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MODULE 2
STRESSES IN SOIL
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Boussinesq‟s Theory
2.3 Vertical stresses due to a concentrated load
2.4 Stress Isobar or pressure bulb
2.5 Pressure distribution
2.6 Vertical stress due to a line load
2.7 Vertical stress due to a Strip load
2.8 Vertical Stress under a uniform loaded circular area
2.9 Uniform load on rectangular area
2.10 Westergaard‟s Solution
2.11 Newmark‟s Influence Chart
2.12 Contact pressure
2.13 Assignment Questions
2.14 Outcomes
2.15 Further reading

2.0 Objectives
• To determine magnitude of stresses in soils
•

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To apply various theories and methods to determine stresses in soils
• To understand contact pressure and pressure distribution in soils
• To Estimate settlement in soils

2.1Introduction

Stresses in soil are caused due to

a) Self weight of soil

b) Structural loads, applied at or below the surface

The estimation of vertical stresses at any point in a soil mass due to external loading
is essential to the prediction of settlements of buildings, bridges and pressure.

The stresses induced in a soil due to applied loads depend upon its Stress – Strain
characteristics. The stress strain behaviour of soils is extremely complex and it
depend upon a large number of factors, such as drainage conditions, water content,
void ratio, rate of loading, the load level, and the stress path. However simplifying
assumptions are generally made in the analysis of soil behaviour to obtain stresses. It
is generally assumed

that the soil mass is homogeneous and isotropic. The stress strain relationship is
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assumed to be linear. The theory of elasticity is used to determine the stresses in the
soil mass. Though it involves considerable simplification of real soil behaviour and
the stresses computed are approximate, the results are good enough for soil problems
usually encountered in the practice.

Fig.2.1 Typical Stress-strain curve for soils

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2.2 Boussinesq’s Theory / Solution

Boussinesq (1885) has given the solution for the stresses caused by the application of
the point load at the surface of a elastic medium with the aid of the mathematical
theory of elasticity.

3.3.1 Assumptions

1) The soil medium is an elastic continuum having a constant value of modulus of elasticity
(E). i.e. it obeys Hooke‟s law
2) The soil is homogeneous, i.e. it has identical elastic properties at all points in identical
directions.
3) The soil is isotropic, i.e. it has identical elastic properties in all direction at a point.
4) The soil mass is semi-infinite, i.e. it extends to infinity in the downward directions and
lateral directions. In other words, it is limited on its top but a horizontal plane and extends
to infinity in all other directions.

5) The self weight of the soil is ignored.

6) The soil is initially unstressed i.e. it is free from residual stresses before the application
of the load.
7) The top surface of the medium is free of shear stresses and is subjected to only the point
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load at a specified location.
8) Continuity of stress is considered to exist in the medium.
9) The stresses are distributed symmetrically with respect to z axis (vertical axis).

2.3Vertical stresses due to a concentrated load

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Fig.2.2 Derivation of vertical stress at a point due to point load acting on the
ground surface

Figure 3.2 shows a horizontal surface of an elastic continuum subject to a point load
Q at a point O. Using logarithmic stress function for solution of elasticity problem,
Bossinesq proved that the polar stress σR at point P is given by
(3.1)

where R = Polar distance between the origin O and point t

= angle which the line OP makes with the vertical

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5) In actual practice, foundation loads are not applied directly on the ground surface. However, it
has been established that the Boussinesq‟ s solution can be applied conservatively to field problems
concerning loads at shallow depths, provided the distance „z‟ is measured from the point of
application of the load.
6) Boussinesq‟ s solution can even be used for negative (upward) loads. For example if the vertical
stress decrease due to an excavation is required, the negative load is equal to the weight of the soil
removed. However, as the soil is not fully elastic the stresses determined are (necessarily)
approximate.
7) The field measurements indicate that the actual stresses are generally smaller than the theoretical
values given by Boussinesq‟ s solution especially at shallow depths. Thus, the Boussinesq‟ s
solution gives conservative values and is commonly used in soil engineering problems.

LIMITATIONS

1) The solution was derived assuming the soil as an elastic medium, but the soil doesnot
behave as an elastic material.
2) When the stress decrease occurs in soil, the relation between the stress and the strain is not
linear as assumed, therefore, the solution is not strictly applicable.
3) In deep sand deposits, the modulus of elasticity increases with an increase in depth and

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therefore, the Boussinesq‟s solution will not give satisfactory results.
4) The point loads applied below ground surface causes somewhat smaller stresses than are
caused by surface loads, and, therefore, the solution is not strictly applicable.

Numerical Example
1) Find intensity of vertical pressure at a point 3 m directly below 25 kN point load acting on a
horizontal ground surface. What will be the vertical pressure at a point 2m horizontally away
from the axis of loading and at same depth of 3 m? Use Boussinesq‟s equation.

Solution:

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2.4 Stress Isobar or pressure bulb

An „isobar‟ is a stress contour or a curve which connects all points below the ground
surface at which the vertical pressure is the same. An isobar is a spatial curved surface
and resembles a bulb in shape. The stress isobar is also called „pressure bulb‟.

Any number of pressure bulb may be drawn for any applied load, since each one
corresponds to an arbitrarily chosen value of stress. The isobar of a particular intensity
can be obtained by:

An isobar consisting of a system of isobars appears somewhat as shown in Fig.

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Fig. 2.3 Pressure bulb for a point load

2.5.1 Procedure

The procedure for plotting an isobar is as follows:

Let it be required to plot an isobar for which z= 0.1Q per unit area (10 % isobar)

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We know that
Assuming various values of z, the corresponding IB values are computed. For the
values of IB, the corresponding r/z values are determined and hence the values of r are
obtained.

An isobar is symmetrical about the load axis, the other half can be drawn from
symmetry. When r = 0, IB = 0.4775; the isobar crosses the line of action of the load at a
depth of

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The shape of an isobar approaches a lemniscates curve (not circle) as shown in
Fig.3.3 The calculations are best performed in the form of a table as given
below:
When r = 0

TABLE 3.1 DATA FOR ISOBAR OF Z= 0.1Q PER UNIT AREA

Depth Z (units) Influence r/Z r (units) z

coefficient )*
0.5 0.0250 1.501 0.750 0.1Q
1.0 0.1000 0.932 0.932 0.1Q
1.5 0.2550 0.593 0.890 0.1Q
2.0 0.4000 0.271 0.542 0.1Q
2.185 0.4775 0 0 0.1Q

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2.5 Pressure distribution

It is possible to calculate the following pressure distribution by Eq.3.5 of

Boussinesq and present them graphically

2.5.1 Vertical pressure distribution on horizontal plane

The vertical stress on horizontal plane at depth „z‟ is given by

Z being a specified depth

For several assumed values of r, r/Z is calculated and the influence factor IB,
is found for each, the value of is then computed.

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Fig.2.4 Vertical pressure distribution on horizontal plane

Theoretically, the stress approaches zero at infinity. However, practically it reaches a

negligible value at a short finite distance. The maximum pressure ordinate is
relatively high at shallow elevations and it decreases with increase depth. In other
words, the bell shaped fig flattens out with increasing depth. The vertical stress
distribution diagram on a horizontal plane can also be obtained graphically if the
isobars of different intensities are available. The horizontal plane is drawn on the
isobar diagram. The points of intersection of the horizontal plane with the isobar of a
particular intensity give that vertical stress.

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Vertical stress distribution on a vertical plane
The vertical stress distribution on a vertical plane at a radial distance of „r‟ can be
obtained from

The variation of vertical stress with depth at a constant radial distance from the axis
of the load is as shown in Fig.3.5

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a) directly under the point load b) at a distance from point load
Fig.2.5 Vertical pressure distribution on vertical plane
In this case radial distance „r‟ is constant and the depth „z‟ changes. As z increases, r/z
decreases, for a constant value of „r‟. As r/z decreases +, value in the equation for z

increases, but, since E is involved in the denominator of the expression for z, its value first
increases with depth, attains a maximum value, and then decreases with further increase in
depth.

The maximum vertical stress occur at r/Z=[Link] corresponds to the point of intersection of
0
the vertical plane with the line drawn at 39 13‟53.5” to the vertical axis of the load.
Vertical stress due to a line load

Certain road and rail traffic loads, and loads from walls may be resolved into line load,
which has length along a given line but not breadth (theoretical)

The vertical stress in a soil mass due to a vertical line load can be obtained using
boussinesq‟s solution. Let the vertical line load be of intensity q per unit length, along
the y axis, acting onthe surface of a semi-infinite soil mass as shown in Fig.

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Fig.2.6 Vertical stress due to a line load

Let us consider the load acting on a small length dy. The load can be taken as a point
load of q‟ dy. using boussinesq‟s solution the vertical stress at P is given by

(3.9)

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The vertical stress at P due to line load extending from -∞ to + ∞ is obtained by integration,

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Numerical Example

1) A line load of 100 kN/m run extends to a long distance. Determine the intensity of vertical
stress at a point, 2m below the surface for the following two cases:

i) Directly under the line load, and

ii) At a distance of 2 m perpendicular to the line load.

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Use Boussinesq‟s theory

Solution:

Data:
q =100 kN/m z = 2 m

Using Boussinesq‟ s theory, the stress at any depth „z‟ for line load is given by:

Case (i)
x=0
2
.˙. σ z = 31.83 kN/m

Case (ii)
x = 2 m; z = 2; x/z = 1

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2
.˙. σ z = 7.96 kN/ m

2.6 Vertical stress due to a Strip load

The expression for vertical stress at any point „P‟ under a strip load can be derived from
Eq. (2.13) of the line load. The expression will depend upon whether the point P lies
below the centre of the strip load or away from the centre.

2.7.1 Point P below the centre of the strip

Fig. 2.7 Vertical stress due to a strip load- point ‘P’ below the centre

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Consider a strip load of width B (= 2b) and intensity „q‟ as shown in the Fig.3.7

Let us consider the load acting on a small elementary width dx at a distance x from the
center of the load. This small load of (q dx) can be considered as a line load of
intensity q.

From Eq. 2.13, we have

The stress due to entire strip load is obtained as

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Point P not below the centre of the strip

Fig.2.8 Vertical stress due to a strip load- point ‘P’ not at the centre

Fig. 3.8 shows the case when the point P is not below the centre of the strip. Let the
extremities of the strip make angles of s and s with the vertical at P. Similar to the
previous case, the load q dx acting on a small length dx can be considered as a line load.
The Vertical stress at P given by Eq. 2.13 as

[Link] MODULE 1 SOIL

EXPLORATION

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Vertical Stress under a uniform loaded circular area

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Fig.2.9 Vertical Stress under a uniform loaded circular area

This problem may arise in connection with settlement studies of structures on circular
foundations, such as gasoline tanks, grain elevators, and storage bins.

The Boussinesq‟s equation for vertical stress due to a point load can be extended to find the
vertical stress at any point beneath the centre of a uniformly loaded circular area.
Let q = intensity of the load per unit area And R = the radius of the loaded area

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t us consider an elementary ring of radius r and thickness „dr‟ of the load area.

The vertical stress due to full load is given by

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Where, Ic is the influence coefficient for the circular area and is given by

Eq. 3.21 for the influence coefficient Ic can be written in terms of the angle 2ϴ

subtended at point P by the load.

Now tanϴ = R/Z

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Uniform load on rectangular area

The more common shape of a loaded area in foundation engineering practice is a rectangle,
especially in the case of buildings.

Vertical stress under corner of a uniformly loaded rectangular area

The vertical stresses under a corner of a rectangular area with a uniformly distributed load of
intensity q can be obtained from Boussinesq‟s solution.

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Fig. 2.11 Vertical stress under corner of a uniformly loaded rectangular area

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By integration,

Newmark (1935) has done the integration which is quite complicated and has
expressed in the form:

--

Where m = (B/Z) and n = (L/Z)

Where IN is Newmark‟ s influence coefficient

Note: The value of m and n can be interchanged without any effect on the value of ‹Œ

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Vertical stress at any point under a rectangular area

The equation as developed above can also be used for finding the vertical stress at a point
which is not loaded below the corner of loaded area. The rectangular area is subdivided
into rectangles such that each rectangle has a corner at the point where the vertical
stress is determined using the principle of superposition.

The following cases can occur:

Point anywhere below the rectangular area

Fig. 3.12 Point anywhere below the rectangular area

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Fig. 2.12 shows the location of the point P below the rectangular area ABCD. The given
rectangle is subdivided into four small rectangles (AEPH, EBFP, HPGD and PFCG) each
having one corner at p. the vertical stress at P due to the given rectangular load is equal to
that from the four small rectangles.

σz = q [IN1+ IN2 + IN3 +IN4]

Where, IN1, IN2, IN3, and IN4, are Newmark‟s influence factors for the four rectangles
marked 1, 2, 3, 4.

For the special case, when the point „P‟ is at the centre of the rectangle ABCD
(Fig.2.13), all the four small rectangles are equal, and the above equation becomes

[Link] Fig. 2.13 Point at the centre of the rectangular area

σ z = 4 IN q

Where IN = influence factor for the small rectangle.

Point outside the loaded rectangular area

Fig. 2.14 Point outside the loaded rectangular area

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Fig. 2.14 shows the point P outside the loaded area ABCD. In this case, a large
rectangle AEPF is drawn with its one corner at P.

Now rectangle ABCD = rectangle AEPF – rectangle BEPH – rectangle DGPF +

rectangle CGPH

The last rectangle CGPH is given plus sign because this area has been deducted twice
(once in rectangle BEPH and once in DGPF)

The stress at P due to a load on rectangle ABCD is given by

Where, (IN)1, (IN)2, (IN)3, & (IN)4 are the influence coefficient for the rectangles
AEPF, BEPH, DGPF, CGPH respectively.

Point below the edge of the loaded rectangular area

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Fig. 2.15 Point below the edge of the loaded rectangular area

If the point P is below the edge of the loaded area ABCD (Fig. 2.15), the given
rectangle is divided into two small rectangles APED and PBCE

Where, (IN)1 & (IN)2 are the influence coefficient for the rectangles 1 & 2.

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2.7 Westergaard’s Solution

Boussinesq‟s solution assumes that the soil deposit is isotropic. Actual sedimentary
deposits are generally anisotropic. There are thin layers of sand embedded in
homogeneous clay strata. Westergaard‟s solution assumes that there are thin sheets of
rigid materials sandwiched in a homogeneous soil mass. These thin sheets are closely
spaced and are of infinite rigidity and therefore prevent the medium from undergoing
lateral strain. These permit only downward displacement of the soil mass as a whole
without any lateral displacement. Therefore Westergaard‟s solution represents more
closely the actual sedimentary deposits.

According to Westergaard the vertical stress at a point „P‟ at a depth „z‟ below the
concentrated load Q is given by

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Where, C depends upon the Poisson ratio (v) and is given by

For an elastic material, the value of „v’ varies between 0 to 0.5 Since it
v = 0 & C = 1/√2
is assumed that there is lateral restrained,

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2.8 Newmark’s Influence Chart

2.11.1 Introduction:
The vertical stress at any particular depth in the soil due to the action of vertical
load on the surface of the ground was given and explained by the famous Boussinesq‟s
theory. This theory gave formulae to calculate vertical stresses at a point for different
types of vertical loading, taking into consideration only a few well defined and standard
shape of loading like a point loading, line loading, strip loading, rectangular loading and
circular loading. When some complex shape of loading, like a plan of a structure was
given, it became very cumbersome to calculate the vertical stress using these formulas.
Hence, a need for more simpler and faster method of stress calculation was realized.
Newmark formulated a new simple graphical method to calculate the vertical stress at
any particular depth caused due to any shape of vertical uniformly distributed loading in
the interior of an elastic, homogeneous and isotropic medium, which is bounded by
horizontal planes (i.e. semi-infinite medium).

[Link] 2.11.2 Theory behind construction of Newmark’s Influence chart:

Newmark‟s chart utilizes the equation given by Boussinesq for vertical stress caused
due to uniformly distributed load on a circular area (vertical load) at any particular
depth.

σz =Icq (2.20)

Where σz = vertical stress at depth of

q = load intensity
Ic = Boussinesq‟s influence value for circular loading.
The Boussinesq‟s influence factor, Ic depends on the radius of circular loaded area, R and
on
the depth, z, at which the stress is required. It is given
by:

Ic = 1− 3

[1+ (R / z )2 ] 2

From this equation the ratio (r/z) is expressed as:

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This ratio (r/z) represents the relative size or relative radii of circular loaded bearing
area, which gives a particular value of vertical stress to applied load ration (σz/q). The

ratio (σz/q) can vary

from 0 to 1. By substituting various values of (σz/q) with any desired interval (i) say 0.1
or 0.05 etc. we can get various relative size ratio i.e. (r/z). Now let us assign a series of
values for the
ratio (σz/q), such as 0, 0.1, 0.2,…., 0.9, and 1. A corresponding set of values for the
relative radii, (R/z) may be obtained. If a particular depth is specified, then a series of
concentric circles can be drawn. Since the first circle has a zero radius and the eleventh
has infinite radius. In practice, only nine circles are drawn. Each ring or annular space
causes a stress of q/10 at a point beneath the center at the specified depth z, since the
number of annular space (c) is ten. Thus, each loaded area enclosed between any two
successive circles contributes the same
influence on the vertical stress at the point we require. The typical tabulation of (R/z) and
(σz/q) values are shown with an interval, i = 0.1.

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Table 2.2: Relative radii for Newmark’s Influence chart

Sl. No. of (σz/q) Relative radii

circle (R/z)
1 0.0 0.000
2 0.1 0.270
3 0.2 0.400
4 0.3 0.518
5 0.4 0.637
6 0.5 0.766
7 0.6 0.918
8 0.7 1.110
9 0.8 1.387
10 0.9 1.908
11 1.0 ∞

From this table it can be seen that the widths of the annular slices or rings are greater the
farther away they are from the center. The circle for an influence of 1.0 has an infinitely

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large radius. Now let us assume that a set of equally spaced rays, say „s’ in number, is
drawn

emanating from the center of the circles, thus dividing each annular area into s sectors,
and the total number area into cs sectors. If the usual value of 20 is adopted for s, the
total number of
th
sectors in this case will be 10x20 or 200. Each sector will cause a vertical stress of 1/200 of
the
total value at the center at the specified depth and is referred to as a „mesh‟ or an
„influence unit‟. The value 1/200 or 0.005 is said to be the „influence value‟ or
„influence factor‟ (I) for the chart. Each mesh may thus be understood to represent an
influence area. The value of „c‟ and „s‟ are so selected that it gives the accuracy we
desire for. Higher value of „c‟ and „s‟ gives more meshes and hence higher accuracy.

Construction of Newmark’s Influence chart

For the specified depth z, say 10 m, the radii of the circles, R, are calculated from

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the relative radii of Table 1. (2.70m, 4.00m, 5.18m, …and so on). The circles are then
drawn to a convenient scale (say, 1 cm = 2 m or 1:200). A suitable number of uniformly
spaced rays (to get required influence value) are drawn, emanating from the center of the
circles. The resulting diagram will appear as shown in Fig. 3.16. On the figure is drawn a
line AB, representing the depth z to the scale used in drawing the circles. If the scale
used is 1 cm = 2 m, then AB will be 5 cm. The influence value for this chart will be I =
(1/c x s).
The same chart can be used for other values of the depth „z‟. The length AB is
taken equal to the depth „z‟ of the given problem and to that scale the loaded diagram is
plotted on a tracing sheet to be superimposed later on the Newmark‟s chart to obtain the
vertical stress at the desired point.

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Fig. 2.16 Newmark’s chart

2.11.3 Application of Newmark’s Influence chart

Application of Newmark‟s Influence chart in solving problems is quite easy and
simple. The plan of the loaded area is first drawn on a tracing sheet to the same scale as
the scale of the line segment AB on the chart representing the depth „z‟. The location of
the point where the vertical stress is required is marked on the plan, say as „P‟. Now,
the tracing sheet is placed over the chart, such that the point „P‟ comes exactly over the
center of the chart from where the rays are emanating. Now the number of mesh covered
by the plan is counted. In case of partly covered mesh an intelligent judgement of the
fraction of mesh covered is required. Let the total number of mesh be equal to „n‟ . Then
the vertical stress at the desired depth is given by:

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σz = I x n x q
Where I = Influence value = 1/(c x
s)
n = Number of meshes under the loaded
area q = uniformly distributed load
c = No. of concentric
areas s = No. of radial
lines

Approximate method
The method discussed in the preceding sections are relatively more accurate, but are time
consuming. Sometimes, the engineer is interested to estimate the vertical stresses
approximately. For preliminary designs, thus saving time and labour without sacrificing
accuracy to any significant degree.

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They are also used to determine the stress distribution in soil under the influence of
complex loading and/ or shapes of loaded areas.

Two commonly used approximate methods are:

Equivalent point- load method

The vertical stress at a point under a loaded area of any of any shape can be determined
by dividing the loaded area into small area and replacing the distributed load on each on
small area by an equivalent point load acting at the centroid of the small area. The
principle of superposition is then applied and the required stress at a specified point is

obtained by summing up the contributions of the individual. Point loads from each of the
units by applying the approximate point load formula, such as that of Boussinesq‟s or

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Westergaard‟s.

Fig.2.17 Equivalent point- load method

As shown in the Fig.2.17, if a square area of size B is acted on by a uniform load q, the
same area can be divided into four small area. And the load on each area can be
converted into an equivalent point load assumed to act at its centroid. Then the vertical
stress at any point below or outside the loaded area is equal to the sum of the vertical
stresses due to these equivalent point loads. Then

2.9 Contact pressure

The upward pressure due to soil on the underside of the footing or foundation is termed
contact pressure.
In the derivations of vertical stress below the loaded areas using Boussinesq‟s theory or

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Westergaard‟s theory, it has been assumed that the footing is flexible and the contact
pressure distribution is uniform and equal to „q‟. Actual footings are not flexible as
assumed. The actual distribution of the contact pressure depends on a number of factors.

2.12.1 Factors affecting contact pressure distribution

The factors are:
1. Flexural rigidity of base of footing
2. Type of soil
3. Confinement

Flexural rigidity of base of footing

Uniform loading on a flexible base induces uniform contact pressure on any type of soil,
while a rigid base induces non-uniform pressure. Foundation bases are usually thick
massive concrete structures, which cannot be treated as ideally flexible.

Type of soil

The contact pressure distribution also depends on the elastic properties of the soil. The
elastic properties of soil depends on the type of soil.
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a. Sandy soil

Fig. 2.19 Contact pressure diagram on sand

Fig 2.19 a & b shows the qualitative contact pressure distribution under flexible and rigid
footing resting on a sandy soil and subjected to a uniformly distributed load q. when the
footing is flexible, the edges undergo a large settlement than at centre. The soil at centre is
confined and therefore has a high modulus of elasticity and deflects less for the same
contact pressure. The contact pressure is uniform.

When the footing is rigid the settlement is uniform. The contact pressure is parabolic with

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zero intensity at the edge sand maximum at the centre.

b. Clayey soils

Fig. 2.20 Contact pressure diagram on saturated clay

Fig. 2.20 shows the qualitative contact pressure distribution under flexible and rigid
footings resting on saturated clay and subjected to a uniformly distributed load q.

When the footing is flexible, it deforms into the shape of a bowel, with the maximum
deflection at the centre. The contact pressure distribution is uniform

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If the footing is rigid, the settlement is uniform. The contact pressure distribution is
minimum at the centre and the maximum at the edges(infinite theoretically). The stresses
at the edges in real soil cannot be infinite as theoretically determined for an elastic mass. In
real soils, beyond a certain limiting values of stress, the plastic flow occurs and the
pressure becomes infinite as shown in Fig.2.20

c. C-Ø soil
For a c – Ø soil, the contact pressure for a flexible footing will be uniform as shown in Fig.
3.21(a). For a rigid footing, the pressure distribution will be as shown in the Fig. 3.21 (b),
it is more at the edge and less at the centre.

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Confinement
Fig. 2.21 Contact pressure diagram on c – Ø soil

For surface loading in sand contact pressure is zero and for clayey soils, it is very high.
When the footings are confined then the edge stresses and the contact pressure
distribution changes. In sand, if the foundation is embedded or confined, then there
would be some finite contact pressure at the edges. In clayey soil the contact pressure at
the edges slightly reduces as confinement increase at the edges to surface loading

The more the foundation is below the surface of the sand, the more the shear resistance
developed at the edges due to increase in the overburden pressure and as a consequence,
the contact pressure distribution tends to be more uniform as compared to being
parabolic to surface loading.
2.10 Assignment Questions
1. List the assumption of Boussinesq analysis for the pressure distribution in a soil layer.
2. What do you understand by “pressure bulb”? Illustrate with sketches.
3. Using Boussinesq‟s equation, construct isobar of intensity 0.1 Q, where Q is point load

Department of Civil Engineering , ATMECE , Mysuru Page 38

 APPLIED GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 18CV62
acting on surface.
4. Derive an expression to find vertical pressure under a uniformly loaded circular area

2.11 OUTCOMES
• Various methods to determine stresses in soils
• Understanding of contact pressure
• Knowledge of estimation of settlement in soils

2.12 Further reading

• [Link]
• [Link]

[Link]

Department of Civil Engineering , ATMECE , Mysuru Page 39