation of the
coefficient of discharge.
2.4 Essential Requirements of a Spillway
The essential requirements of a spillway are:
 The spillway must have sufficient capacity;
 It must be hydraulically and structurally adequate;
 It must be so located that it provides safe disposal of water, i.e. spillway discharge
will not erode or undermine the d/s of the dam;
 The bounding surfaces of the spillway must be erosion resistant to withstand the high
scouring velocities created by the drop from the reservoir surface to the tail water.
 Some device will be required for dissipation of energy on the d/s side of the spillway.
2.5 Components Of a Spillway
The following are the main components of a spillway:
i) Control Structure: Major component, which regulates and controls the outflow from
the reservoir. It prevents outflow from a reservoir below a fixed level and allows the

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flow when the water surface in the reservoir rises above the level. In most of the
cases, the control section consists of a weir, which may be sharp crested, ogee, or
broad crested. Gates may also be provided on the crest of the control structure to
regulate the flow of water from the reservoir.
ii) Discharge channel (or waterway, or conveyance structure): Its main function is to
convey the water safely from the reservoir downward to the river. Located next to the
control structure. The conveyance structure may be the d/s face of the spillway, an
open channel excavated along the ground surface, a closed conduit placed through or
under the dam, or a tunnel excavated through an abutment.
iii) Terminal structure or energy dissipator: Provided to dissipate the high energy of
flow from spillway before the flow is returned to the river. It is provided on the
downstream of the spillway.
iv) Entrance or approach channel and outlet channel:
Entrance Channels may be required to draw water from the reservoir and convey it to the
control structure. Similarly outlet channels may be required to convey the spillway flow from
the terminal structure to the river channel below the dam. The entrance and outlet channels
are not required where a spillway draws water directly from the reservoir and delivers it
directly back into the river; e.g. overflow spillway. However, in the case of spillways placed
through abutments or through saddles or ridges, the entrance and outlet channels may be
required.

2.6 Types Of Spillway

Spillways may be classified:
1. According to their function (or based on the time when the spillway comes into
operation) as
(a) Service (or main) spillways: Designed for frequent use in conveying flood releases from
the reservoir to a watercourse downstream from a dam. It is designed to pass the entire
design flood.
(b) Auxiliary Spillways: - Designed for infrequent use and may sustain limited damages
when used. Some damages of the structure from passage of infrequent flood are
permissible. It is provided as a supplement to the main spillway and its crest is so located
that it comes into operation only after the floods for which the main spillway is designed
are exceeded. It is provided in conjunction with the main spillway. The total capacity of
the spillway is then equal to the sum of the capacities of the main and auxiliary spillways.

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(c) Emergency spillways: - Designed to provide a reserve protection against overtopping

of a dam and are intended for use under extreme conditions, such as miss-operation or
malfunction of a service spillway or other emergency conditions. Under normal reservoir
operation, emergency spillways are never required to function. The control crest is,
therefore, placed at or above the designed maximum reservoir water surface. Some of the
situations, which may lead to emergency, are: an enforced shut down of outlet works, a
malfunctioning of spillway gates, The necessity for bypassing the regular spillway
because of damage some part structure.
2. According to Mode of Control as:
(a) Free (or uncontrolled) spillways,
(b) Gated (or controlled) spillways.
3. According to hydraulic criteria as:
(a) Free overfall or straight drop spillway,
(b) Overflow or ogee spillway,
(c) Chute or open channel or Trough spillway,
(d) Side channel spillway,
(e) Siphon spillway,
(f) Shaft or Morning Glory spillway,
(g) Conduit or tunnel spillway.

Chute (or open channel or trough)

It is often called as trough or open channel spillway. -For earthen and rockfill dams, spillway
is to be constructed separately away from the main valley. Chute Spillway is the simplest
type of a spillway which can be easily provided independently and at low costs. -It is lighter
and adaptable to any type of foundations

Figure 2.1Chute Spillway

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Side channel spillway

The flow in this spillway is turned 0 after passing the crest such that the flow is parallel to
the weir crest. Side channel spillway is best suitable for non rigid dams like earthen dams. It
is preferred where space is not available for providing sufficient crest width for chute
spillway.

Figure 2.2 Side channel spillway

Siphon
Siphon spillway works on the principle of symphonic action. It consists of a siphon pipe
whose inlet leg is kept just below the normal pool level and an air vent kept at normal pool
level is connected to the crown of siphon. When the water raises the pool level, symphonic
action starts automatically and the water discharges to downstream side. When the water
level falls below the pool level, air is entered through air vent and the discharging of water
stops

Figure2.3 Siphon spillway

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Shaft which (or morning glory) –

The water from the reservoir enters into a vertical shaft which conveys this water into a
horizontal tunnel which finally discharges the water into the river downstream. This type of
spillway is preferred where the space is not available for providing the other type of
spillways. If the inlet leg is provided in shape of a funnel, it is called Morning Glory
Spillway. It has maximum discharge even at low heads.

Figure 2.4 Shaft spillway

Conduit (or tunnel)

A conduit Spill-way consists of a closed conduit to carry the flood discharge to the
downstream channel. It is constructed in the abutment or under the dam. The closed conduit
may take the form of a vertical or inclined shaft, a horizontal tunnel, or a conduit constructed
in an open cut and then covered. To ensure the free flow in the tunnel, the ratio of flow area
to total tunnel area is often limited to 75%of air vents are provided. Such a spill-way is
suitable for dam sites in narrow canyons with steep abutments

Free over fall or straight drop spillway

This is the simplest type of spillway, which is constructed in the form of low height weir
having d/s face either vertical or nearly vertical. Water drops freely from the crest, and the
underside of the falling nape is ventilated sufficiently to prevent a pulsating, fluctuating, jet.
Occasionally, the crest is extended in the form of an overhanging lip to direct the small
discharge away from the face of the over fall section. Since vacuum gets created in the
underside portion of the falling jet, sufficient ventilation of the nape is required in order to

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avoid pulsating and fluctuating effects of the jet. If no artificial protection is provided on the
d/s side of the over-fall section, the falling jet usually causes the scouring of the stream bed
and will form a deep plunge pool. The free over fall spillway is suitable for thin arch dams
and for those dams with nearly vertical downstream face and would permit free fall of water.

Spillway crest

Overhanging lip

Free overfall

Fig 2.5 Straight drop spillway

Overflow (Ogee) Spillways

Overflow spillways are by far the most widely adopted. They are mainly used on masonry or
concrete dams, and if used with earth fill and need a separate concrete structure.
An overflow spillway is an improvement upon the free overfall spillway. The essential
difference between the free overfall spillway and the overflow spillway is that in the case of
the former the water flowing over the crest of the spillway drops as a free jet clearly away
from the downstream face of the spillway, while in the case of the latter the water is guided
smoothly over the crest of the spillway and is made to glide over the downstream face of the
spillway.
A. Crest Shape Of Overflow Spillway
The shape of the crest or the upper curve of the ogee profile of this spillway is made to
conform closely to the profile of the lower surface of the nappe (or lower nappe) or sheet of
water flowing over a ventilated sharp-crested weir when discharging at a head equal to the
design head of the spillway.

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Fig 2.6 Crest shape of overflow spillway

At the design head (H = Hd) the water flowing over the crest of the spillway will remain in
contact with the surface of the spillway as it glides over it and optimum discharge will occur.
In this case no pressure is exerted on the spillway by the flowing water, as there will be
atmospheric pressure along the contact surface between the flowing water and the spillway.
At head less than the design head (H <Hd) the overflowing water will remain in contact with
the surface. The natural trajectory of the nappe falls below the profile of the spillway crest
then there will therefore be positive gage pressures over the crest, as the nappe tends to be
depressed. In this case, as the spillway is supporting a sheet of flowing water backwater
effect will be created and the discharge will be reduced.
At a head greater than the design head (H >Hd), the nape trajectory is higher than the crest
profile, and the overflowing water tends to break contact with the spillway surface and zone
of separation will be formed in which negative or suction pressure will be produced. The
effect of negative pressure will be to increase the effective head and thereby increase the
discharge. This may result in cavitations. However, in practice, this pressure reduction is not
normally a serious problem unless H > 1.5 Hd. Indeed recent work suggests that separation
will not occur until H approaches 3 Hd.
B. Design of crest of ogee spillway
The shape of the nape shaped profile depends upon the head, the inclination of the upstream
face of the spillway and the height of the spillway above the streambed or the bed of the
entrance channel (which influences the velocity of approach to the crest of the spillway).
Several standard ogee shapes have been developed by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at their
Waterways Experimental Station (WES). Such shapes are known as 'WES' standard spillway
shapes.

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The downstream profile can be represented by: Xn KH nd1 y

Where: x, y = Co-ordinates of the points on the crest profile with the origin at the highest
point of the crest called APEX, Hd = Design head excluding head due to velocity of
approach, K, n = Constants depending on the slope of the upstream face.
The crest equation gives the crest shape downstream from the origin of coordinates. This
equation is applicable to positive values of x and y.

HD

Fig 2.7WES- standard spillway shape (vertical upstream face)

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The following table gives values of K, n and other constants and crest equations
U/s Face slope K N Crest Equation

Vertical 2.000 1.850 0.175 0.282 0.200 0.50 x1.85 2H d0.85 y
x1.836 1.936H d0.836 y
1H: 3v 1.936 1.836 0.139 0.237 0.210 0.68

x1.810 1.939H d0.810 y

2H: 3v 1.936 1.810 0.115 0.214 0.220 0.48

x1.776 1.873H d0.776 y

3H: 3v 1.873 1.776 0.000 0.119  (Straight line) 0.45

According to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the u/s curve of the ogee spillway (u/s of origin,
though in the form of compound circular curve) having a vertical u/s face, should have the
following equation:

0.724x  0.27H d 
1.85
y 0.126H d 0.4315H d0.375 x  0.27H d 
0.625

H d0.85

Where the upstream profile extends up to x  027H d

The corresponding y value is equal to 0.126 Hd.
The curved profile of the crest section is continued tangentially along the straight sloping
surface, which forms the d/s face of the spillway. The location of the point of tangency (P.T)
depends on the slope of the straight portion of the d/s face of the spillway, which in turn
depends on the stability requirements and on the features of the stilling basin at toe of the
spillway. The slope of the straight portion varies between 1V: 0.6H to 1V: 0.8H. At the end
of the sloping surface a curved bucket is provided to create a smooth transition of flow from
the spillway to the outlet channel or the river on the d/s side and prevent scoring.
The approximate radius R of the bucket may be obtained from (empirical)

R 10( v6.4 H 4.88) /(3.6 H 19.52) Where: V= velocity of flow at to e of

spillway m/s H = head excluding head due to velocity of approach (m)
Neglecting energy loss over the spillway, velocity of flow v at the toe will be
V 2g( Z  Ha  y
Where Z = the fall in m, Ha = head due to velocity of approach in m, y = depth of flow at the
toe, m

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Figure 2.8 Profile of an ogee spillway

C. Discharge of Overflow Spillway

The discharge over an overflow spillway is given by

Q CLe H D3 / 2
Where Q = discharge, m3/s, C = coefficient of discharge, Le = effective length of crest of
spillway in m, HD = total head over the crest including that due to velocity of approach.
HD = Hd + Ha. For high ogee spillway Ha is very small, and HD = Hd
(i) Coefficient of discharge, C, of Overflow spillway
An overflow spillway has a relatively high coefficient of discharge the maximum value of
which may be about 2.2 if no negative or suction pressure is allowed to develop. Its value
depends on the following factors:
a) Depth of approach, p
b) Heads differing from design head
c) Upstream face slope
d) Downstream apron interference and downstream submergence
a) Effect of Depth of Approach: With increase in the height of spillway the velocity of
approach decreases and the coefficient of discharge increase. Model tests have shown that the
effect of approach velocity is negligible when the height of the spillway above the streambed
is equal to or greater than 1.33 Hd(P ≥ 1.33 Hd) where Hd is the design head excluding the
head due to velocity of approach. A plot of C versus P/HD is shown below, where HD is the
design head including head due to velocity of approach (i.e. HD = Hd+ Ha). It may be
observed from this plot that there is a marked increase in the value of C till the height of the

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spillway (P) becomes equal to twice the design head HD. With further increase in P there is
no much increase in the value of C.

Fig 2.9 Plot of coefficient of discharge versus (P/HD)

(b) Effect of heads differing from the design head: The plot of (C/C’) versus (He/HD) for a
spillway of height P above stream bed greater than 1.33 Hd, where C is coefficient of
discharge corresponding to the actual head of flow H and C’ is the coefficient of discharge
corresponding to the design head HD. It may be observed from this plot that with increase in
the value of (He/HD) the value of (C/C’) increases. In other words, with increase in the head
H the coefficient of discharge increases. However, for He< HD, C < C’; and for He> HD, C >
C’.

Fig 2.10 plot of C/C' Vs (He/HD)

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Since for heads of flow higher than the design head higher will be the coefficient of
discharge, if the spillway crest is designed by assuming a lower design head, for most of the
range of heads of flow higher coefficient of discharge will be obtained.
However, the design head should not be less than about 80% of the maximum head in order
to avoid the possibility of cavitations. Model tests have shown that for P > 1.33 Hdthe head
due to velocity of approach is negligible and when the total head of flow is equal to the
design head, i.e. He = HD, the coefficient of discharge is equal to 2.2.
When the actual operating head is less than the design head, the prevailing coefficient of
discharge, C, tends to reduce, and is given by
0.12
H 
C  C  e 
 HD 
Where HD = design head including velocity head and C’ = 2.2
(c) Effect of upstream face slope: For small values of the ratio (P/HD) a spillway with
sloping upstream face has a higher coefficient of discharge than a spillway with vertical
upstream face. However, for large values of the ratio (P/HD) the coefficient of discharge for
spillways with sloping upstream face tends to decrease.

Fig 1.11 Coefficient of discharge for various u/s slopes

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(d) Downstream apron interface and submergence effects: The coefficient of discharge
is reduced due to submergence. When the tailwater level is such that the top of the weir is
covered by it, such that the weir cannot discharge freely; the weir is then said to be
submerged weir. Where the hydraulic jump occurs, the coefficient of discharge may decrease
due to backpressure effect of the downstream apron and is independent of the submergence
hd  d
effect. When the value of exceeds 1.7, the downstream apron is found to have
HD
negligible effect on the coefficient of discharge. But there may be a decrease in C due to tail
water submergence.

Fig 2.12 Maximum TW depth for a non-submerged weir

(e) Effective Length Of Crest Of Overflow Spillway:
The effective length of an overflow spillway is given by Le = L - 2 (NKp + Ka) HD
Where Le = effective length of crest, L =net length of crest which is equal to the sum of the
clear spans of the gate bays between piers, HD = total head on crest including velocity head
N = number of Piers, KP = Pier contraction coefficient, Ka = abutment contraction coefficient
The pier contraction coefficient, Kp depends on
i) Shape and location of pier nose;
ii) Thickness of pier;
iii) Velocity of approach; and
iv) Ratio of actual head to design head.

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For flow at design head the average values of Kp may be assumed as follows:
Pier coefficients, Kp:
1. Square nosed piers with corners rounded on a radius equal to about 0.1 of pier
thickness → Kp =0.02
2. Round-nosed piers → Kp = 0.01
3. Pointed nose pliers → Kp = 0.00
The abutment contraction coefficient Ka depends on:
i) Shape of abutment;
ii) Angle between upstream approach wall and axis of flow;
iii) Approach velocity; and
iv) Ratio of actual head to design head
For flow at design head, average value of Ka may be assumed as follows:
Abutment coefficients, Ka:
1. Square abutment with head wall at 900 to the direction of flow → Ka= 0.20
2. Rounded abutment with head wall at 900 to the direction of flow, when
0.5 Hd r  0.15 Hd → Ka = 0.10
3. Rounded abutments where r > 0.5 Hd and headwall is placed not more than 450 to the
direction of flow → Ka = [Link] r = radius of abutment rounding, Hd= design head.
Example 2. Design a suitable section for overflow section of a concrete gravity dam having
the downstream face slopping at 0.7 H: 1 V. The design discharge for the spillway is 6000
m3/s. the height of the spillway above the river bed is 60 m. The effective length of spillway
may be taken as 50 m. Solution
Given: L = 50m Q = 6000m3/s h = 60m q = Q/L= 6000/50= 120

Assume discharge coefficient is 2.2 ( ) ( )

The height of the spillway above the river bed (h) is 60 m since ( ) = = 4.17 >1.33

It is high spillway therefore the effect of velocity head can be neglected

( ) ( )
> 1.7therefore discharge coefficient is not affected by tail

water condition and the spillway remain high spillway

UPSTREAM SLOPE

The upstream face of the dam spillway is proposed to be kept vertical. However a batter of
1:10 will be provided from stability considerations in the lower parts. This batter is small and
will not have any effect on the coefficient of discharge. Effective length of spillway =50m

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DOWNSTREAM PROFILE
The downstream profile for a vertical u/s face is given by:

Before we determine the various coordinates the d/s profile we shall first determine tangent

point the d/s slop of the dam is given to be 07H: 1V hence =

Differentiate the equation 1.85 = = x = 24 m

The coordinate from x=0 to x=24m are worked out in next table
X in meter in meter X in meter in meter
1 0.05 13 5.96
2 0.18 14 6.84
3 0.39 15 7.77
4 0.67 16 8.75
5 1.02 17 9.79
6 1.43 18 10.88
7 1.89 19 12.03
8 2.43 20 13.22
9 3.02 21 14.47
10 3.67 22 15.77
11 4.37 23 17.13
12 5.14 24 18.53

The upstream profile: the u/s profile may be designed as equation:

0.724(x+0.27Hd )1.85
Y= Hd 0.85
+ 0.126Hd 0.4315Hd0.375 (x + 0.27Hd)0.625

( )
Y= ( )0.625

( ) ( )0.625
The curve should go up to x= -0.27Hd = 0.27x14.4 =-3.89
The various value of X such as -0.5,-1,-2,-3,-3.88 the values of Y are worked as given in
teble below:
X in meter Y in meter
-0.5 0.02
-1 0.07
-2 0.31
-3 0.78
-3.88 1.74

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CHAPTER THREE
3. ENERGY DISSIPATION
The water flowing over the spillway acquires a lot of kinetic energy by the time it reaches
near the toe of the spillway due to the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy. If
arrangements are not made to dissipate this huge kinetic energy of the water, and if the
velocity of the water is not reduced, large-scale scour can take place on the downstream side
near the toe of the dam and away from it. These arrangements are known as energy
dissipation arrangements or energy dissipaters. For the dissipation of the excessive kinetic
energy possessed by the water the two common methods adopted are:
i. By converting the supercritical flow into subcritical flow by hydraulic jump.
ii. By using different types of buckets, i.e. by directing the flow of water into air and
then making it falls away from the toe of the structure.
3.1 Classification of Energy Dissipaters
Energy dissipators for the spillways can be classified in several ways:
1. Based on hydraulic action: turbulence and internal friction as in hydraulic jump stilling
basins, roller buckets, and impact and pool diffusion as with ski jump buckets and plunge
pools.
2. Based on the mode of dissipation: horizontal as in the hydraulic jump, vertical as with ski
jump buckets/free jets, and oblique as with spatial and cross flows. The vertical dissipation
may be in the downward direction as with free jets and plunge pools and in upward direction
as with roller buckets.
3. Based on geometry or form of the main flow: situations involving sudden expansion,
contraction, counter acting flows, impact, etc.
4. Based on the geometry or form of the structure: stilling basin employs hydraulic jump
with or without appurtenances like chute blocks, baffle piers, etc. Buckets (ski jump or flip
buckets) include special shapes like serrated, dentated buckets, and roller buckets that are
either solid roller bucket or slotted buckets.
Principal Types of Energy Dissipators
The energy dissipators for spillways can be grouped under the following five categories:
1. Hydraulic jump stilling basins
2. Free jets and trajectory buckets
3. Roller buckets
4. Dissipation by spatial hydraulic jump
5. Impact type energy dissipators
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Hydraulic jump stilling basins include horizontal and sloping aprons and basins equipped
with energy dissipating appurtenances such as chute blocks, baffle piers, and dentate end
sills. This is the most common type of energy dissipator for the spillways and outlets and
effects up to 60% dissipation of the energy entering the basin, depending on the Froude
number of the flow.
Free jets and trajectory buckets are not dissipators of energy in real sense. The bucket deflects
the high velocity jet into the air and is made to strike the riverbed at a considerable distance
from the structure. Any scour that may occur in the impingement zone remains away from the
structure and hence does not endanger the stability of the structure.
Roller buckets can be conceptualized as hydraulic jump on a curved floor, as its performance
is closely related to the Froude number of the incoming flow and tail water depth. It can also
be seen as an economical alternative to the elaborate sloping aprons. Solid roller bucket is a
simple device that gives satisfactory performance provided it is operated symmetrically. The
most common form of energy dissipator at the outlets of shaft/tunnel spillways is a flip
bucket. However, when topographical or geological conditions are not favorable, a hydraulic
jump stilling basin is the only choice regardless of concentration of discharge and energy at
the entrance to the energy dissipator. The standard design of stilling basin would normally
not be suitable.
Impact induced by an obstacle placed against the high velocity flow is also applied to
accomplish energy dissipation in small chutes and spillways. Since the successful
performance of such structures is dependent on the stability of the impact-inducing obstacle
against fluctuating drag force and cavitation damage, these designs have found limited
application for low heads and small discharges.
3.1 Stilling Basin
A stilling basin consists of a short, level apron at the foot of the spillway. It must be
constructed of concrete to resist scour. The function of the basin is to decelerate the flow
sufficiently to ensure the formation of a hydraulic jump within the basin. The jump dissipates
much of the energy, and returns the flow to the subcritical state.
3.1.1 Hydraulic Jump Stilling Basin
The passage of water from a reservoir into the downstream reach involves a number of
hydraulic phenomena such as the transition into supercritical flow, supercritical non-aerated
and aerated flow on the spillway, entry into the stilling basin with a transition from
supercritical to subcritical flow, and echoes of macro-turbulence after the transition into the

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stream beyond the basin. It is possible to consider the energy dissipation process in the
following stages, all of which may be combined.
 On the spillway surface
 In the stilling basin
 At the outflow into the river.
Some empirical equations were given to calculate the length of hydraulic as,
 L = 5.2y2 Safranez equation
 L = 5(y2 – y1) Bakhmetef equation
 L = 6(y2 – y1) Smetana equation
 L = 5.6y2 Page equation
3.1.2 Energy Dissipation On Spillway Surface
V '2
The energy loss on the spillway surface may be expressed as: e    (3.1)
2g
Where V’ = the (supercritical) velocity at the end of the spillway, α = energy coefficient and
 = head loss coefficient.

V 2 V 2
The total energy, E, can be expressed as E     (3.2) and taking
2g 2g
actual velocity 1
 Hence,  1  (3.3)
theoretical velocity 2
The ratio of the energy loss, e, to the total energy E (i.e. relative energy loss) is

e V  2  V 2 V 2  
      1  2 (3.5)
E 2g  2g 2g  1 
For the ratio of the height P of the spillway crest above its ending and the overflow head H,

with P/H < 30, and smooth spillways   1 0.0155P H (3.6)

For a given P, φ increases as H increases, i.e., if for a given discharge Q the spillway width b
decreases and thus q increases.
Thus, for P/H = 5, φ = 0. 2 and the relative head loss (e/E) is 15%, whereas for P/H = 25, φ =
0.61 and relative head loss is 62 %.
The value of head loss coefficient (ζ) could be increased (and φ decreased) by using a rough
spillway or by placing baffles on the spillway surface. However, unless aeration is provided
at these protrusions, the increased energy dissipation may be achieved only by providing an
opportunity for cavitation damage.
3.2 Energy Dissipation in the Stilling Basin

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Referring to the notation is Fig (3.3) and to equations (3.2) and 3.4) we can write

y1   8 q2  
1/ 2
q 2
E  y1  (3.7), y 2   1  1    (3.8)
2g 2 y12 2   g y13  
 
The stilling basin depth is then given by
y    y 2  y' 2 … (3.9) and the length of the stilling basin is given by L  ky 2  y1  (3.10)
Where σ´ and k are coefficients derived from laboratory and field experiments.
According to Novak and Cabelka Coefficients σ´ and k can be taken as 1.1 <  '  1.25 and
4.5 <k < 5.5, where the lower value of k applies for Fr1>10 and the higher for Fr1 ≤ [Link]
applying equations (3-7) – (3-10) we start with a known discharge q and the corresponding
downstream depth y0 and apply the iterative procedure, which follows:
Take the energy (reference) datum at downstream riverbed level, and compute E assuming an
initial value of y' = 0. Choose a suitable value of ;   1  0.0155p / H;
Compute y' for qmax from equation (3.7); y2 from equation (3.8); and y' from equation (3.9)
(From a chosen value of safety coefficient,  ' ;
Compute y0 (from uniform flow equation – Manning, Chezy) and compare it with y2
If y2< y0, no stilling basin is required; if y2  y0 stilling basin is required and therefore
compute y´ with 1.1 < σ´ < 1.2   12
.  from equation (3.9);Take new reference datum at basin

bed level; and calculate new E and repeat steps 2-4 to check that '  1.1. . Repeat the above

steps at least for one smaller q to check whether the designed stilling basin is adequate for
lower discharges as well.
Note: Equations (3.8) and (3.10), and thus the design under discussion, apply to basins with a
horizontal floor only.

Fig. 3.3 Definition sketch for hydraulic jump stilling basin

3.2.1 Additional Considerations in Stilling Basin Design

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The hydraulic jump entrains a substantial amount of air additional to any incoming aerated
flow. The main significance of the presence of air in the jump region is the requirement of
higher stilling basin sidewalls due to higher depth of flow. The major problems in spillway
stilling basin are cavitation, uplift, and abrasion. The highly turbulent nature of the flow in
the hydraulic jump induces large pressure fluctuations and is the cause of cavitation.
1 
Cavitation number can be expressed as   P  V12  …… (3.11)
2 
Where: P´ is the deviation of the instantaneous pressure P from the time average pressure. If
σ falls below a critical value, σc, then cavitation occurs.
Another serious structural problem in hydraulic jump stilling basins is the effect of uplift
pressures due to the dam drainage system or the tailwater level or the water table in the basin
bank, which is aggravated by the macro-turbulent pressure fluctuations underneath the jump.
Therefore, it is sensible to design the floor slab for the full downstream uplift pressure
applied over the whole area of the floor with the basin empty or the uplift pressure head equal
to the root mean square value of pressure fluctuations of the order of 0.12V12 /2g (V1= inlet
supercritical velocity) applied under the whole full basin. Furthermore, all contraction joints
should be sealed, no drain openings should be provided, and the floor slab should be as large
as possible and connected by dowels and reinforcement (ICOLD, 1986).
Abrasion of concrete in the basin could take place if this is also used for bottom outlets
carrying abrasive sediments (unlikely to happen for V<10m/s), or from sediment drawn into
the basin from downstream either by bad design or operation. The basin should be self-
cleaning to flush out any trapped sediment. The prevention of vibration of basin elements
(due to turbulence of the flow) also requires massive slabs, pinned to the foundation when
possible.
Standard Stilling Basins
Although the stilling basin based purely on a simple hydraulic jump works well and relatively
efficiently, in certain conditions other types of basins may produce savings in construction
costs. Certain accessories such as chute blocks, baffle blocks (or floor blocks), and end sills
(or baffles) are usually provided in the stilling basins to reduce the length of the jump and
thus to reduce the length and the cost of the stilling basin. Moreover, these accessories also
improve the dissipation action of the basin and stabilize the jump. The type of stilling basin to
be provided depends on the type of jump, which in turn depends on the Froude number F r1 of
the incoming flow.
U.S.B.R. Stilling Basins
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Dam Engineering II Module

1 Stilling basin for 1.7 < Fr1<2.5 (Type I)

Only horizontal apron needs to be provided. The flow does not have much turbulence and
hence no accessions are required. However, the apron must be sufficiently long to contain the
entire jump. The length of the apron should be the length of the jump (i.e. 5y2 = L, and (L 
4y2) where y2 = sequent depth).
2 Stilling Basin for 2.5 < Fr1< 4.5 (Type IV)
Type IV stilling basin is found effective. It is provided with chute blocks and end sill is
optional. The length L of the stilling basing may be obtained from the following table.
Fr1 2 3 4 5
L/y2 4.3 5.3 5.8 6

Stilling Basins for Fr1> 4.5

True hydraulic jump will form. Depending on the incoming velocity of flow two types of
basins are developed:
a. V1< 15 m/s: Type III stilling basin may be adopted. This basin utilizes chute blocks,
baffle blocks and end sill (the size, spacing and location of the chute and baffle blocks
are shown in the Figure). The length of the stilling basin and the height h3 and h4 of
the baffle blocks and the end sill may be obtained for different values of Fr1 as
follows:

Fr1 5 6 8 10 12 14 16
L
y2 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8
h3
y1 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.3
h4
y1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

The use of chute blocks, impact baffle blocks, and an end sill shortens the jump length and
the stilling basin. This basin relies on dissipation of energy by the impact blocks and on the
turbulence of the jump phenomena for its effectiveness. Because of the large impact forces to
which the baffles are subjected by the impingement of high incoming velocities and because

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of the possibilities of cavitation along the surfaces of the blocks and floor (due to downstream
suction), the use of this basin should be limited to heads where the velocities do not exceed
15 m/s.
b. V1 > 15 m/s: Here impact baffle blocks are not employed and they are designated as
Type II stilling basin. Because the dissipation is mainly accomplished by hydraulic
jump action, the basin length will be greater than that indicated for type III basin.
However, the chute blocks and dentated end sill (instead of solid end sill) will still be
effective in reducing the length from that which would be necessary if they were not used. In
this basin baffle blocks are not provided because.
 due to the high velocities of incoming flows these blocks will be subjected to
excessively large impact forces, and
 There is a possibility of cavitation along the downstream face of these blocks and the
adjacent floor of the basin due to large negative pressure being developed in this
region.
The length L of Type II stilling basin may be obtained for different values of Fr1 from the
following table
Fr1 5 6 8 10 12 14
L/y2 3.85 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.3

3.3 Submerged bucket dissipaters

When the tail water depth is too great for the formation of a hydraulic jump (i.e. when TW
depth are too large as compared to the sequent depths required for the formation of hydraulic
jump), dissipation of the high energy of flow can be effected by the use of submerged bucket
deflector.
They are of two types, viz.
i) Solid roller bucket
ii) Slotted roller bucket
Solid Roller Bucket: Consists of a bucket like apron with a concave circular profile of large
radius and a deflector lip. When water flows over the bucket the entire sheet of water leaving
the bucket is deflected upwards by the bucket lip and two rollers are developed. One of the
rollers, called bucket roller, moves in counterclockwise direction and is developed on the
surface of the bucket. The other roller moving in clockwise direction, called ground roller, is
developed on the ground surface immediately downstream of the bucket. The movement of

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the rollers, also with the intermingling of the incoming flows, causes the dissipation of
energy.

Figure 3.4
Slotted Roller Bucket: Consists of a bucket like apron with a concave circular profile of
large radius and a slotted or dentated deflector lip. Its action is, in general, same as solid
roller buckets. The two rollers are also developed in this case. However, in this case water
leaves the lip at a flatter angle and only a part of it is deflected upwards. Thus surface boil is
considerably reduced and less violent ground roller occurs which results in a smoother flow
on the downstream side.

Figure 3.5 Ground and surface rollers

Ski – Jump /Deflector Bucket
This type of dissipater has a longitudinal profile, which resembles the submerged bucket.
However, the deflector is elevated above the tail water level, so a jet of water is thrown clear
off the dam and falls into the stream well clear off the toe of the dam. Spillways may be
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Dam Engineering II Module

arranged in pairs, and then the jets made to angle inwards so that they converge and collide in
mid – air. This breaks up the jets, and is very effective means of energy dissipation. The ski
– jump bucket may be used where the tail water depth is less than the sequent depth required
for the formation of hydraulic jump and the riverbed is composed of stiff rock. In this case,
the energy is dissipated by air resistance, breaking up of the jet into bubbles and the impact of
the falling jet against the riverbed and tail water.

Figure 3.6
The use of ski-jump brings substantial economies where geological and morphological
conditions are favorable, and particularly where the spillway can be placed over the power
station. The head loss in the jet itself, whether solid or disintegrated, is only about 12%
(Novak, 1996). But if the jet is split into several streams, which collide, substantial energy
will be dissipated. The main benefit for energy dissipation from jet spillways is in the impact
into the downstream pool. The major amount of energy dissipation occurs in the region where
the jet plunges into the tailwater. The key parameters for flip-bucket (ski-jump bucket) design
are:
 The approach flow velocity and depth, the radius R of the bucket, and the lip angle,
θ.
At low flow, the bucket acts like a stilling basin with water flowing over the lip and the
downstream face; the foundation of the bucket has, therefore, to be protected against erosion.
As the flow increases, a ‘sweep-out’ discharge is attained at which point the flip-bucket starts
to operate properly wit a jet. Here, the impact zone of the jet has to be as far away as possible
from the bucket to protect the structure against retrogressive erosion. The jet trajectory is
hardly affected by air resistance for v < 20 m/s, but for velocities of 40 m/s the throw distance
can be reduced by as much as 30% from the theoretical value given by (V2/g) sin2θ.
The throw distance x can also be computed from
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Dam Engineering II Module

x y
 sin 2  2 cos  sin 2   (3.12)
Hv Hv

Where x = throw distance, m, y = vertical drop from lip to tail water surface, m, Hv = V2/2g =
velocity head of jet at bucket lip, m, θ = bucket lip angle.
Factors affecting horizontal throw distance include:
1. Initial velocity of jet 2. Bucket lip angle
2. Difference in elevation between lip and tail water
3.2 Selection of the Type of Energy Dissipator
The factors that govern the choice of the type are: hydraulic considerations, topography,
geology, type of the dam, layout of other associated structures, economic comparison,
frequency of usage, as well as special and environmental considerations.
Topography influences the type of the dissipator in the same way as it influences the type of
the dam or the spillway. The topography that favors the selection of a shaft spillway or a
tunnel spillway will most likely be an ideal site for a flip bucket. Even for the gravity or arch
dams in steep and narrow canyons, ski jump buckets or flip buckets would be more suitable,
provided the problems of spray and resulting bank erosion and landslides can be tackled. Ski
jump buckets are found to be most suitable for dams to be constructed in steep and narrow
valleys where a power house would be accommodated at the foot of the dam, with the roof of
the power house, in the form of an inverted circular arc, also serving as the ski jump bucket.
On the other hand, hydraulic jump stilling basin would prove to be more problematic, not
only from consideration of deficient tail water depth and longer training walls, but also due to
the concern arising from the falling of debris from the steep slopes into the stilling basin.
Flip buckets would be preferable also for the chute spillways located on flanks but in the
vicinity of the main river channel. While a hydraulic jump stilling basin along with the river
joining works would be inefficient and expensive, flip bucket with a deflector to divert the jet
towards the main river channel would result in a compact structure.
Hydraulic jump stilling basins and slotted buckets would be less preferable for the spillways
whose construction may continue for several years and where seasonal floods have to be
passed down the partly constructed spillways. Stilling basins for such spillways are prone to
be filled up intermittently and damaged due to impinging concentrated flows, abrasion, etc.
Similarly, for the spillways that serve dual functions, such as flood and sediment disposal,
stilling basins or roller buckets should be avoided as far as possible, due to the possibility of
abrasion damage caused by sediments passing down the spillways during flushing operation.

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Sometimes environmental factors play a decisive role in determining the type of the energy
dissipator. Erosion due to plunging jets and spray caused by the flows from ski jump buckets
adversely affect the river water quality by turbidity, harmful for the fish population. When the
tail water levels were too high to hinder the formation of a clear flip action, a submerged
hydraulic jump on a step followed by an apron was found to perform satisfactory. Thus, the
type or design of the energy dissipator has to be adapted as demanded by the prevailing
environment.
Analysis of Parameters
The key parameters of Energy dissipation are:
 the height of the spillway (P),
 the unit discharge (q),
 the headwater representing the initial energy (E0), and
 The tail water representing the energy level downstream (Et). Also,

………………………. (3.1)

……………………..(3.2)

Where: y0 = Approach depth, yt = Tail water depth, V0 = Approach velocity, and

Vt = Downstream velocity

It would be seen that the difference between the upstream and downstream energies (dE) is
the energy that must be dissipated by the energy dissipator. A combination of the four

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parameters would determine the type of flow condition at the base of the spillway, namely an
effective hydraulic jump, a sweeping or deficient jump, a submerged jump, a diving jet, or a
floating jet. As several combinations of parameters exist, a variety of flow conditions at the
base are possible. The latitude of the changes in parameters is limited; only the headwater
rating curve can be changed by altering the depth of overflow or width of the spillway,
resulting in the change of unit discharge q. The tail water rating curve is imposed by nature
and cannot be changed except with an artificial control in the river downstream.
A preliminary indication as to the expected flow condition for the entire range of discharge
can be obtained by superimposing the jump-height curve on the tail water rating curve. A
jump-height curve is formed by adding the conjugate depth of hydraulic jump, y2, to the
assumed elevation of the apron (that can be constructed economically on the bedrock
available at the site) corresponding to various discharges.
Figure 2 shows four possible cases of relationships between the jump-height and tail water
rating curves. Based on the dimensional analysis of the parameters involved in the process,
the following relationship was evolved.

[ ] (3.3)
√

√ [ ] (3.4)
√

Figure 2 Jump height and tail water rating curves.

3.3 Jump Height and Tail water Rating Curves
Hydraulic jump can form in a horizontal rectangular channel when the following relation is
satisfied between the pre-jump depth (y1) and post – jump depth (y2).

y2 
y1
2 1  1  8 Fr
2
 (3.1)

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Where y1 = pre-jump (initial) depth, y2 = post- jump (sequent) depth, Fr1 = Froude number of
the incoming flow
. The types of jumps for different ranges of Froude numbers are: (i) When F1 < 2.5, the jump
is weak and energy loss is low. No blocks or other devices are provided in this range. (ii)
When F1 lies between 2.5 to 4.5, as in case of weirs and barrages, the jump is --trouble-some
and oscillating, which gives rise to heavy waves on the surface. Wave Suppressors may be
needed in this range. (iii) When F1 lies between 4.5 and 9.0; as is generally the case for dam
spillways, the jump performance is at its best. The jump is then called a steady jump. The
length of the jump is almost constant and equal to 6y2 in this range. Hence for large
spillways, where y2 may be quite high, very long and expensive stilling basins may be
required. Some auxiliary devices may also be introduced for further stabi1ising the flow and
to reduce the length of the basin. iv) When F1 = 9.0 and larger; it is a strong jump. But the
jump is likely to be rough and choppy. Hence, a bucket type of energy dissipator is preferred
to a stilling basin of hydraulic jump type.
Standard Stilling Basins
Various types of stilling basins have been generalized for use on different types of works, by
various agencies. The auxiliary devices may be used as additional measures for contro_lling
the jump, etc. Before we reproduce a few standard stilling basins, let us first describe, in
brief, the effects produced by auxiliary devices. ·
Chute Blocks: Chute blocks are a kind of serrated device (i.e. row of small projections like
teeth of saw) and provided at the entrance of the stilling basin.
Sills and Dentate Sjlls: Sill or more preferably dentate sill is generally provided at the end of
the stilling basin. The dentated sill diffuses the residual portion of high velocity jet reaching
the end of the basin.
Baffle Piers. They are the blocks placed within the basin, across the basin floor. They help in
breaking the flow and dissipate energy mostly by impact. These baffle piers, sometimes
called friction blocks, are very useful in small structures, such as low spillways and weirs,
etc.
U.S.B.R. Basins: U.S.B.R. has standardized stilling basins for different ranges of Froude
numbers. The important of these basins, are: (1) U.S.B.R. stilling basin II. This is
recommended for use on large structures; such as dam spillways: large canal structures, etc.;
when the incoming Froude numbef1F1) is more than 4.5. (2) U.B.S.R. stilling basin IV. This
basin is applicable only to rectangular cross sections. Since oscillating waves are generated in
this range of Froude number, they are tried to be controlled at source by providing large chute
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blocks U.S.B.R. Stilling basin IV (F1 lies between 2.5 and 4.5). The length of the basin is
generally kept equaHo 5 (y2 –Y1
For a given discharge intensity q over a spillway, y1, will be equal to q/v1; and v1 (mean
velocity of incoming flow) is determined by the drop H1 V1  2gH 1 , if head loss is
neglected.

Fig 3.1 Hydraulic jump at the toe of a spillway

Hence, for a given discharge intensity and given height of spillway, y1 is fixed and thus y2 is
also fixed. But the availability of a depth equal to y2 in the channel on the downstream cannot
be guaranteed as it depends upon the tail water level y0 which depends on the hydraulic
conditions of the river channel on the downstream side. The values of yo corresponding to
different values of q may be obtained by actual gauge discharge observations and plot of yo
versus q prepared, known as Tail water Rating curve (T.W.R.C.). The post-jump depth (y2)
for all those discharges, are also computed from equation (3.1) and a plot of y2 versus q may
be made which is known as jump height curve (J.H.C.). If J.H.C. and T.W.R.C. are plotted
on the same graph, five possibilities exist regarding the relative positions of these curves.
1. T.W.R.C. coinciding with J.H.C curve for all discharges
2. T.W.R.C. lying above the J.H.C for all discharges
3. T.W.R.C. lying below the J.H.C for all discharges
4. T.W.R.C lying below the J.H.C for smaller discharges and lying above y2 curve for
larger discharges
5. T.W.R.C. lying above the J.H.C for smaller discharges and lying below the y2 curve for
larger discharges
The energy dissipation arrangement that can be provided is dependent upon the relative
positions of T.W.R.C. and J.H.C.

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Condition 1(T.W.R.C. coinciding with J.H.C curve for all discharges): In this case for the
entire discharges jump will develop close to the toe of the spillway. In such a case, a simple
horizontal concrete apron may be provided whose length is equal to the length of the jump
corresponding to the maximum discharge over the spillway.

Fig 3.2a Condition 1

Condition 2(T.W.R.C. lying above the J.H.C for all discharges)
The jump forming at toe will be drowned out by tail water, and little energy will be
dissipated.

Fig.3.2b Condition 2 Fig 3.2c Hydraulic jump on a sloping apron

Water may continue to flow at high velocity along the channel bottom for a considerable
distance. The problem can be solved:
i) By constructing a sloping apron over the riverbed extending from the downstream
surface of the spillway. The jump will form on the sloping apron where depth equal to
y2 (lesser than the tailwater depth at toe) is available.
The slope of the apron is made in such a way that proper conditions for a jump to occur
somewhere on the apron at all discharges.
ii) By providing a roller bucket type energy dissipater. Also a drop provided in the
riverbed to lower the TWL can be used to dissipate the energy.(Fig 3.2c).
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Condition 3 (T.W.R.C. lying below the J.H.C for all discharges)

In this case the jump will develop at a certain section far downstream of the toe of the
spillway. This is the most frequent one, and shows that a stilling basin (with a depressed
horizontal apron) is required for all discharges in order to produce a jump close to the toe of

the spillway.
Fig 3.2d Condition 3
If the tailwater is very low, ski-jump type dissipator may be provided. But it needs sound
rock at the riverbed, since part of the dissipation takes place by impact; the rest being
dissipated by aeration and diffusion in air.
Condition 4 (T.W.R.C lying below the J.H.C for smaller discharges and lying above y2
curve for larger discharges)
In this case the following measures may be taken to develop jump close to the spillway.
i) Provide a stilling basin with an end sill for developing a jump at low discharges and
combine the basin with a sloping apron for developing a jump at high discharges.
ii) Provide a sloping apron which lies partly above and partly below the riverbed so that
jump will develop at lower portion of the apron at low discharges and at higher portion
of the apron at high discharges.

Fig. [Link] 4

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In this case, the tail water depth is insufficient at low discharges and is greater at high
discharges.
Condition 5(T.W.R.C. lying above the J.H.C for smaller discharges and lying below the
y2 curve for larger discharges)
This condition is just the reverse of condition (4) and the same arrangement that was made
for condition (4) will serve the purpose.
Examples
Discuss the available alternatives of energy dissipation arrangement for a spillway with the
following details:
FRL El 677 m, crest El 662 m, width at toe 52 m, maximum Q 5160 cumec, unit discharge
q 99.2 cumec/m, and acceptable apron elevation El 605 m.

The spillway will be operated with reservoir at FRL, passing discharges lower than the
maximum discharge with partial opening of crest gates. The tailwater rating curve is defined
as curve B in Figure 4.

Calculation of jump-height curve:

Conjugate depth y2 has been calculated as follows:

Height, Eo = 677 m – 605 m = 72 m = yo (Head water maintained by gate operation)

Figure 3 Application ranges of various

energy dissipators:
√
1 Application range, 2 Sweep out
begins, 3 Theoretical curve

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Figure Illustrative example: Alternatives of energy dissipator.

√ √ √

⟹ Corrected yo = 72 – 2.64 = 69.36 m

√ √ √

⟹ Corrected yo = 72 – 2.69 = 69.31 m

√ √ √

⟹
√ √

[√ ] [√ ]

Similarly, values for other discharges have been calculated and shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Calculation of Jump Height Curve

Dischar Unit
ge discharg
Q, e, V1, y1, F1 y2, JH,El E0, yt, Q p*
cumec q, m/s m m m m m Yt/E0
cumec/m
5160 99.2 36.88 2.69 7.18 26.0 631 72 23.2 0.32 0.052
4160 80 37.01 2.16 8.04 23.5 628.5 72 22.0 0.30 0.042
3120 60 37.16 1.61 9.35 20.5 625.5 72 20.5 0.29 0.031
2080 40 37.30 1.07 11.5 16.9 621.9 72 18.5 0.26 0.021

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1040 20 37.44 0.53 16.3 12.1 617.1 72 15.0 0.21 0.010

520 10 37.52 0.27 23.2 8.6 613.6 72 11.0 0.15 0.005

Figure 4 shows the jump-height curve (A) plotted superimposed on the tail water rating curve
(B). It also shows the fence diagram with the theoretical curve for hydraulic jump on
horizontal floor, curve (1) plotted superimposed on the characteristic curve (2). From the
series of application curves (Fig. 3), the one that fits in, at least partly, namely excavated
basin with baffle piers (case B), is also plotted there in. Analysis of the above indicates that:

1. Hydraulic jump will form on the apron proposed at El 605 m, for the discharges
smaller than 3000 cumec. For higher discharges, a deficient jump may form or sweep
out condition may take place.
2. From the series of fence diagrams indicating range of application of various types of
energy dissipators (Fig. 3), the one pertaining to the alternative of the excavated basin
with baffle piers is partly applicable and suggests a stilling basin with baffle piers for
higher discharges. The lower discharges (up to about 60% of the maximum discharge)
however, are not covered by the application range.
3. Incorporating baffle piers in flow velocities as high as 37 m/s, is not advisable from
apprehension of cavitation. This alternative, therefore, cannot be pursued further.
4. One may also consider altering the vertical position of the stilling basin, indicated by
the vertically shifted JH curves, A′ and A′′. The position A′ represents the stilling
basin lowered by about 5 m, making the entire JH curve below the TW curve, so that
hydraulic jump forms for all discharges. The curve A′ is above the TW curve for all
discharges and corresponds to a flip bucket placed about 5 m higher than the elevation
605 m under consideration. Besides ascertaining the suitability of submerged
hydraulic jump for low discharges and competence of rock in the downstream for a
flip bucket proposal, increased cost due to excavation or concreting also should be
considered.
5. A design combining the features of hydraulic jump and flip bucket, i.e. a combination
type energy dissipator, functioning as hydraulic jump stilling basin for low discharges
and flip bucket for high discharges, as shown in Figure 4, may also be suitable. A
provisional decision in regard to the type of the energy dissipator should be based on
considerations of hydraulic performance, site conditions, and cost economics. The
final design could be evolved from model studies.

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CHAPTER 4
GATES AND VALVES
Modern dams are frequently of very large size, requiring the control of great volumes of
water under high head. The problems involved in the development of suitable control works
for modern dams are many and complex. The control equipment’s are usually required for
conduits and spillways. The structures installed either on the crest of spillway or through a
closed conduit to regulate the flow are Gates and valves. They can be made of steel,
reinforced concrete & wood e.t.c . The hydro mechanical control equipment’s are basically of
two types.
1. Hydraulic gate 2. Hydraulic valves
4.1 Hydraulic gates
Hydraulic gates are so constructed that the closing member is completely removed from the
water passage when the gate is fully opened. In hydraulic valves the closing member remains
in the waterway and therefore partially interferes with the water flow. Hydraulic gates are, in
general, classified as:
1. Vertical lift gates 2. Hinged type gates
Vertical lift gates are there in which the operating member moves vertically up and down to
engage or discharge with the sealing element while the hinged gates are those in which the
operating member rotates around a hinge for the same purpose.

4.2.1 Vertical lift gates

These are rectangular gates spanning horizontally between the grooves made in the
supporting piers. The grooves are generally lined with rallied steel channel sections of
appropriate size so as to provide a smooth bearing strength and are known as groove quid’s,
these rectangular gates, consisting of steel members to which a skin plate of steel is attached
on the upstream side or lowered by a hoisting mechanism at the [Link] lift gates can be
classified as follows:
i) slide gates
ii) Wheel or roller mounted gates: Fixed-wheel gates , Stoney gates
iii) High pressure gates
i. Sliding Gates
Sliding gate is the simplest type of vertical lift gates since it has no rotating parts; it is an
economical choice for low head installations of moderate size. Large frictional force due to
sliding motion makes it unsuitable for big size of high heads. When the gate is raised or
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lowered it slides over the groove surface. As a result heavy frictional resistance(sliding
friction) have to be counteracted for lifting the gate against water pressure and hence large
hoisting capacity will be required. The size of this type of gates is therefore limited by the
available hoisting capacity. Moreover on account of these limitations sliding gates are seldom
used.
ii) Wheel or Roller Mounted gates
For high head and large size openings wheel or roller mounted gates are employed in which
the operating member or the gate leaf moves on wheels or rollers to engage with the reeling
element.
a) Fixed wheel gates
Wheels are attaches to the gate along each end and it travels on vertical tracks provided on
the downstream surface of the gate grooves. Thus as compared to sliding gates the frictional
resistance is considerably reduced. However, both axle & rolling friction are developed.
b) Stony gate or free roller gate
They Have Been frequently and successfully used for can pressure intakes as well as for
flood gates. A train of rollers is provided in between the gate and the groove on each side.
The roller train is attached neither to the gate nor to the groove bat rolls between the two as
the gate moves. As a result, in this case, only friction is developed.
For both fixed-wheel and stoney gates rubben sheet or belting is used along the sides on the
upstream face of the gate to real the openings between the gate and the sides of the pien. All
vertical lift gates are counter balanced by a counter weight beam which is loaded to balance
almost the eatire dead weight of the gate. The lifting force is therefore, required to balance
only the frictional resistance. These gates are operated from an overhead plat from by
winches which can be worked manually or by power.
iii) High pressure gates
High-pressure gates are used as emergency gates or regulating gates in outlet works of dams,
penstocks, or conduits against high heads. These gates are encased in closed frame embedded
in concrete and covered by bonnet. The following are the most common types of high-
pressure gates: Continuous skin plate gates /vertical lift gate, Ring follower gates, Ring seal
gates and Jet flow gates.
a) continuous skin plate gates
They generally used in outlet works of dams. Commouty a combination of two gates, the
upstream one as a regulating gate, is used. These gates can with stand a head of more than
80m as an emergency gate and more than 60 m as regulating gate. These gates have
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rectangular gate leaf of box girder construction generally mounted on wheels or rollers in
such a way that there is minimum friction. A high maintenance chamber around the gate
allows easy inspection and replacement of tarts. These gates are provided with air inlet
connection on downstream side. These gates are operated by hydraulic cylinder hoist using
oil as medium. The gate lef is raised vertically in to the bonnet when oil is forced in to the
hydraulic cylinder above it, at pressure between 50 Kg/cm2 and 100 kg/cm2 raising the piston
to which the gate leaf is connected
Solid rubber blocks mounted on the sides and top of a vertical lift gate are generally
employed to provide a water tight real. For optimum condition, it is best to contract the
pressure conduit upstream of the gate and to provide deflectors downstream to aid aeration as
an articaritation measure. The conduit face downstream of the get slot should be protected
against cauritation.
b) Ring Follower Gates
They are sliding type of gates. These are primarily used as emergency gates in closed
conduits and are installed upstream of regulating or service gates. Vertically morale
rectangular gate leaf of height more than double the gate opening carries a circular opening in
its lower portion. When the gate leaf is raised, the opening coincides with the conduit and an
unobstructed from is obtained. When the gate leaf is lowered, the portion carrying the
opening moves below the conduit and the upper portion of the gate leaf stops the flow. It is
kept either fully open or fully closed & is not suitable for partial opening. The gate is
operated by a hydraulic cylinder having piston connected to the gate leaf by stem passing
through a packing in the gate housing body.
c) Ring Seal Gates
They are used either as emergency or service gates these are installed upstream of turbines in
penstocks or upstream of regulating valves in closed conduits. They are never used as
regulating gates as they are not suitable for partially open positions. The general arrangement
of ring real gate is similar to that of ring follower gate with the following differences.
 The gate leaf is mounted on wheels or rollers
 The upper portion of the gate leaf which stops the flow forms a bulkhead section, i.e.
section not only suitable for emergency closure but strong enough to serve as service
gate.
d) Jet flow Gates

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Jet flow gates are used as regulating gates in conduits at their discharge end or at any inter
mediate point. The main difference between this type of gate and other types is the fact that
flowing water is kept away from gate slots by making it pass through the gate opening in the
form of a jet. A jet is created by prevision of a nozzle such that the issuing jet slips over the
gate slots without touching downstream edge of the slot. From a point approximately one
diameter upstream of the face of the gate leaf the conduit is flared outward at a slope of 1 in
12 to a diameter of 120 percent. From this point the nozzle is sloped at an angle of 450 with
the axial center line of the conduit to produce a jet. Hence water shoots out from the nozzle as
in the case of an orifice, springs clear of the gate slots and strikes the bottom of the conduit
downstream of the gate slot. The gate leaf is similar to that of a fixed wheel gate. The leaf is
mounted on wheels to reduce friction.
4.2.2 HINGED GATES
The following are the common types of hinged gates:
i) Radial Gate
ii) Drum Gate
iii) Flap Gate
i) Radial Gates
They are also known as tainter gates or sector gates. Radial gates are the most widely used
type of spillway crest gates and usually the most reliable and least expensive. The gate leaf
consists of a curved skin plate shaped so as to form a sector of a curved surface of a
horizontal cylinder. The skin plate is supported at the two ends of the gate span on end beams
which are in turn supported on radial arms converging on pin bearing mounted on horizontal
pins (trunnions) attached to the piers. Radial gates are usually operated by means of hoisting
cables provided at both span ends of the gate leaf and lead to winches on the platform above
the gate. The winches are usually motor driven. Close fitting rubber seals are provided on the
gate sides and bottom.
Since skin plate which supports water is cylindrical, the resultant water pressure acting on it
passes through its center and hence in this gate the resultant water pressure creates no
moment against the lifting of the gate. Radial gates have the following advantages. Friction is
concentrated at the pin and is much less than that for sliding gates. Since the trunnion bears
part of the load, the hoisting loads are nearly constant for all gate openings and are much less
than for vertical lift gates of the same size. Other advantages of tainter gate over vertical lift
(sliding gates) are:
 Smaller hoist
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 Increased speed of raising

 Higher stiffness
 Lower piers
 Absence of gate slot
 Less prone to vibration
However, they require longer and thicker piers.
ii) Drum Gates
Consists of a segment of a cylinder which fits in a recess on the top of the spillway, when the
gate is in an open position. For lifting the gate in its closed position, water is admitted in to
the recess to create a buoyant force. Because of the large recess (cavity) required by drum
gates in the lowered position, they are not used for small dams.
Drum gates on dam crests are usually of the u/s hinge type, with the hinge about 0.25H above
the d/s gate sill and a radius of curvature r  H . the heads can be as high as 10m and the
span 65m (long span gate). Controlling device may be manual or automatic.
iii) Flap Gates
Simplest and most frequently used type of regulating gates used on their own or in
conjunction with vertical lift gates. They were developed as a replacement for wooden flash
boards. Flop gates when used on their own, span up to 30m and used for heads as high as 6m.
For larger spans several flaps connected to each other. They provide fair level of regulation
and easy flushing of debris.
4.3 Hydraulic valves /control valves/
The distinguishing feature of valves from gates is that they are constructed in such a way that
the closing member remains in the water passage way for all operating positions.
The Needle valve
These are intended to operate at the downstream end of an outlet conduit under free discharge
conditions and extremely high heads (up to 215m). The needle valve consists of an outer
globular casting housing cylindrical inner mechanism consisting of a movable closed cylinder
telescoping over a stationary cylinder. The discharge end of the annular passage is closed
when hydrostatic pressure is supplied to the proper chamber inside the cylinder. Needle
points are provided at the u/s and d/s face of the cylindrical mechanism to guide the water
flow. The pressure required for operation is supplied by a compensating value located
beneath the body of the main value.
Tube Valve

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It is essentially a needle valve with the tip of the d/s or morable needle eliminated. It was
designed to minimize the cavitation erosion which developed at the d/s end of the valve.
They are designed for discharge regulation for heads up to 90m. They have low coefficient of
discharge. These valves are not satisfactory for all regulated openings as the jet is rough
unstable up to 35% openings. They also have problem of vibration at nearly full openings and
nearly closed positions.
Hollow- Jet Valves
It is essentially a needle valve with the movable or closing needle pointed u/s and the d/s
portion of the body eliminated, thus allowing the water to discharge from the bell-shaped
body in a tubular or hollow part. This is called hollow-jet valve because the jet as it leaves the
valve is in the form of a longitudinal slotted tube or segmental jet have better coefficient of
discharge than needle or tube valves. They are intended for heads up to 305m. There valves
should not be operated at openings less than 5% for long periods because of risk of caritation.
Butterfly Valves
These are simple, rugged, economical valves used to shut off flow in a penstock or outlet
conduit. It is essentially a circular leaf, slightly convex in form mounted on a transverse shaft
carried by two bearings in the valve body. Butterfly valves are occasionally installed as
regulating controls for low head discharges, but their primary use is as service or quard gate
in power penstocks immediately u/s from the turbine some of these valves have been
designed to operate under a head greater than 300m. When used for emergency closure it
operates either fully open or closed and not as partially open.
Fixed-cone Valves (Howell-Bunger)
This is the most frequently used type of regulating valve installed at the end of outlets
discharging into the atmosphere. It consists of a fixed 900 cone disperser, with the axis
horizontal, u/s of which is the opening covered by a sliding cylindrical sleeve. A movable
external horizontal sleeve controls the discharge by varying the opening between the sleeve
and the cone. The discharge is in the form of a diverging hollow conical jet.
It has been used for heads up to 250m, & when fully open its discharge coefficient is 0.85-
0.90. The fully opened valve area is about 0.8 of the conduit area. This type of valve is cheap
but causes lots of spray. When the spray cannot be tolerated, a hood or discharge quide is
installed to confine & redirect the discharge.

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5. DAM SAFETY
5.1 Introduction to Dam safety
Dam Safety is the art and science of ensuring the integrity and viability of dams such that
they do not present unacceptable risks to the public, property and the environment. It requires
the collective application of engineering principles and experience, and a philosophy of risk
management that recognizes that a dam is a structure whose safe functioning is not explicitly
determined by its original design and construction. It also includes all actions taken to
routinely monitor, evaluate, identify or predict dam safety issues and consequences related to
failure including ensuring all reservoir regulation activities are performed in accordance with
established water control plans. These actions are to be performed in concert with activities to
document, publicize, and remediate to the extent reasonably practicable any unacceptable
risks.
4.2 Dam instrumentation and monitoring
Instrumentation and monitoring combined with vigilant visual observation can provide early
warning of many conditions that could contribute to dam failures and incidents. For example,
settlement of an embankment crest may increase the likelihood of overtopping; increased
seepage could indicate piping; settlement of an embankment crest slopes could indicate
deformation; inelastic movement of concrete structures could indicate. Instrumentation and
monitoring must be carefully planned and executed to meet defined objectives.
Instrumentation for long-term monitoring should be rugged and easy to maintain and should
be capable of being verified. Instrumentation typically provides data to:
 characterize site conditions before construction
 verify design and analysis assumptions
 evaluate behavior during construction, first filling and operation of the structure
 evaluate performance of specific design features
 observe performance of known geological and structural anomalies and
 Evaluate performance with respect to potential site-specific failure modes.
Installation of instruments data by itself does not improve dam safety. Instruments must be
carefully selected, located, and installed. Data must be conscientiously collected,
meticulously reduced, tabulated, and must be judiciously evaluated with respect to the safety
of the dam in a timely manner. A poorly planned program will produce unnecessary data that
the dam owner will waste time and money collecting and interpreting, often resulting in
disillusionment and abandonment of the program

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The potential hazard associated with tailings dams and lagoons are raised very significantly
by several factors. Those are:
o The risk of tailings dams breaching may be much enhanced by inadequate levels of
supervision and surveillance
o The environmental and economic consequences of serious breaching are frequently
heightened by the toxic nature of the outflow
o A tailings dam or lagoon may be discontinued and left unsupervised, following the
cessation of active operation.
Suites of instruments may for convenience be classified according to the primary function of
the installation.
1. Construction control: verification of critical design parameters with immediate looped
feedback to design and construction.
2. Post-construction performance: validation of design; determination of initial or datum
behavioral pattern.
3. Service performance/surveillance: reassurance as to structural adequacy; detection of
regressive change in established behavioral pattern; investigation of identified or suspected
problems.
4. Research/development: academic research; equipment proving and development.
Parameters in monitoring dam behavior
The most significant parameters in monitoring dam behavior are as follows:
 Seepage and leakage
 Settlement and loss of freeboard in embankments
 External and internal deformation (magnitude, rate, location);
 Pour water pressures and uplift
Instrumentation planning
The planning and specification of a comprehensive suite of instruments involves a logical
sequence of decisions:
1. Definition of the primary purpose and objectives;
2. Definition of observations appropriate to the dam considered;
3. Determination of the locations and numbers of measuring points for the desired
observations;
4. Consideration of the time period to be spanned, i.e. long- or short term monitoring;
5. Consideration of the optimum sensing mode in relation to the desired rapidity of response.
6. Selection of hardware appropriate to the task
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5.3 Surveillance
Dams of all types require regular surveillance if they are to be maintained in a safe and
operationally efficient state. As with all structures, they are subject to a degree of long-term
but progressive deterioration. Some of the latter may be superficial in relation to structural
integrity, but the possibility of concealed and serious internal deterioration must be
considered. Older dams will have been designed and constructed to standards which may no
longer be considered adequate, e.g. in terms of their spillway discharge capacity or structural
stability. The primary objective of surveillance is to minimize the possibility of catastrophic
failure of the dam by the timely detection of design inadequacies or regressive changes in
behavior. A further objective is to assist in the schedulina of routine maintenance or, when
necessary, of major remedial works. Surveillance embraces the regular and frequent
observation and recording of all aspects of the service performance of a dam and its reservoir.
It includes routine observation and inspection, the monitoring and assessment of seepage and
instrumentation data and the recording of all other relevant information, including
hydrological records.
5.4 Hazard and risk assessment
Risk is defined as a measure of the probability and severity of undesirable consequences or
outcome. Classification of reservoir hazard in terms of the scale of human and economic loss
to be anticipated in the event of a catastrophic dam failure is increasingly common. An
element of discretion may then be applied in defining the surveillance regime to be applied to
a specific dam. The limitations implicit in such subjective appraisal and classification are
evident. A more rigorous assessment of reservoir hazard and associated risks has the potential
to significantly enhance the effectiveness of dam surveillance programs.
The nominal hazard level can be expressed adequately in terms of the estimated risk of
catastrophic breaching and/or the predicted worst-event screening level assessment of the
absolute risk represented by an individual dam and reservoir. Absolute risk is then compared
with the standards for public safety deemed applicable in other contexts such as high-hazard
industries and acceptability determined. The estimated absolute risk can also be ranked
relative to that determined for other reservoirs within a population. The procedure requires
estimation of the annual probability of failure associated with:
1. An extreme rainfall event;
2. Presence of an upstream reservoir;
3. Loss of internal stability (embankment and appurtenant works (e.g. outlet works));
4. a matrix of other significant threats (e.g. seismicity etc.).
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Evaluating and reducing risk requires a framework that explicitly evaluates the level of risk if
no action is taken and recognizes the monetary and non-monetary costs and benefits of
reducing risks when making decisions. This decision framework requires separating the
whole of risk into its component tasks by assessing the risk and related uncertainties for the
purpose of successful management of the risk, facilitated by effective communication about
the risks. In this way, the risk framework comprises three tasks: risk assessment, risk
management, and risk communication.
Risk Assessment.
Risk assessment is a broad term that encompasses a variety of analytic techniques that are
used in different situations, depending upon the nature of the risk, the available data, and
needs of decision makers. It is a systematic, evidence-based approach for quantifying and
describing the nature, likelihood, and magnitude of risk associated with the existing and
future conditions without action and the values of the risk resulting from a changed condition
due to some action.
Risk Management.
Risk management is the process of problem-finding and initiating action to identify, evaluate,
select, implement, monitor and modify actions taken to alter levels of risk, as compared to
taking no action. The purpose of risk management is to choose and implement those
technically sound integrated actions to reduce risks after consideration of the effectiveness
and costs of each increment of risk reduction.
Risk Communication.
Risk communication is the open, two-way exchange of information, opinion, and preferences
about hazards and risks leading to a better understanding of the risks and better risk
management decisions. Risk communication is integrated into the assessment and
management processes. It is not a task that occurs only after decisions have been made. Risk
communication ensures that the decision makers, other stakeholders, and affected parties
understand and appreciate the process of risk assessment and in so doing can be fully
engaged in and responsible for risk management.
 RISK components are:
 CONSEQUENCE: How much harm?
 VULNERABILITY: How susceptible to harm?
 EXPOSURE: Who & What are in harm’s way?
 PERFORMANCE: How will the system react?
 HAZARD: What can cause harm?
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