Chapter 4: Destructive Testing
Welding Inspector
Destructive tests can be divided into two groups, those used to:
• Measure a mechanical property - quantitative tests
• Assess the joint quality - qualitative tests
Material Properties
Strength Ability to Bear a Load before Fracture
Tensile Strength Measurement of the maximum force required to fracture a
materials bar of unit cross sectional area in tension
Hardness Resistance to PLASTIC (or PERMANENT) Deformation which
Includes Indentation, Scratching, or Marking
- Measurement of a materials surface resistance to indentation
from another material by static load
Toughness Resistance to both ELASTIC and PLASTIC Deformation
-Ability of a material to withstand bending or the application of
shear stresses by impact loading without fracture.
Ductility Extent of Permanent or Plastic Deformation that a Material
Undergoes Before Fracture. Two Measures of Ductility: %
Elongation, % Reduction in Area
- Ability of a material undergo plastic deformation under static
tensile loading without rupture.
Brittleness Brittleness is the tendency of a material to fracture or fail upon
the application of a relatively small amount of force, impact, or
shock (Brittleness is the opposite of toughness)
Elasticity Ability to Restore to Original Shape and Size after Removal of
External Deforming Loads
Plasticity Malleability is the property of metal associated with the ability
(Malleability) to be hammered into a thin sheet without breaking, ability to
deform under compressive stress.
-Ability of a material to withstand deformation under static
compressive loading without rupture
Creep: Permanent Deformation and/or Failure of a Component when
Subjected to High Stresses at High Temperature i.e. Turbine
Disk and Blades
Quantitative Testing
Tensile Test
Test Objective Method Acceptance Crieteria
Name
Transve Transverse tensile Tensile -If test piece breaks in the weld
rse tests to show that Strength of metal,
the strength of the Weldment calculated strength is not less than
Tensile joint satisfies the Ductility, the min. tensile strength specified
Test design criterion. Test sample ( (min specified for base metal)
EN 895, full -If the test specimen breaks
thickness of outside the weld or fusion zone at
the joint, a stress above 95% of the
tramsverse minimum base metal strength the
direction) test result is acceptable.
All-weld -Particularly for Yield (Re) or Tensile ductility is measured in two
tensile elevated proof stress ways:
tests temperature (Rp) are -Percent elongation of the gauge
designs measured by length.
-The test is to an -Percent reduction of area at the
measure tensile extensometer point of fracture.
strength and also attached to --To calculate elongation = change
yield (or proof the parallel in length/original length * 100 %
strength) and length of the --To calculate UTS =Load/CSA
tensile ductility. specimen
-also by welding that
consumable accurately
manufacturers for measures the
electrodes and extension of
filler wires the gauge
length as the
load is
increased.
Machined
from welds
parallel with
their
longitudinal
axis and the
specimen
gauge length
must be
100% weld
metal.
Impact Test
Charpy V notch
Objective: Design engineers need to ensure that the toughness of the steel used for a
particular item will be sufficient to avoid brittle fracture in service
C-Mn and low alloy steels undergo a sharp change in their resistance to brittle fracture as
their temperature is lowered so that a steel that may have very good toughness at ambient
temperature may show extreme brittleness at sub zero temperatures
The transition temperature is defined as the temperature midway between the upper shelf
(maximum toughness) and lower shelf (completely brittle).
Test Specimen: Standard dimensions for smaller sized specimens, for example 10 x 7.5mm
and 10 x 5mm
• Specimens are machined from welded test plates with the notch position located in
different positions according to the testing requirements but typically in the center of the
weld metal and at positions across the HAZ
Method:
• Test specimens are cooled to the specified test temperature by immersion in an
insulated bath containing a liquid held at the test temperature.
• it is quickly transferred to the anvil of the test machine and a pendulum hammer quickly
released so that the specimen experiences an impact load behind the notch.
• The energy absorbed in Joules
Acceptance criteria:
• Each test result is recorded and an average value calculated for each set of three tests.
• After impact testing, examination of the test specimens provides additional information
about their toughness characteristics and may be added to the test report:
• Percent crystallinity: % of the fracture face that has crystalline appearance which
indicates brittle fracture; 100% indicates completely brittle fracture.
• Lateral expansion: Increase in width of the back of the specimen behind the notch, as
indicated below; the larger the value the tougher the specimen.
• A specimen that exhibits extreme brittleness will show a clean break, both halves of the
specimen having a completely flat fracture face with little or no lateral expansion.
• A specimen that exhibits very good toughness will show only a small degree of crack
extension, without fracture and a high value of lateral expansion.
Hardness Testing
Objective: The hardness of a metal is its’ resistance to plastic deformation, determined by
measuring the resistance to indentation by a particular type of indenter.
Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking and corrosion sensitivity.
A steel weldment with hardness above a certain maximum may be susceptible to cracking
• Specimens prepared for macroscopic examination can also be used for taking hardness
measurements at various positions of the weldments, referred to as a hardness survey.
Methods:
There are three widely used methods:
• Vickers - uses a square-based diamond pyramid indenter.
• Rockwell - uses a diamond cone indenter or steel ball.
• Brinell - uses a ball indenter.
The hardness value is given by the size of the indentation produced under a standard load, the
smaller the indentation, the harder the metal.
The Brinell method gives an indentation too large to accurately measure the hardness in
specific regions of the HAZ and is mainly used to measure the hardness of base metals.
Hardness survey
• Specimens prepared for macroscopic examination can also be used for taking hardness
measurements at various positions of the weldments
• Base metal (on both sides of the weld)
• Weld metal
• Across the HAZ (on both sides of the weld).
• Both Vickers and Rockwell methods are suitable for hardness survey
Results:
• 240HV10 = hardness 240, Vickers method, 10kg indenter load
• 22HRC = hardness 22, Rockwell method, diamond cone indenter (scale C)
• 238HBW = hardness 238, Brinell method, tungsten ball indenter.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type.
• Location of indentation.
• Type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter.
• Hardness value.
Crack tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) Testing
Objective: CTOD test measures a material property - fracture toughness while Charpy V notch
measure brittle fracture
Fracture toughness data enables engineers:
• Calculating the size of a crack that would initiate a brittle fracture under certain stress
conditions at a particular temperature.
• The stress that would cause a certain sized crack to give a brittle fracture at a particular
temperature.
Specimens: Rectangular or square shaped bar cut transverse to the axis of the butt weld.
• A V notch is machined at the center of the bar, which will be coincident with the test
position, weld metal or HAZ.
• A shallow saw cut is made at the bottom of the notch and the specimen put into a machine
that induces a cyclic bending load until a shallow fatigue crack initiates from the saw cut.
Method: CTOD specimens are usually tested at a temperature below ambient
• A load is applied to the specimen to cause bending and induce a concentrated stress at
the tip of the crack
• Clip gauge, attached to the specimen across the mouth of the machined notch, gives a
reading of the increase in width of the crack mouth as the load is gradually increased.
• Carry out three tests
• Fracture toughness is expressed as the distance the crack tip opens without initiation of
a brittle crack.
Acceptance Criteria:
• An application standard or client may specify a minimum CTOD value that indicates ductile
tearing.
• Alternatively, for an engineering critical assessment (ECA).
• A very tough steel weldment will allow the mouth of the crack to open widely by ductile
tearing at the tip of the crack
• whereas a very brittle weldment will tend to fracture when the applied load is quite low and
without any extension at the tip of the crack.
• CTOD values are expressed in millimeters - typical values might be
• <<~0.1mm = brittle behavior
• >~1mm = very tough behavior.
Qualitative Testing
Bending Test
Objective: Bend tests routinely taken from welding procedure qualification test pieces and
sometimes welder qualification test pieces.
• Verifying there are no significant flaws in the joint
• Degree of ductility is also demonstrated
• It is not measured but shown to be satisfactory if test specimens can withstand being
bent without fracture or fissures above a certain length.
Specimens:
There are four types of bend specimen:
• Face: Taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent so that the
face of the weld is on the outside of the bend (face in tension). face opposite to applied
load
• Root: Taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent so that the
root of the weld is on the outside of the bend (root in tension). root opposite to applied load
• Side: Taken as a transverse slice (~10mm) from the full thickness of butt welds >~12mm
and bent so that the full joint thickness is tested (side in tension). Gives accurate
indications
• Longitudinal bend: Taken with axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of a butt weld; specimen
thickness is ~12mm and the face or root of weld may be tested in tension.
Q. Bend test specimens have been taken from a 25 mm thick carbon steel butt weld. Which would
show lack of inter-run fusion? Side bend
side wall fusion -> face bend
root defect -> root bend
all defects -> side and longitudinal bend
Method: Guided bend test used for welding procedure and welder qualification
• Guided means that the strain imposed on the specimen is uniformly controlled by being bent
around a former with a certain diameter.
• Diameter of the former used for a particular test is specified in the code
• expressed as a multiple of the specimen thickness (t)
• E.g., for C-Mn steel is typically 4t but for materials that have lower tensile ductility the
radius of the former may be greater than 10t.
• Test method will specify the minimum bend angle the specimen must experience and is
typically 120-180°
Acceptance Criteria:
• Bend tests pieces should exhibit satisfactory soundness by not showing cracks or any signs
of significant fissures or cavities on the outside of the bend.
• Small indications less than about 3mm in length may be allowed by some standards.
Fracture tests
Fillet weld fractures
Objective: The quality/soundness of a fillet weld can be assessed by fracturing test pieces
and examining the fracture surfaces.
• Welder qualification testing (WQT) according to European Standards as an alternative
to macroscopic examination.
• But not used for welding procedure qualification
Specimens:
• A test weld is cut into short (typically ~50mm) lengths and a longitudinal notch
machined into the specimen
• The notch profile may be square, V or U shape.
Method:
Specimens are made to fracture through their throat by dynamic strokes (hammering) or by
pressing.
The welding standard or application standard will specify the number of tests (typically
four).
Acceptance criteria:
The standard for welder qualification, or application standard, will specify the acceptance
criteria for imperfections such as
• Lack of penetration into the root of the joint
• Solid inclusions and porosity that are visible on the fracture surfaces.
• Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture and
location of any imperfection.
Butt weld fractures (nick-break tests)
Objective: The quality/soundness of a butt weld can be assessed by fracturing test pieces
and examining the fracture surfaces.
• welder qualification testing to European Standards as an alternative to radiography
• Not used for welding procedure qualification testing.
Specimens:
• Taken from a butt weld and notched so that the fracture path will be in the central
region of the weld.
Method: Test pieces are made to fracture by hammering or three-point bending
Acceptance criteria:
The standard for welder qualification, or application standard, will specify the acceptance
criteria for imperfections such as
• Lack of penetration into the root of the joint
• Solid inclusions and porosity that are visible on the fracture surfaces.
• Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture and
location of any imperfection.
Macroscopic Examination
Transverse sections from butt and fillet welds are required by the European Standards for
welding procedure qualification testing
And may be required for some welder qualification testing for assessing the quality of the
welds.
Q. What destructive test would be required to ascertain the likelihood of cracking in the heat
affected zone of a weld? Macro Test
Macro to examine the weld cross-section to give assurance that:
• The weld has been made in accordance with the WPS.
• The weld is free from defects
Micro to examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to:
• To examine the microstructure.
• Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection
Will reveal:
• Weld soundness.
• Distribution of inclusions.
• Number of weld passes.
• Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ.
• Location and depth of penetration of weld.
• Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions.
Macro Micro
Visual examination for defects Visual examination for defects and
grain structure
Cut transverse from the weld Cut transverse from a weld.
Ground and polished P400 grit Ground and polished P1200 grit
paper paper, 1µm paste
Acid etch using 5-10% nitric acid Acid etch using 1-5% nitric acid
solution solution
Wash and dry Wash and dry
Visual evaluation under 5x Visual evaluation under 100-1000x
magnification magnification
Report on results Report on results.
Metallographic Examination
Objectives:
• Detecting weld defects (macro).
• Measuring grain size (micro).
• Detecting brittle structures, precipitates, etc.
• Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking and corrosion sensitivity
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type.
• Etching solution
• Magnification
• Grain size
• Location of examined area
• Weld imperfections (macro)
• Phase, constituents, precipitates (micro).
European Standards for destructive test methods
BS EN ISO 9016 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - impact
tests - test specimen location, notch orientation and
examination.
BS EN ISO 4136 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials -
transverse tensile test.
BS EN ISO 5173 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - bend
+A1 tests.
BS EN ISO Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - macro
17639 and microscopic examination of welds.
BS EN ISO Metallic materials - Tensile testing. Part 1: Method of test
6892-1 at ambient temperature.
BS EN ISO Tensile testing of metallic materials. Part 5: Method of
6892-2 test at elevated temperatures.
Extra
Transverse Tensile Joint Test: Done on the request of Welding Inspector
Short Transverse Reduction Area Test: Done by Material Inspector
All Weld Metal Tensile Test: Done by Electrode Manufacture Company
Austenitic Stainless steel: High coefficient of thermal expansion but Low thermal conductivity.
Carbon steel: Low coefficient of thermal expansion but High thermal conductivity.
Brittle: Flat & Featureless, rough surface, Crystalline, Bright
Ductile: Rough and Torn (Cup & Cone Fracture, Sheer Lips)
Fatigue: Smooth, Beech mark, Cyclic loading
Codes and Standards
Important Standards:
• BS EN 970 (17637) = Visual Inspection
• BS EN 22553 = Symbols
• AWS 2.4 = Symbols
• BS EN 15607 = Types of joint
• BS EN 7570 = For calibration
• BS EN 287/ 9606 = Welder Approval
• BS EN 288 /15614 = Welding procedures Approval
• AWS D.1.1 = Structural Steel Welding Code
• BS EN 15614-2= Welding procedure for aluminum and Alloy
• BSEN 287-1 = HLO45 Position
• BS EN 2560 = MMA electrode
Welding process code:
• MMA 111
• SAW 121
• MIG 131
• MAG 135
• TIG 141