ANGLE MODULATION

EEE 3207 : COMMUNICATION THEORY

EEE 3207 — TOPIC 4 P R E PA R E D B Y – A D N A N Q U A I U M 1/ 3 0

Topic References From The Textbooks
Communication Systems
By Haykin & Moher

Chapter — 4
Sections — 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6
Examples — Relevant examples from the
chapter
Problems — Relevant problems at the end of
the chapter

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Angle Modulation
A family of continuous-wave (CW) modulation techniques where the angle of the carrier wave is
varied, while its amplitude remains constant.

The Two Types of Angle Modulation

Phase Modulation (PM) Frequency Modulation (FM)

The instantaneous phase of the carrier

wave is varied linearly with the message The instantaneous frequency of the carrier
signal, m(t). wave is varied linearly with the message
signal, m(t).

The carrier's phase changes "in step" with

the message signal's amplitude. The carrier's frequency changes "in step"
with the message signal's amplitude.
θi(t)=2πfct+kpm(t)
fi(t)=fc+kfm(t)
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Angle Modulation

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Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves
1. Constant Transmitted Power

Because the amplitude is constant, the average transmitted power is also constant and does not
depend on the modulation index or message.

In AM, power increases with modulation. In FM/PM, power is constant and just redistributed among
frequency components.

2. Nonlinearity

Angle modulation is a nonlinear process. The principle of superposition does not apply.

Implication: We cannot use simple Fourier analysis (like we do for AM) to find the spectrum of an
FM wave. The math is far more complex, involving Bessel functions.
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Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves
3. Irregularity of Zero-Crossings

Unlike AM, where the carrier frequency fC is constant and zero-crossings are regular, in FM and PM
the information is carried by the time interval between successive zero-crossings.

●
Varying Frequency: Because the instantaneous frequency fi(t) changes with the message signal
m(t), the rate at which the waveform crosses zero is non-uniform.
●
Information Encoding: This variation in the zero-crossing rate is what encodes the original
message signal. This irregularity necessitates more complex demodulation techniques
(discriminators).

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Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves
4. Visualization Difficulty of Message Waveform

Observing the angle-modulated wave in the time domain does not reveal the message signal m(t)
intuitively, as it does in AM.

●
Hidden Information: In AM, the message is the envelope, easily seen. In FM/PM, the message is
embedded in the complex variations of the frequency and phase.
●
Non-Sinusoidal Nature: Angle modulation is a nonlinear process with theoretically infinite
bandwidth (practically limited by Carson's Rule). This complex, non-periodic nature makes direct
visual interpretation or simple Fourier analysis impossible.

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Properties of Angle-Modulated Waves
5. Bandwidth-SNR Trade-off

This is the Main Advantage of FM. Angle modulation allows us to trade transmission bandwidth (BT)
for improved signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

By increasing the frequency deviation Δf (which increases the modulation index β and bandwidth BT),
we can achieve a dramatic reduction in noise at the receiver output.

This is why FM is used for high-fidelity audio broadcasting, while AM (which has no tradeoff) is
noisier.

Output SNR improves significantly as bandwidth (related to β) increases.

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Angle Modulation

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Frequency Modulation (FM)
The Core Concept

The FM signal s(t) is a nonlinear function of the

modulating signal m(t). Unlike Amplitude
Modulation (AM), the spectrum of an FM signal is
not simply related to the modulating signal,
making analysis more complex.

Relationship to Phase Modulation

FM and Phase Modulation (PM) are closely

linked. An FM signal can be generated by
integrating the message signal before phase
modulation. Conversely, PM is generated by
differentiating the message before frequency
modulation.
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Frequency Modulation (FM)
Instantaneous Frequency

For a sinusoidal modulating signal, the instantaneous frequency fi(t) varies around the carrier:
fi(t) = fc+ Δf ⋅ cos(2πfmt)

Where Δf is the frequency deviation.

Modulation Index (β)

A fundamental parameter defined as the ratio of frequency deviation to the modulation frequency.
β = Δf / fm

This dimensionless quantity determines whether the FM is Narrow-band or Wide-band.

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Frequency Modulation (FM)
Narrow-band FM

When β ≪ 1 radian, the FM signal is called Narrow-band FM (NBFM).

Using small angle approximations, the NBFM equation simplifies to a form similar to AM, but with a
sign reversal in the lower sideband term.

s(t) ≈ Ac cos(2πfct) – β Ac sin(2πfct) sin(2πfmt)

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Phasor Diagram
Phasor Comparison

The essential difference between NBFM

and AM lies in the phase relationship of
the sidebands.
●
In AM, the resultant phasor is always
in phase with the carrier, changing
only its amplitude.
●
In NBFM, the resultant of the side-
frequency phasors is always at right
angles (quadrature) to the carrier
phasor.
This produces a resultant with
approximately constant amplitude but
varying phase.
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Frequency Modulation (FM)
Wide-band FM Analysis
Fourier Series Expansion
For arbitrary β, the FM signal is periodic in fm and
can be expanded using a complex Fourier series.
The coefficients are given by Bessel functions of
the first kind.
This reveals that the FM spectrum contains a
carrier and an infinite set of side frequencies.

The Bessel Function Jn(β)

The magnitude of spectral components is

determined by Jn(β), where n represents the
sideband number.
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FM Spectrum Evolution
Effect of Modulation Index

As the modulation index β increases, the

number of significant side frequencies
increases.

The bandwidth expands, and the energy is

distributed more widely across the
spectrum.

Unlike AM, which always has just one pair

of sidebands, FM bandwidth depends
heavily on the amplitude of the
modulating signal (which affects Δf and
β).

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Transmission Bandwidth
Carson's Rule 1% Universal Curve

A practical approximation for the A more rigorous definition defines

bandwidth required to transmit an FM bandwidth as retaining all side frequencies
signal. with amplitudes > 1% of the
unmodulated carrier.
BT ≈ 2Δf + 2fm = 2Δf (1+ 1/β)

●
Based on the number of significant
It covers the significant energy but may
Bessel coefficients.
slightly underestimate bandwidth for small
β.
●
Provides a more conservative (wider)
bandwidth estimate than Carson's
Rule.

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Generation: Direct Method
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator

Direct FM is generated by varying the

frequency of an oscillator directly with the
message signal.

Hartley Oscillator Implementation:

●
Uses a Varactor Diode (voltage-
variable capacitor) in the resonant LC
tank circuit.
●
As the message voltage changes the
varactor capacitance, the oscillation
frequency shifts proportionally,
creating FM.
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Demodulation: Frequency Discriminator
Slope Detection

The goal is to produce an output voltage

proportional to instantaneous frequency.

Mechanism:

●
Slope Circuit: A circuit where
amplitude response varies linearly with
frequency (differentiating action).
This converts FM to AM.
●
Envelope Detector: Extracts the
amplitude variations, recovering the
original message signal m(t).

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FM Stereo Multiplexing

The specification of standards for FM Composite Baseband Signal

stereo transmission is influenced by two
factors:
To transmit stereo (Left & Right) over
one FM channel while maintaining mono
1. The transmission has to operate compatibility:
within the allocated FM broadcast
channels . ●
Mono (L+R): Occupies 0–15 kHz
2. It has to be compatible with (baseband) for standard receivers.
monophonic radio receivers. ●
Stereo Difference (L-R): Modulated
(DSB-SC) onto a 38 kHz subcarrier.
●
Pilot Tone: A 19 kHz sine wave is
sent to synchronize the receiver's 38
kHz local oscillator.

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FM Stereo Multiplexing

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Phase-Locked Loop
Definition

The Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is a negative

feedback system that synchronizes an
output signal with a reference input signal in
both frequency and phase.

Its operation is fundamentally linked to

frequency modulation (FM) and it serves
critical roles in synchronization, frequency
synthesis, and FM demodulation.

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Phase-Locked Loop
Major Components

Phase Detector Loop Filter VCO

Usually a multiplier. It
A low-pass filter that removes Voltage-Controlled Oscillator.
compares the input FM signal
high-frequency components Its frequency changes linearly
s(t) with the VCO output
from the multiplier output, with the input control voltage
r(t) to produce an error
producing a DC or slowly v(t) to match the incoming
signal proportional to the varying control voltage v(t). signal.
phase difference.

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Phase-Locked Loop: Linearized Model
Small Error Approximation Transfer Function

Typically, the loop behavior is non-linear The complexity of the phase -locked loop is
because of the sine function in the phase determined by the transfer function H(f) of
detector. the loop filter. The simplest form of a
phase-locked loop is obtained when
However, when the loop is locked, the phase
error ϕe(t) is very small. We can H(f) = 1
approximate:
that is, there is no loop filter, and the
resulting phase-locked loop is referred to as
This linearizes the analysis, allowing us to a first-order phase -locked loop.
use standard transfer functions.

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Phase-Locked Loop: The Phase Error
Error Generation

The multiplier (Phase Detector) output

contains a double-frequency term and a
difference-frequency term.

The high-frequency term is discarded by the

loop filter. The remaining term depends on
the phase error:

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Phase-Locked Loop
PLL as FM Demodulator

If the PLL is locked to an incoming FM signal, the VCO tracks the instantaneous frequency of the
input.

Since the VCO frequency is controlled by the voltage v(t), and the input frequency varies according to
the message signal m(t), the control voltage v(t) must be proportional to m(t).

Thus, the output of the loop filter is the demodulated message signal.

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Phase-Locked Loop: Filtering Characteristics
Loop Output (Low-Pass) Phase Error (High-Pass)

The transfer function for the loop output The transfer function defining the phase
v(t) behaves like a Low-Pass Filter. error ϕe(t) behaves differently. It acts as a
High-Pass Filter (or effectively limits low-
frequency errors).
This is desirable for FM demodulation
because it passes the baseband message
signal m(t) while rejecting high-frequency By choosing loop parameters (natural
noise. frequency fn), we ensure the phase error
remains small enough to keep the loop
linear.

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Nonlinear Effects in FM
The Nonlinear Channel

Communication channels and amplifiers often exhibit nonlinear input-output characteristics. A

memoryless nonlinear device can be modeled as:

This generates unwanted harmonics at multiples of the carrier frequency (2fc, 3fc).

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Why FM is Robust
Constant Envelope Class C Amplifiers

Unlike AM, the FM signal has a constant Because FM is resilient to amplitude

amplitude. The information resides solely in distortion, we can use Class C power
the zero-crossings (frequency). amplifiers.

Nonlinearities distort the amplitude but Class C amps are highly nonlinear but
preserve the zero-crossings. By passing the extremely power-efficient (operating only for
output through a Band-Pass Filter centered short pulses), making them ideal for FM
at fC, we can extract the original distortion- transmitters (e.g., battery-powered radios).
free FM signal.

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The Superheterodyne Receiver
The standard architecture for radio reception.

Key Concept: Instead of demodulating the incoming RF signal directly, it is first converted (mixed)
down to a fixed Intermediate Frequency (IF).

●
RF Section: Pre-selection.
●
Mixer: Multiplies RF with Local Oscillator (LO).
●
IF Section: Main amplification & filtering.

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The Role of Intermediate Frequency
Major Components

Tunability Selectivity Image Frequency

The receiver is tuned by It is difficult to build sharp

A side effect is the “Image
varying the Local Oscillator tunable filters. Using a fixed
Frequency” (fRF + 2fIF) which
(fLO) such that the difference IF allows for high-quality,
can also map to the IF. High
fRF - fLO always equals the sharp filters that effectively
IF is needed to reject this
constant fIF (e.g., 10.7 MHz reject adjacent channel
image.
for FM). interference.

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