CFP3782 / CFU3782

Complied by E. Haipinge, 2014

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Table of Contents

1. The PBL Module and Learning Outcomes .......................................................................... 1

2. How to Use this Guide......................................................................................................... 2
3. Defining Project Based Learning ........................................................................................ 3
3.1 The 5 Criteria of Project Based Learning.......................................................................... 3
3.2 Essential Elements of PBL ................................................................................................ 5
4. Theoretical Foundations of PBL.......................................................................................... 6
4.1 Constructivism .................................................................................................................. 6
4.2 Situated Learning .............................................................................................................. 7
4.3 Experiential Learning ........................................................................................................ 9
4.4 Inquiry Based Learning ................................................................................................... 10
5. Research on PBL ............................................................................................................... 14
6. Project Based Learning vs Problem Based Learning ........................................................ 16
7. Project Based Learning vs Action Research...................................................................... 18
8. Project Based Learning vs Projects ................................................................................... 20
9. PBL and 21st Century Skills ............................................................................................. 22
10. Role of driving questions in PBL................................................................................... 24
10.1 Criteria of Driving Questions ........................................................................................ 24
10.2 Examples of Driving Questions .................................................................................... 27
11. Implementation of PBL.................................................................................................. 28
12. PBL Plan Writing and Assessment ................................................................................ 30
13. Reflection in PBL .......................................................................................................... 35
14. Examples of PBL Products ............................................................................................ 37
15. Writing PBL Report ....................................................................................................... 39
References ................................................................................................................................. 41
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1. The PBL Module and Learning Outcomes

Project Based Learning or PBL is a pedagogical model that aims to facilitate learning through
projects. PBL aims to engage students in learning important knowledge and 21st century skills
through an extended student-led inquiry. The learning process is structured around authentic
questions and carefully designed products and learning tasks. In the module, students identify
meaningful questions to explore in their school subject areas or engage with real-world
problems to solve. They attempt to meet the challenge of designing learning or instructional
products from an interdisciplinary approach. Through in-depth investigations, students are
expected to come up with high quality solutions to real-world educational problems in the form
of creative products to be presented for evaluation.

Upon the completion of this module students should be able to:

1.1 Demonstrate in-depth understanding of content knowledge of the area in the school
subject they are investigating
1.2 Demonstrate acquisition of 21st century skills such as critical thinking, problem solving,
collaboration, and communication.
1.3 Develop capacity to do in-depth inquiry through exploring driving questions.
1.4 Develop an insight into the cross-disciplinary connections of their subject areas
1.5 Develop the ability to revise and reflect on their projects and what they have learnt
1.6 Ability to present their work to a public audience for scrutiny and peer-input
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2. How to Use this Guide

This is a student guide on Project Based Learning as a concept, learning and instructional
strategy and as a course in the Bachelor of Education programme at the University of Namibia.
This guide was created through a compilation of materials from various sources, and through
research on related literature.

The goal of this guide is to provide a comprehensive overview of what project based learning
is, particularly its theoretical basis in the learning theories and research that backs it as an
effective learning model that promotes students’ ownership of the learning process by putting
them squarely at the canter of the learning process, while emphasising learning through doing
and reflecting on that active experience. The guide also offers clarifications on terms and
concepts often confused with project based learning, as well as sister terms that have close
relations with project based learning but yet differ still. It does this by illustrating the similarities
and differences between such concepts and PBL. Practical guidelines are also offered in the
guide, particularly regarding the process of starting and implementing PBL projects. Overall
the main idea is for students to develop an understanding of the concept and rational of PBL
before they engage with the practical aspects and demands of the course. The guide offers
similar value for lecturers guiding students through their PBL activities.

This guide should be used in collaboration with additional materials such as project plan
template, reflection journal template and the assessment rubrics for PBL products, presentation
and reports. For lecturers, the guide should be complemented with additional PBL guidance
resources that particularly offer guidelines on how to facilitate PBL. As such this guide should
be used as a reference resource to understand PBL, and be in a better position to successfully
carry out as well as facilitate PBL projects.

This Guide will be subject to regular review on an annual basis.

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3. Defining Project Based Learning

The term project implies a learning approach requiring students in groups to “plan and a design
which has been prepared towards achieving a particular target” (Acar, 2013, p. 82). Projects are
also defined as “complex tasks, based on challenging questions or problems, that involve
students in design, problem-solving, decision making, or investigative activities” offering
students a chance to work mainly independently over periods of time and culminating in
realistic products or presentations (Jones, Rasmussen, & Moffitt as cited in Thomas, 2000, p.
1).

Project based learning or PBL can be simply defined as a teaching and learning “model that
organizes learning around projects” (Thomas, 2000, p.1). It is a “teaching method in which
students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and
respond to a complex question, problem, or challenge” (BIE, 2014). PBL is based on the
constructivist view of learning that assumes that students learn best when they are actively
engaged in the learning process. As such PBL requires students to investigate authentic
problems, allowing “students handle real-world situations, which allow opportunities for
gaining permanent knowledge and skills” (Seo, Templeton & Pellegrino, 2008. P. 261).

What are the distinguishing features of PBL? This guide uses the criteria advanced by John
Thomas (2000) in his review of literature on PBL, and the Essential Elements of PBL according
the Buck Institute for Education (BIE) (2014).

3.1 The 5 Criteria of Project Based Learning

According to Thomas (2000, p. 3), PBL should meet the criteria of
1) Centrality
2) Driving question
3) Constructive investigations
4) Autonomy, and
5) Realism
These criteria are summarised in Table 1 on the following page.
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Table 1: Criteria of Project Based Learning (adapted from Thomas, 2000)

A project is an instance of PBL if has the following (Thomas, 2000, pp. 3 – 4)

Criterion Description
In PBL, the project is the central teaching strategy; students encounter and
learn the central concepts of the discipline via the project. There are
instances where project work follows traditional instruction in such a way
that the project serves to provide illustrations, examples, additional practice,
or practical applications for material taught initially by other means.
1. Centrality: PBL projects
However, these "application" projects are not considered to be instances of
are central, not peripheral PBL, according to this criterion. Second, the centrality criterion means that
to the curriculum projects in which students learn things that are outside the curriculum
("enrichment" projects) are also not examples of PBL, no matter how
appealing or engaging.
2. Driving question: PBL The definition of the project (for students) must be crafted in order to make
projects are focused on a connection between activities and the underlying conceptual knowledge
questions or problems that that one might hope to foster. This is usually done with a "driving question"
"drive" students to or an ill-defined problem. PBL projects may be built around thematic units
or the intersection of topics from two or more disciplines, but that is not
encounter (and struggle
sufficient to define a project. The questions that students pursue, as well as
with) the central concepts the activities, products, and performances that occupy their time, must be
and principles of a orchestrated in the service of an important intellectual purpose.
discipline.
An investigation is a goal-directed process that involves inquiry, knowledge
building, and resolution. Investigations may be design, decision-making,
problem-finding, problem-solving, discovery, or model-building processes.
But, in order to be considered as a PBL project, the central activities of the
project must involve the transformation and construction of knowledge (by
3. Constructive
definition: new understandings, new skills) on the part of students. If the
investigations: Projects
central activities of the project represent no difficulty to the student or can
involve students in a be carried out with the application of already-learned information or skills,
constructive investigation the project is an exercise, not a PBL project. This criterion means that
straightforward service projects such as planting a garden or cleaning a
stream bed are projects, but may not be PBL projects.
PBL projects are not teacher-led, scripted, or packaged. Laboratory exercises
and instructional booklets are not examples of PBL, even if they are
4. Autonomy: Projects are problem-focused and central to the curriculum. PBL projects do not end up
student-driven to some at a predetermined outcome or take predetermined paths. PBL projects
incorporate a good deal more student autonomy, choice, unsupervised work
significant degree
time, and responsibility than traditional instruction and traditional projects.

Projects should have a feeling of authenticity. They should include the topic,
the tasks, the roles that students play, the context within which the work of
the project is carried out, the collaborators who work with students on the
5. Realism: Projects are project, the products that are produced, the audience for the project's
products, or the criteria by which the products or performances are judged.
realistic, not school-like
There is a distinction between academic challenges, scenario challenges, and
real-life challenges. PBL incorporates real-life challenges where the focus is
on authentic (not simulated) problems or questions and where solutions
have the potential to be implemented.
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3.2 Essential Elements of PBL

There are 8 Essential Elements of PBL that include (BIE, 2014):

a) Significant Content: At its core, the project is focused on teaching students important
knowledge and skills, derived from standards and key concepts at the heart of academic
subjects.

b) 21st century competencies: Students build competencies valuable for today’s world, such
as problem solving, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and
creativity/innovation, which are explicitly taught and assessed.

c) In-Depth Inquiry: Students are engaged in an extended, rigorous process of asking

questions, using resources, and developing answers.

d) Driving Question: Project work is focused by an open-ended question that students

understand and find intriguing, which captures their task or frames their exploration.

e) Need to Know: Students see the need to gain knowledge, understand concepts, and apply
skills in order to answer the Driving Question and create project products, beginning with
an Entry Event that generates interest and curiosity.

f) Voice and Choice: Students are allowed to make some choices about the products to be
created, how they work, and how they use their time, guided by the teacher and depending
on age level and PBL experience.

g) Critique and Revision: The project includes processes for students to give and receive
feedback on the quality of their work, leading them to make revisions or conduct further
inquiry.

h) Public Audience: Students present their work to other people, beyond their classmates and
teacher.

It is of utmost importance for both students and their guiding lecturer to understand both the 5
criteria presented in the table earlier and the 8 elements of PBL in order to plan and implement
genuinely project based learning projects, and not simply activities or ordinary projects that do
not lead to in-depth learning and meaningful understanding of what is being learned. Therefore
these criteria and elements ought to be used as the measuring standard against which to evaluate
if a project proposal in question qualifies to be approved as a PBL or not.
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4. Theoretical Foundations of PBL

The essential theoretical basis of project based learning is anchored in three key theories of
learning, namely constructivism, situated learning, experiential learning and inquiry-based
learning theories.

4.1 Constructivism
Constructivism argues that “people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the
world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences” (Giesen, 2008, p. 6).
Constructivism regards learning as an active process of knowledge construction and personal
or social interpretation of the world with an emphasis on problem solving and understanding
through authentic tasks and experiences (Cristie, 2005). “Constructivist learning usually begins
with a question, a case, or a problem. In typical constructivist sessions, as students work on a
problem the instructor intervenes only as required to guide students in the appropriate direction”
(Cooperstein and Kocevar-Weidinger, 2004, p. 142).

According to Good and Brophy (as cited in Cooperstein and Kocevar-Weidinger, 2004, p. 142)
Constructivist pedagogy has the following key components:
 Learners construct their own meaning: Students do not easily process or transfer what
they passively receive. In order to make knowledge useful in a new situation, students
must make a deliberate effort to make sense of the information that comes to them
through manipulation, discovery, and creating knowledge to fit their existing belief
systems.
 New learning builds on prior knowledge: In making an effort to make sense of
information, students must make connections between old knowledge and new
information. They must compare and question, challenge and investigate, accept or
discard old information and beliefs in order to progress.
 Learning is enhanced by social interaction: The constructivist process works best in
social settings as students have the opportunity to compare and share their ideas with
others. Learning occurs as students attempt to resolve conflicting ideas. Social
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interaction is frequently accomplished in small group activities where students get the
opportunity to vocalize their knowledge and to learn from others.
 Meaningful learning develops through “authentic” tasks: This means that activities
are chosen to simulate those that will be encountered in real life or in an assignment.

For various reasons, the main method of teaching at universities in general and the University
of Namibia in particular is the lecture method. This and other unidirectional instructional
teaching approaches, leaves lecturers to be perceived as transmitters of information while
students inadvertently become passive receivers. They offer no chance for the application of
constructivism, at the same time starving students of highly needed examples and modelling
from their lecturers. Project based learning on the other hand offers opportunities to students to
apply constructivist learning. Through inquiry, students construct new meaning that builds on
previous knowledge, which they do collaboratively in groups through authentic tasks and by
addressing real problems.

4.2 Situated Learning

The second theory in which PBL is anchored is Situated Learning (situated cognition)
developed by Lave and Wenger (1991) which states that “knowledge must be presented in an
authentic context, using settings and applications that would normally involve that knowledge,
and includes social interaction and collaboration to solve complex problems” (van Rooij, 2008,
p. 2010). Andersson and Andersson (2005) argue that situated learning (or situated cognition)
challenges the notion of learning as a universal processes under decontextualized conditions
such as when focusing on theoretical aspects of knowledge when learning in university lectures.
Therefore situated cognition puts emphasis on situating and bounding learning to specific
settings that are similar to the contexts in which what is learned will be applied. Classroom
learning is a decontextualized kind learning that emphasises memorisation and
individualisation, as opposed to situated learning that is contextualised with an emphasis on
knowledge application and sharing.

Closely associated with situated learning is the concept of community of practice that postulates
that members of a particular learning community who share a domain or area of interest can
make deliberate efforts to share and learn together and from each other. The community can be
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teachers, and the domain can be a particular school phase, particular grade or subject, while
practice is the teaching in such a school phase, grade or subject. The relationship between
domain, community and practice is illustrated in figure 1.

Community
(teachers)

A B
D
Domain Practice
C
(Upper Primary
phase) (teaching)

Figure 1: Community of Practice

A. Community’s knowledge and expertise in the domain

B. Community’s know-how of their work
C. Skills needed in applying and delivering domain content
D. Community of practice: space for community collaboration and sharing of skills
and domain expertise

How is situated learning theory related to project based learning address this? PBL projects are
authentic with the goal of either producing knowledge through inquiry and reporting, or creating
products that are of relevance to the specific contexts where projects are being carried out. At
the same time PBL projects are mainly carried out collaboratively in groups with a focus on
either a specific discipline or across disciplines (interdisciplinary). The multifaceted goal is to
develop subject content knowledge while enhancing pedagogical skills through the creation of
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learning and instructional products, while fostering knowledge sharing and collaborative
learning skills. In this way PBL reflects the features of community of practice.
A good example is students identifying a lack of numeracy teaching materials at a local school
as a problem and carrying out a project with a driving question: “How can we create numeracy
teaching materials that teachers at B school will use effectively in their teaching?” Since the
problem identified is real (authentic) in that it is found at a specific school (situated context),
the end products are also expected to be authentic and contextualised in that they attempt to
meet the specific needs of teachers at B school. At the same time the process of carrying out the
project is carried out within the parameters of community of practice since students do research
and create products in a collaborative setting (community), in the process deepening their
understanding of the subject area (domain) while honing their skills for creating and using
numeracy teaching materials (practice).

4.3 Experiential Learning

The third learning theory that guides PBL is experiential learning which simply refers to
“constructing knowledge and meaning from real-life experience” (Yardley, Teunissen &
Dornan, 2012, p. 161). Experiential learning theory has its origins from the works of John
Dewey who was critical of the traditional pedagogy that achieves “teaching by pouring in,
learning by a passive absorption” (Dewey as cited in Monk, 2013, p. 65). Monk (2013)
maintains that Dewey considered the lack of student input and their passive role in learning in
traditional teaching set ups as a weakness that should be remedied through the creation of
quality experiences that enable students to relate their past experiences to new ones by actively
reflecting on them. Dewey clarifies the role of the educator, positing that as a
Facilitator of learning experiences, the educator enables the learner to reflect on the
outcomes of a current situation based on past experience, and form new knowledge and
skills as instruments of understanding to effectively deal with situations in the future
(Monk, 2013, p. 65).
Another prominent figure in who contributed to experiential learning is David Kolb who defines
learning as “a process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience”
(as cited in Miettinen, 2000, p. 62). Kolb is well-known for the learning cycle model (figure 1)
that describes how experience is converted into concepts, which in turn guide new experiences.
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Figure 2: Kolb’s Experiential Learning model (Chan, 2012, p. 406)

Project based learning integrates the key features of experiential learning with its focus on
learning through doing that offers authentic experience beyond theory. This reflects the Active
Experimentation as students plan and apply their ideas in practice. As students actively do the
work and solve problems in social contexts that reflect future work settings in schools, they get
the opportunity to feel and experience of how things work in real life, a reflection of Kolb’s
Concrete Experience. Another crucial aspect of PBL is inquiry that allows students to firstly
conceptualise and deepen their understanding of concepts before they apply them. This reflects
Abstract Conceptualisation in Kolb’s model. Finally both Kolb’s learning model and John
Dewey emphasise the importance of reflection in the learning process which Kolb calls
Reflective Observation. In PBL this takes place throughout the process with regular monitoring
and reflection taking place at both individual as well as group level.

4.4 Inquiry Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning is defined as “a pedagogy which best enables students to experience the
processes of knowledge creation” (Spronken-Smith et al, 2007). Learning Alberta defines
Inquiry-Based Learning as “a process where students are involved in their learning, formulate
questions, investigate widely and then build new understandings, meanings and knowledge.”

The knowledge that results from this type of inquiry should be new to the students which they
can use to answer a questions, develop solutions or to support a position or point of view.
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Knowledge products resulting from inquiry-based learning are usually presented to others or
result in action. Inquiry-based learning is characterized by being student-centeredness, self-
directedness, resulting in transferable skills, and the teacher plays the role of facilitator. The
facilitator plays the role of an enabler who empowers and engages students, acting as a
consultant while guiding them towards achieving their learning goals through finding solutions
by themselves (Goldring & Wood, 2009).
Inquiry in this context is not finding answers to other people’s questions such as to satisfy
teachers, but instead it is a process of being “puzzled about something, generating their own
questions and using information to satisfy their own interests and to develop their own
knowledge” (Learning, 2004, p. 8). Inquiry-based learning is based on the following model:

Figure 3: Inquiry Model (Learning, 2004, p. 10)

According the inquiry model, inquiry-based learning starts with the planning stage where
students identify their learning goal, questions and topics of inquiry, and plan the whole process.
This is followed by an information retrieval stage where students locate, retrieve and evaluate
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the information gathered. Thirdly, the processing stage involves the choosing information
relevant to the questions, recording of and inferring from such information, while continually
revising and reviewing the original inquiry plan. At the fourth stage, information is organised
into products that will be presented, and the form of the information is guided by the type of
audience it is meant to be presented to. At stage five, information is shared with the relevant
audience and feedback is received. Finally at the sixth stage, the products and inquiry process
is evaluated, and knowledge and skills gained are transferred to new situations. The skills
developed through inquiry-based learning is depicted in figure 4 below:

Figure 4: Inquiry process-skills wheel (Goldring & Wood, 2009, p. 9).

In summary, the inquiry process-skills wheel highlights the transferable skills that students
develop during the process. These include organsiational and leadership skills at stage 1,
analytical and critical thinking skills at stage 2, communication and negotiation skills at stage 3
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and throughout the collaborative process, while research and time management skills are
evident at almost all stages, but particularly prominent stages 1 through 4. Communication,
verbal and problem solving skills are prominent at stages 5 and 6, while throughout the process,
reflection skills are applied.

Inquiry-based learning has a strong influence on PBL because inquiry and information search,
while applying critical thinking resulting in knowledge products in the end are corner stones of
project based learning. Thus inquiry-based learning does not only serve as a foundational
learning theory for PBL but the two also have a lot of intersection areas.
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5. Research on PBL

The theories presented above offer the theoretical basis and justifications for the use of project
based learning in education. That answered the “why” question, but a new question that crops
up is the “how”, in this case: how do we know that project based learning and teaching model
works better than other teaching methods like lecture methods? What empirical evidence is
there to prove it? Research on PBL addresses these questions.

Studies on schools in the United States that applied Expeditionary Learning and Co-nect, both
of whom put “strong emphasis on project-based learning, interdisciplinary studies, and real-
world applications of academic content and community service” (Thomas, 2000, p. 11) have
found evidence of great benefits for students. These included improved achievements in
standardised testing, improvement in scores across the curriculum, an increase in students’
motivation towards learning, which in turn impacted positively on school attendance and
retention (Thomas, 2000). Overall Thomas infers that PBL improves the quality of students'
learning in subject matter areas through the enhancement of higher-level cognitive skills.

Another learning benefit of project-based learning as reported by Thomas (2000) is an

improvement in problem-solving skills. Studies have found that students who participated in
project oriented learning approaches enhanced their procedural understanding of problem
solving and deepened their subject content knowledge, in most cases outperforming their
counterparts who were taught through the use of traditional instructional approaches. Similarly
students who used PBL demonstrated higher levels of critical thinking than students who did
not. Additionally PBL instructional environments, by virtue of their constructivist
characteristics, have been found to “encourage the students to be independent learners, good
problem solvers, and effective decision-makers” (Liu & Hsiao as cited in Özdamli, 2011, p.
3812).

Boaler (as cited in Thomas, 2000) reported that teaching and learning models influence
students’ attitude towards what they learn and how they perceive its relevance to their own
lives. Boaler found that students who were taught using direct, teacher-centred instructional
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methods looked at learning as boring and having little to do their lives outside school contexts,
while students taught through PBL viewed subject knowledge as meaningful to their real lives.
Hence students who used PBL methods performed better at conceptual and application
problems while they matched their traditionally instructed counterparts in procedural problems.
This can be attributed to the idea that students need an understanding of procedural knowledge
for them to solve conceptual and authentic problems, but procedural problems on the other hand
simply required a recall of the procedure, like mathematical formulas or steps to be followed in
a particular process.

One of the most prominent arguments used to promote the use of PBL in education has been
the notion of 21st century skills and how such skills can only be best developed through PBL
rather than through teacher-centred and direct instructional methods. Musa, Mufti, Latiff and
Amin (2012) present 21st century skills as a range of soft skills that graduates need to be
proficient in to be successful at today’s workplace. These include “critical thinking and problem
solving, communication, collaboration, creativity and innovation” (Musa et al, 2012, p. 566). It
therefore goes without saying that in order “to ensure and authenticate student mastery of 21 st
century skills and professional development, the learning environments must be aligned to
produce a support system that produces 21st century outcomes” (Musa et al, 2012, p. 566).

Research by Musa, Mufti, Latiff and Amin (2012) found that project based learning helped to
develop students’ 21st century skills. Teamwork skills were enhanced as participants reported
to have learned to listen attentively to fellow group members, while inquiry skills were evident
as they could understand and gather information for the project. In terms of communication
skills, Musa et al reported that students benefited in enhancing their communication skills,
particularly through “writing e-mails, executive summary and reports” (2012, p. 570). At the
same time students became more perceptive and sensitive towards each other, reflecting
interpersonal skills, while they developed problem-solving skills as they gained confidence in
analysing issues, sharing their views and reaching consensus. These are just some of the
research-backed examples of the benefits of PBL for students and their learning. A lot of
research on the subject exists and can easily be found on the Internet for further inquiry when
one so wishes.
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6. Project Based Learning vs Problem Based Learning

Project based learning and problem based learning are closely related instructional strategies,
particularly because they share the abbreviation PBL. Some authors have distinguished the
two by using PBL to refer to problem based learning and PjBL to refer to project based
learning. However both commonly use PBL. It is however important to highlight the
similarities and differences to avoid confusion.

Project based learning is loosely defined as “an instructional strategy in which students work
cooperatively over time to create a product, presentation, or performance”, while problem
based learning is also an instructional strategy in which “students work cooperatively to
investigate and resolve an ill-structured problem based on real-world issues or situations”
(Education World, 2014). From the definitions given one can distinguish the two by saying
that on one hand, project based learning focuses on the creation of an end product (be it
tangible product like a model, poster or some form of teaching aid, or a PowerPoint
presentation, report, or even a dramatised performance); while on the other hand problem
based learning focuses on the solving of a problem through investigation, and reporting of
findings.
The two instructional strategies have a lot in common though, such as both:
 Involve realistic problems and situations
 Are based on authentic educational goals
 Include formative and summative evaluation
 Are learner centred and teacher facilitated
 Are intrinsically engaging and motivating
 Are frequently multidisciplinary
 Improve students' research and problem-solving skills, as well as their ability to work
cooperatively with their peers.

At the same time, there are distinct differences between project based learning and problem
based learning as summarised in Table 2 on the next page.
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Table 2: Project Based Learning vs Problem Based Learning (Larmer, 2014).

Project Based Learning Problem Based Learning

Begins with an end product or “artefact” in Begins with a problem for students to solve
mind (website, PowerPoint Presentation, or learn more about (scenario or case study
video, jingle or booklet) format)

Often multi-disciplinary More often single-subject

May be lengthy (weeks or months) Tend to be shorter
Follows general, variously-named steps Follows specific, traditionally prescribed
steps
Includes the creation of a product or The “product” may simply be a proposed
performance solution, expressed in writing or in an oral
presentation
Often involves real-world, fully authentic More often uses case studies or fictitious
tasks and setting scenarios as “ill-structured problems”
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7. Project Based Learning vs Action Research

In some quarters, project based learning is confused with research, and particularly with action
research. It should be noted that PBL involve aspects of research such as investigation and
inquiry, and it applies elements of the scientific methods of inquiry. However it is important to
emphasise that PBL remains an instructional strategy and learning model. Therefore as much
as both in research and PBL, inquiry and investigation skills are used, the goal of research is
primarily the generation of knowledge, while for PBL the goal is learning.

The main research for why action research gets confused with project based learning is
particularly the fact that both aim to find solutions to problems and involve the active
participation of the people affected by the problem.

Maggie Coats (2005, p. 4) defines action research as “any research into practice undertaken by
those involved in that practice, with an aim to change and improve it.” The similarities between
project based learning and action research are that they both are:

 Participative and collaborative – undertaken by individuals with a common purpose

 Situation-based and context specific
 Involve reflection by the participants
 Knowledge is created through action and at the point of application
 Involve problem solving

However the key difference is that action research is research put into action, usually carried by
practitioners to improve their own practice, while project based learning is a learning model
used to help students achieve deep learning and enhance their 21st century skills.
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Figure 5 illustrates the cycles of action research, while Figure 7 will later show the steps that
project based learning uses. When one compares the two figures, the differences between the
two can become clearer.

Figure 5: Action research cycles (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2010, p. 4)
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8. Project Based Learning vs Projects

Another common error made with regard to PBL is confusing it with projects. However there
is a conceptual difference between the two. Projects are mainly teacher-initiated and teacher-
led, and students simply carry out learning goals determined by the teacher. Projects are usually
used at elementary levels of education where learners lack the ability to identify their own
learning problems and do not yet have inquiry skills.

Therefore teachers identify the driving questions, plan the projects and do the research. Student
then use the plan and information gathered to improve or create something with the help of the
teacher. In the end they present their products to the class. Figure 6 illustrates this process.

Figure 6: Projects – roles of teacher and students (Thoughtful Learning, 2014)

Project based learning on the other hand actively involve students throughout the process. These
are best suited at higher levels of learning where students have developed independent learning
and inquiry skills. It is students collaboratively who initiate the driving questions, identify the
problem to be solved, plan and carry out an inquiry to inform them about how best to solve the
problem.

They then create products that they improve on until they are ready to be presented to an
audience, who range from fellow students, teachers to the community and other stakeholders
outside the immediate learning context. The role of the teacher in the whole process is that of a
 Page 21 of 46

facilitator, mentor and consultant. The strong dark border on Figure 6 illustrate the active and
strong role played by the teacher projects, while the weak grey border on Figure 7 on the
following page demonstrates the withdrawn supportive role of the teacher in PBL.

Figure 7: PBL – roles of teacher and students (Thoughtful Learning, 2014)

A further contrast between projects and project based learning is illustrated below.

Table 3: Projects vs project based learning (WVDE, 2014)

Projects PBL
Teacher directed Inquiry based

Highly structured Open-ended

Summative On-going

Thematic Driving question/challenge

Fun Engaging

Answer giving Problem solving

De-contextualized – School world Contextualized – Real world

 Page 22 of 46

9. PBL and 21st Century Skills

Project based learning as an instructional and learning model has been strongly linked with the
development of 21st century skills. Through PBL students develop twenty-first-century skills
that are necessary in helping them become productive members of a global society, while
preparing them for future workplaces that require the application of “collaborative, negotiating,
planning, and organizational skills” (Bell, 2010, p. 43).

21st century skills are framed through the 4 Cs, namely, Critical thinking and problem solving,
Communication, Collaboration and Creativity and innovation. Ravitz, Hixson, English and
Mergendoller (2012, p. 3) created a framework for 21st century skills as shown in Table 3 below:

Table 3: 21st Century Skills Framework (adapted from Ravitz et al, 2012)

SKILL DESCRIPTION
Students being able to analyse complex problems, investigate questions for which
there are no clear cut-answers, evaluate different points of view or sources of
Critical thinking information, and draw appropriate conclusions based on evidence and reasoning
Students being able to work together to solve problems or answer questions, to work
effectively and respectfully in teams to accomplish a common goal and to assume
Collaboration shared responsibility for completing a task
Communication Students being able to organise their thoughts, data and findings and share these
effectively through a variety of media, as well as orally and in writing
Creativity & Students being able to generate and refine solutions to complex problems or tasks
innovation based on synthesis, analysis and then combining or presenting what they have
learned in new and original ways
Students being able to take responsibility for their learning by identifying topics to
pursue and processes for their own learning, and being able to review their own
Self-direction work and respond to feedback
Global connections Students being able to understand global, geo-political issues including awareness
of geography, culture, language, history, and literature from other countries
Local connections Students being able to apply what they have learned to local contexts and
community issues
Using technology Students being able to manage their learning and produce products using
as a tool for appropriate information and communication technologies
learning
 Page 23 of 46

Figure 8 below summarises the key 21st century skills that PBL seeks to develop, skills that
cannot easily be fostered when only direct instructional methods and acquisition learning
strategies are used like in the case of lectures.

Figure 8: 21st Century Skills Pie

Critical Thinking Communication

Skills Skills

Global & Local Creativity &

Connection Skills Innovation Skills

Information,
Media & Self-direction
Technology Skills
Skills
 Page 24 of 46

10. Role of driving questions in PBL

The genesis of any PBL project is its driving question. This is an open-ended question that
students understand and find intriguing, which captures their task or frames their exploration
on a given topic. A driving question develops from the need to know that can be inspired by a
learning outcome, a collective student interest in an issue or triggered by an “entry event” (a
video, a lively discussion, a guest speaker, a field trip) or anything that engages student interest
and initiates questioning (Larmer and Mergendoller, 2010).

10.1 Criteria of Driving Questions

Andrew Miller (2011) provides the three criteria that a good driving question should meet.
These are being philosophical or debatable, product-oriented and role-oriented.
a) Philosophical/ debatable: these are questions that are not designed to sway students in
one direction but rather open-ended and have complex possible answers, requiring
rigorous thought and investigation while leading to corresponding student products.
 During what season do we have more fresh crops? Bad: closed-ended
 How does climate affect the crop production in Namibia? Good: open options
b) Product-oriented: means that the question should indicate towards the goal of creating
a particular product as the outcome of the PBL project. For example: How do we create
______ to ______? (E.g. How do we create a blog to promote the presence of Silozi on
the World Wide Web?)
c) Role-oriented: refers to the authenticity of the driving question/problem in terms of
how it reflects real-world contexts. The more authentic the driving question is the more
it results in the project requiring students to assume roles in the process in order to solve
a problem or accomplish a project an authentic. (E.g. How do we as historians document
the role of radio in the promotion of oral African traditions in Namibia?).
It is when driving questions meet these criteria that they will form a good foundation for an
effective PBL project. “A good Driving Question makes a project intriguing, complex, and
problematic, requires multiple activities and the synthesis of different types of information
before it can be answered,” and “should address authentic concerns” (Thom, 2003, p. 37).
Other criteria for a good driving question are provided on the following page.
 Page 25 of 46

Figure 9: Criteria for effective driving questions (Adapted from Stanfill & Dake, 2001)

When a PBL driving question has been created, it needs to be broken down into smaller
palatable pieces for a students to be able to successfully engage with it. Firstly an open-ended
question is derived from the driving question, thereafter a few closed questions are brainstormed
to help answer the open-ended question, which in turn answers the main driving question.
Figure 9 illustrates this simply.

Figure 10: Relationship between question types in PBL (Dake, 2001)

Driving Question Forest

Open-ended Trees
Questions
Directed
Leaves
Questions
 Page 26 of 46

Here is an example of a driving question, followed by open-ended questions and then directed
questions:

A. Driving question: How can we motivate students, increase participation, and

encourage deeper thinking in our classrooms?

B. Open-ended questions (created through breaking down the driving question)

 How can we motivate students?
 What are students interested in?
 What motivates them?
 How can we make our questions more relevant to their lives?
 What kind of measure do we use?
 How can we increase participation?
 What does "participation" really mean to us?
 What opportunities will we provide to allow students to participate?
 How can we encourage deeper thinking in our classrooms?
 What constitutes deeper thinking?
 How can students' answers reflect this deeper thinking?
 How can we ask questions so that they raise the kind of answers that reflect
this deeper thinking?
C. Directed questions (for each of the open-ended questions, students think of five
facts that they need to know in order to answer that question, then transform each
fact into a question)
 Motivating students
1. What is the demographic profile of your students?
2. What questions have students asked on their own?
3. What kinds of activities are they participating in? What is prominent in pop
culture right now? What kind of music do they listen to?
4. Who are the people that are important in your students' lives? Who do they
have frequent contact with? (E.g. parents, relatives, friends, fellow members
of a religious organization or other club?) What kinds of knowledge,
experiences, and resources are they exposed to?
5. Who are their heroes? What qualities do they value in these heroes?
 Page 27 of 46

 Increasing participation
1. How many students usually raise their hands when you ask a question?
2. If a student raises his/her hand, does this mean that (s)he is motivated?
3. What kinds of techniques do others use to motivate students?
4. What are your expectations regarding participation?
5. Have these expectations been clearly laid out for your students?

 Encouraging deeper thinking

1. Have you emphasized that the thinking process is as important (if not more
important) than the right answer?
2. Have you modelled problem solving techniques for your students?
3. Have they had time to practice these problem solving techniques?
4. Do your questions allow for deeper thinking?
5. Do some of your students have special challenges which that prevent them
from expressing their deep thinking? (e.g., speech disorders or other
language barriers)

10.2 Examples of Driving Questions

Which of these questions are most effective based on the criteria given above?
I. How can we make our campus safer for women?
II. How do we encourage a positive impact of our campus on the local environment?
III. What are the ingredients for a successful business?
IV. How can the migration of people to the Windhoek be limited?
V. How can we save electricity in the hostels?
VI. How can we encourage home-based gardening to promote food security?
VII. What are the most effective ways to lengthen a mobile phone’s lifespan?
VIII. How can we encourage parents to let their children learn through the mother tongue?
IX. How do longer winters impact on electricity consumption in our town?
X. How can we make lower primary teaching cooler?
XI. What learning methods can make educational research easier for us?
XII. How can we promote reading across the curriculum amongst upper primary learners?
 Page 28 of 46

11. Implementation of PBL

PBL is a learning and instructional strategy that requires students take charge of by taking
ownership of the learning process. To simplify the process, a PBL implementation wheel
(Figure 10) has been devised to show the steps involved. The steps are explained afterwards.

Figure 11: The PBL Implementation Wheel

Reflect

1. Driving question: The first step of the PBL process is identifying a driving question
that is open-ended and begging for a solution.
2. Final product: PBL applies the backward design principle whereby the final product
that will serve as the solution to the problem embodied in the driving question identified
in step 1. Once a final product has been identifies, the information and tools needed to
accomplish it take center stage.
 Page 29 of 46

3. Planning: This stage is where the PBL proposal is designed and finalized. Planning
involves the identification of the learning goals the final product will accomplish; what
the roles and responsibilities of all group members will be in the project, and what
information will be needed. The proposal is then submitted for assessment and approval
4. Inquire and apply: Once the proposal has been approved, the next step is to search for
information that will assist in making informed decisions on the design, appropriateness
and functionality of the final product. This inquiry process is guided by open-ended and
closed questions that are anchored in the driving question. The other aim of inquiry is
to legitimize the solution proposed to the problem posed in the driving question. Once
information has been gathered, the creation of the product starts.
5. Revise and finalise: Once a product (or its prototype) has been created, it should be
tested for its effectiveness. Feedback is received from the guiding lecturer, subject
specialist and technology expert lecturers, peers and outside experts in the area of the
project. Such feedback is then used to improve the product and ready it for final
presentation.
6. Present product and report: Once the product is ready it is then presented to an
audience who can be made of guiding lecturers, fellow students and members of outside
community whose interests may be addressed by the project. The guiding lecturer
evaluates both the product and the presentation. After that then the focus turns onto
compiling a report on the learning process for the entire project. The report reflects on
how subject content knowledge, 21st century skills, technology and project-management
skills were developed in the process.
Reflect is in the center of the wheel because it takes place throughout the PBL process. Students
reflect on how they progress in their search for the solution to the problem posed in the driving
question, on their individual roles in the group, the learning benefits and challenges, their
development 21st century skills and how their in-depth understanding of their subjects or their
discovery of the connections of their subject to other subject areas, as well as the linkage of
their learning to the real world outside the classroom.
 Page 30 of 46

12. PBL Plan Writing and Assessment

In project based learning, the learning project starts with a plan or design. In elementary schools,
such a design is done by the teacher and learners are simply given a plan to carry out the project
and implement the learning goals identified by the teacher (see Figure 6 on page 21 of this
guide). However at tertiary level, students take charge of their projects right from the start until
the end, with lecturers playing the facilitative, supportive and consultative role (see Figure 7 on
page 22). For the PBL course, a PBL plan template has been created for students which they
simply complete by filling in the required information (Figure 12).

Figure 12: PBL Plan Template (page 1)

 Page 31 of 46

The template is divided into 12 sections that should all be completed electronically on a
computer using Word. Each section offers clues about the kind of information required. Once
the template has been completed, it is printed and submitted to the lecturer facilitating the group
in order to evaluate and approve the project to go ahead. The sections of the PBL plan template
are discussed as follow:

1. Project Title: this is a concise title that will give the project an identity and distinguish
it from fellow students’ projects. A project title is usually identified once the sections of
driving question, project product and project summary have been completed, as the two
offer an better indication of what the project will be about and what goal it will aim to
achieve. E.g. Medical Interns (here the title reflects the roles that the project members
will assume in the course of the project – acting as medical interns in action)
2. Duration of Project: This is the amount of time that the project will take to complete.
In reality projects range from a few weeks to years. But in the academic context, projects
range between one and three months due to the pressure of course requirements and
assessment deadlines for the institution. E.g. 6 weeks
3. Students: At this section the names of group members in the project group as well as
their student numbers are filled in. The maximum slots are 5 because that is the
maximum size a PBL group should be for effectiveness. Too few students (e.g. 2) limits
interaction and potential for idea generation opportunities, while overworking the
members due to the sheer amount of work, while too large a group (e.g. more than 5)
may lead to social loafing, resulting in the free-rider and sucker effect. These two
concepts are explained further below.
4. Project Facilitator: this refers to the lecturer assigned to facilitate the PBL project of
a given group of students
5. Disciplinary Areas: PBL by nature is cross-disciplinary because in real life concepts
and knowledge is not compartmentalised, but interwoven and connected. Hence PBL as
a learning strategy brings learning closer to real live by making learning contexts more
authentic. Therefore when students are grouped with fellow students that they do not
share a school major with, they should find a way to identify a driving question that will
connect their subjects together. Under this section of the plan, the subject areas that the
project will deal with are all listed here. In the example given above (Medical Interns),
 Page 32 of 46

subjects covered could be Life Science, Natural Science, Social Studies and English.
The first two may be obvious as students would need the knowledge of those subject to
play the role medical interns such as diagnosing sick patients and recommending
appropriate medication. However for students to investigate diseases and understand the
context of their patients, they would need to the knowledge of social issues and
geographical environments where the patients live, hence the relevance of Social
Studies. English as a subject is needed since the project findings will be communicated
and reported, thus having an English major in the group would offer an advantage.
6. Driving Question: this has been well discussed under section 9 (page 24) above.
Essentially the driving question starts the project by posing a problem that needs a
solution. For the Medical Intern project, a driving question could be: How can we, as
medical interns, recommend the best treatment for a sick patient? As such, the question
shows the role that the group will assume in the course of the project (medical interns),
while indicating clearly the goal of the project – diagnose and recommend treatment for
patients.
7. Project Product: The goal of a project from the PBL perspective is to create products
that will offer solutions to problems identified in the past or expected in the future. The
nature of products is as wide ranging as there is knowledge and academic disciplines.
Products can be in concrete, virtual or intellectual form. Examples of products are:
 Poster research reports
 Teaching media posters
 Music jingles
 Poetry booklets
 Websites and blogs
 Dance performance
 Informative or publicity materials
 Videos
 PowerPoint presentations
 Learning games, etc.
8. Project Summary: In this section the goal of the project is briefly explained, clarifying
what the problem is, how it will be solved and how through what. The summary informs
 Page 33 of 46

the reader to become familiar with the project. The summary also highlights the main
activities of the project and curricular knowledge and skills to be developed. For the
example of Medical Interns, a summary may look like this: In this scenario, students
take on the role of medical interns who are asked to help diagnose sick patients and
recommend the best treatment plan. They will learn about the various body systems,
focusing in on the circulatory system, as they move through the project. Students will
collaborate with a medical doctor via video chat, interview mock patients, and engage
in research to reach their findings. In teams, they will present their diagnosis and
recommendations to a panel of experts, parents, and classmates.
9. Development of 21st Century Competencies: As discussed above under section 8
above, developing the sought after soft skills of the 21st century is one of the major
attraction of the PBL instructional model. As such, demonstrating how each project
offers students opportunities to develop these skills is highly important. Therefore in
here students must clarify how their project will help them develop each one of the 21st
century skills, even if they will not be developed in equal measure due to the fact that
some projects by their nature offer better opportunities to develop particular skills more
than other skills.
10. Team Roles: Group activities are sometimes unpopular with students because of the
unequal contribution of group members to the task. Collaborative learning literature uses
the concept “social loafing”, a situation whereby some students take advantage of
profiting for the work done by others with minimal contribution from themselves. This
is also called the free-rider effect, referring to how non-contributing students ride along
in the group and get the reward of the grades for free. The free-rider effect is said to
result in the sucker-effect, whereby students that were working harder than others also
drop their work effort in refusal to benefit fellow non-contributing students, in the end
leading to poor work from the group in general. Therefore one way to counter this is
clearly assign roles to all group members so that each one knows what they are expected
to contribute to the group effort. Team roles are also accompanied by peer assessment
where students assess each other’s contributions to the collaborative effort.
11. Resources Needed: Any project that aims to produce a product in the end will need
tools and equipment to enable the achievement of such a goal. Under resources needed,
 Page 34 of 46

students need to indicate the various forms of resources, available either internally in
their learning environment like the campus, or externally in the community close to
them. This will help their project facilitators to assist them in accessing such resources,
while also informing themselves on what may be feasible and what may not be.
12. Public Audience: The last section of the PBL plan is deciding who the audience of the
project product will be. For authenticity, projects should be presented to people who are
concerned with the problems solved through that particular project as well as those that
assisted in the process. These may include community members, experts and
professionals in the field and project facilitators. In academic contexts however this
group is dominated by peers (fellow students) and lecturers.

Figure 13: PBL Plan Template (page 2)

 Page 35 of 46

13. Reflection in PBL

Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow. The important thing is not to stop
questioning ~ Albert Einstein

What is reflection? In citing John Dewey, Loughran (2005, p. 3) defines reflection as thinking
that implicates “doubt, hesitation, perplexity, and an act of searching, hunting, inquiring, to find
material that will resolve the doubt, settle and dispose of the perplexity”. Reflection can also be
viewed as the act of recollecting one’s experience by thinking about and re-evaluating it, which
enables one to effectively learn from experience (Boud Keogh and Walker as cited in Loughran,
2005, p. 3).

Why is reflection needed in PBL? The best answer is that PBL presents ill-structured problems,
unlike teacher-mediated classroom learning. Ill-structured problems are defined by King and
Kitchener (as cited in Moon, 2006, p. 30) as those that “cannot be described with a high degree
of completeness” and “cannot be resolved with a high degree of certainty”. This means that the
responsibility of making sense of learning experiences when learning is less structured and
problems are ill-defined, falls in the hands of the student him/herself.

In essence, all learning is experience, but not all experiences are structured or make sense until
such time that they have been meaningfully organised. Reflection is one tool that helps students
make sense of their experiences. Since PBL also deals with ill-structured problems, reflection
comes in handy. Such reflections are best carried out individually in writing, but they can also
be collaboratively done in groups verbally, with one student recording the discussion. It is
through writing that learners externalise their experiences, question them and make sense of
new knowledge. “Writing is a form of representation of learning, a means of demonstrating
what we have learnt and importantly, a tool for the enhancement of more learning (Moon, 2006,
p. 33). Journal writing and reflection also help to develop critical thinking through adopting a
questioning attitude and questioning oneself about previously accepted assumptions (Moon,
2006).
 Page 36 of 46

Reflective writing is not easy for most students. They need a lot of guidance and practice for
them to truly benefit from reflection and learn from their experiences as a result. Hatton and
Smith (as cited in Moon, 2006, pp. 40-41) provide a framework for levels of reflection.

Descriptive writing: Writing that is not considered to show evidence of reflection: it is

a description with no discussion beyond description.
Descriptive reflection: There is description of events. The possibility of alternative
view-points is accepted but most reflection is from one perspective.
Dialogic reflection: The work demonstrates ‘a “stepping back” from events and actions
leading to a different level of mulling about discourse with self and exploring the
discourse of events and actions’. There is a recognition that different qualities of
judgement and alternative explanations may exist for the same material. The reflection
is analytical or integrative, though may reveal inconsistency.
Critical reflection: ‘Demonstrates an awareness that actions and events are
not only located within and explicable by multiple perspectives, but are located
in and influenced by multiple historical and socio-political contexts.’

The lowest level of reflective writing is the descriptive writing that simply description of events
with no questioning or search for meaning behind the understanding or behind the “reality” as
perceived. This is where most students find themselves. In PBL the goal at least practice the
dialogic reflection level. This is facilitated through the provision of a reflection journal template
(Appendix 4 on the portal) with questions to respond to. Reflection should therefore be taken
seriously as it does not only help make the learning experience meaningful but it also deepens
it. At the pragmatic level, reflective journals are useful in providing information for the project
report that is the final task in PBL.
 Page 37 of 46

14. Examples of PBL Products

PBL products can vary as much as the interests, abilities and subject areas of students vary. In
this particular course, students are encouraged to make use of ICT in the creation of digital
materials. This is mainly because digital materials are much easier to share, adapt and change
to suit various contexts, and the use of ICT is also encouraged through the ICT Policy for
Education in Namibia. However, PBL products can also take on non-digital forms, as long as
they are digitally captured (like by taking pictures of them) for easy demonstration to people
that cannot have physical access to them. Below are a range of possible PBL products that
education students can create.

Teaching materials for Lower Primary Songs and jingles

Informative leaflets on topics of choice Puppets for teaching

Figure 14: Sample PBL Products (Google Images)

 Page 38 of 46

Compilation of poems Educational website or blog

Poster report of research School or class play

Figure 15: Sample PBL Products (Google Images)

 Page 39 of 46

15. Writing PBL Report

The final learning task in project based learning is the report. Its main objective is for students
to reflect on the learning process and gauge how far they have gone in developing the
knowledge and skills they aimed to achieve at the inception of the project. Another objective of
the report is also to record the project and inform others about what students did, how successful
they were, what they could do differently in the future and how they experienced PBL as a
learning strategy.

Like any report, a PBL report also has a structure. But unlike research reports, a PBL report is
much simpler, focuses less on inquiry carried out during the project, and much more on the
activities carried out, products created and on students’ learning experiences. A PBL report
structure for this course takes on a structure like below.

Table 4: PBL Report Structure

Section Content
Title of the report The same title as the one on the project plan

Table of contents Contents of the report

Introduction and driving question Brief background of the project, how it was conceived, and the
driving question the project addressed
Inquiry carried out to inform the Brief summary of research carried out to inform the decisions made
project and planning for project product
Project implementation Summary of how the project was implemented:
 What product was identified and how it addresses the driving
question and problem
 How roles were shared in the team
 Resources, materials and expert assistance used
 How product was developed, tested and presented, and how
effective it was in addressing the problem
Learning from the project This section focuses reflecting on the learning value of the project
 How the project enhanced students’ subject knowledge
 Skills applied and how they can be used in the future
 How 21st century skills were practiced and developed
 What challenges were met and how they were addressed
Conclusions and recommendations Here conclusions are made from the project, brief expression on
how team work meant for group members, and recommendations in
relation to products created, collaboration or the PBL course.
 Page 40 of 46

The assessment of the PBL report focuses on the aspects highlighted in Figure 16 below.
Simply, the usual academic writing standards are expected, such as applying and adhering to
the APA referencing style, writing logically in well-structured style, while informing readers
about your project clearly and simply. The assessment rubric focuses on the aspects illustrated
here:

Organisation & Academic Writing Skills

Critical and Inquiry Skills

Development of Knowledge & Skills in Subject Area

Reporting on Project Process and Products

Development of 21st Century Skills

Figure 16: Assessment of PBL Project Report

 Page 41 of 46

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