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COURSE Readings in Philippine COURSE

GE11 UNITS 3.0
TITLE History CODE
General Education
Program Faculty Asst. Prof. Jayson C. Peñaflor, MAED
Course

COURSE OVERVIEW

Philippine History viewed from the lens of selected primary sources in different
periods, analysis and interpretations.

The course aims to expose students to different facets of Philippine History through
the lens of eyewitnesses. Rather than rely on secondary materials such as textbooks,
which is the usual approach in teaching Philippine History. Different types of primary
sources will be used – written (qualitative and quantitative), oral visual, audio-visual,
digital – covering various aspects of Philippine life (political, economic, social, cultural).
Students are expected to analyze the selected readings contextually and in terms of
content (stated and implied). The end goal is to enable students to understand and
appreciate our rich past by insights from those who were actually present at the time of
the event.

Context analysis considers the following (1) the historical context of the source
(time and place it was written and the situation at the time), (2) the author’s background,
intent (to the extent discernable), and authority on the subject, and (3) the source’s
relevance and meaning today.

Content analysis, on the other hand, applies appropriate techniques depending on

the type of source (written, oral, visual). In the process students will be asked, for
example, to identify the author’s main argument or thesis, compare points of view,
identify biases, and evaluate the author’s claim based on the evidences presented or
other available evidence at the time, The course will guide the students through their
reading and analysis of the texts and require them to write reaction essays of varied
length and present their ideas in other ways (debate format, power point presentation,
letter to the editor of the source, etc.)

The instructor may arrange the readings chronologically or thematically, and start
with the present (more familiar) and go back to the earlier periods or vice-versa. (CMO
No. 20, series of 2013). For the clearer understanding about the history of the Philippines,
this course can be taught in English, Filipino or Both according to CMO No. 20, series of
2013.

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COURSE DESCRIPTION

The course aims to expose students to different facets of Philippine history through
the lens of eyewitness. Rather than rely on secondary materials such as textbooks, which
is the usual approach in teaching Philippine history, different types of primary sources
will be used - written (qualitative and quantitative), oral, visual, audio-visual, digital –
covering various aspects of Philippine life (political, economic, social, cultural). Students
are expected to analyze selected readings contextually and in terms of content (stated
and implied). The end goal is to enable students to understand and appreciate our rich
past by deriving insights from those who were actually present at the time of the event.

Students are given opportunities to analyze the author’s background and main
arguments, compare different points of view, identify biases and examine the evidences
presented in the document. The discussions will tackle traditional topics in history and
other interdisciplinary themes that will deepen and broaden their understanding in the
Philippine political, economic, cultural, social, scientific and religious history. Priority is
given to primary materials that could help students develop their analytical and
communication skills. The end goal is to develop the historical and critical consciousness
the students so that they will become versatile, articulate, broad-minded, morally upright
and responsible citizens.

COURSE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Evaluate primary sources for their credibility, authenticity and provenance;

2. Analyze the context, content and perspective of different kinds of primary sources;
3. Determine the contribution of different kinds of primary sources in understanding
Philippine history;
4. Develop critical and analytical skills with exposure to primary sources;
5. Demonstrate the ability to use primary sources to argue in favor or against a
particular issue;
6. Effectively communicate, using various techniques and genres, their historical
analysis of a particular event or issue that could help others understand the chosen
topic.

COURSE SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the course, the students are expected to:

1. Identify and appreciate the historic beginnings of the Filipino people and their rich
cultural heritage;
2. Develop a comprehensive and integrative knowledge of Philippine History;

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 3. Develop the conceptual skills required for understanding, evaluating and applying
the historical knowledge and information acquired for effective citizenship;
4. Develop the necessary skills for historical study and research;
5. Develop love of country and fellowmen.

COURSE CONTENT
MODULE WEEK LESSON TOPIC
Introduction to History
1 Course Orientation
1 1 Meaning and Relevance of History
1
2 2 Doing History
3 3 Sources of Historical Data
4 4 Knowing the Philippine History

Content and Contextual Analysis of Selected Primary Sources in

Philippine History
2
5-6 1 The KKK and the Kartilya ng Katipunan
7-8 2 Making Sense of the Past: A Historical Interpretation

9 MIDTERM EXAMINATION

Occupations in the Philippines

10 1 Spanish Occupation in the Philippines
3
11 2 The Philippines Under the American Regime
11 3 The Philippines Under the Japanese Rule

Issues in Philippine History

12 1 Social History
13 2 Political History
4 14 3 Economic History
15 4 Cultural History
16 5 Environmental History
17 6 The Philippine Modern Issues

18 FINAL EXAMINATION

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 MODULE 1
Introduction to History
Introduction: Course Orientation
Lesson 1: Meaning and Relevance of History
Lesson 2: Doing History: A Guide for Students
Lesson 3: Sources of Historical Data
Lesson 4: Knowing the Philippine History: Philippine Geographical and
Historical Foundation

GE11
Readings
in Philippine History
Asst. Prof. Jayson C. Peñaflor, MAED

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Module 1
INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY

Overview
In this module, History as discipline and as a narrative is being introduced. It
discusses the limitation of historical knowledge, history as the subjective process of
recreation, and historical method and historiography. This module also presents the
sources of historical data, the written and non-written sources of history, as well as the
differentiation of primary and secondary sources of information data. Historical criticisms
such as external and internal criticisms are also being discussed here. These are important
aspects in ascertaining the authenticity and reliability of primary sources upon narratives
are crafted.

It also discusses the life of the early Filipinos before the conquest of the
Westerners. It aims to prove that our ancestors had a high level of culture even before
the coming of the Spaniards. How the Filipinos started building their communities along
the mouth of the river and coastal areas. It also presents here the different archaeological
records of the early Chinese and some Muslim scholars narrating the existence of
civilization in the archipelago even before Magellan landed.

Learning Objectives

On successful completion of this topic, you should be able to:

a. To understand the meaning of history as an academic discipline and to be

familiar with the underlying philosophy and methodology of the discipline;
b. To examine and assess critically the value of historical evidences and sources;
c. To appreciate the importance of history in the social and national life of the
Philippines.

Required Readings:

➢ Levin, M., & Pforr, B. (1962). Ethnographic and Anthropological

Materials as Historical Sources. Arctic Anthropology, 1(1), 51-57.
[Link]/stable/40315540

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 ➢ Baumgartner, J. (1981). NEWSPAPERS AS HISTORICAL SOURCES.
Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, 9(3), 256-258.
[Link]/stable/29791732

References:

Candelaria, J. L., & Alphora, V. C. (2018). Readings in Philippine History.

Quezon City: Rex Printing Company, INC.

Ligan, V., Espino, L., Andrada, J., et. al. (2018) Readings in the Philippine
History, Malabon City. Mutya Publishing House, Inc. Chapter 1 (pages 1-15)

Palado, D., De Silva, A., Reyes, C., et. al., (2018) Readings in Philippine
History, Muntinlupa City. Panday-Lahi Publishing House, Inc. (pages 2-4;
16-22)

Torres, J. V. (2018). BATIS Sources in Philippine History. Quezon City: C &

E Publishing, Inc.

Christopher F. B., Raymond E. B, Julie C. L., Fatima F. R., Tecah C. S. (2006)

Philippine History Coursebook, Trinitas Publishing. INC.

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 LESSON 1: Meaning and Relevance of History

To make sense of history, it is necessary to first understand what it is all about.

Many people think that history is merely lists of names, dates, places, and “important”
events. However, History or the study of history is more than just knowing and
memorizing facts. It is a historian’s duty to draw insights from the ideas and realities
that have shaped the lives of men and women and the society. And in
understanding these ideas, a historian (or, in fact, a student of history) can comprehend
how situations happened, identify their elements, and think of how these situations can
solve today’s predicaments, and help them plan for the future. The study of history,
therefore, is the study of the beliefs and desires, practices, and institutions of human
beings.

WHY STUDY HISTORY?

An examination of the past can tell us a great deal about how we came to be who
we are. It means looking at the roots of modern institutions, ideas, values, and problems.
Looking at the past teaches us to see the world through different eyes-appreciating the
diversity of human perceptions, beliefs, and cultures. Different and/or new
perspectives will enable us to analyze critically the present contexts of our society
and beings.

Looking at the past teaches us to see the world through different eyes -
appreciating the diversity of human perceptions, beliefs and cultures. Different and/or
new perspectives will enable us to analyze critically the present contexts of our society.
1. To learn about the past. History enables people to discover and learn about the
challenges of people around the world in different periods of time. The satisfaction
you will gain from examining these records is the initial reason for studying history.
2. To understand the present. Links between the past and the present are all around
us. The more knowledge we gain of the past the more insights we have into the
present. We can learn valuable lessons from the past to help solve present
problems.
3. To appreciate your heritage. Understanding history will give us greater
appreciation of our heritage. It helps us to value these contributions that are
foundation of our culture and tradition, and is the foundation of our future
generation.

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 4. To broaden your perspectives. Studying history indeed broadens your perspective
in so many ways. It helps us understand how societies evolve, how cultures
interact, and how events shape the world we live in today.
5. To acquire background for critical thinking and analysis. Studying history equips
you with the background necessary for critical thinking and analysis. By examining
past events, decisions, and consequences, you learn to: evaluate evidence from
multiple perspectives; distinguish between fact and interpretation; understand
cause and effect in complex human actions; recognize patterns and bias in
narratives; develop informed arguments based on historical data.

THE DEFINITION AND SUBJECT MATTER

History was derived from the Greek word “historia” which means “knowledge
acquired through inquiry or investigation”. History as a disciplined existed for around
2, 400 years and is as old as mathematics and philosophy. This term was then adapted
to classical Latin where it acquired a new definition. Historia became known as the
account of the past of a person or a group of people through written documents
and historical evidences. That meaning stuck until the early parts of the twentieth
century. History became an important discipline. It became the historian’s duty to write
about the lives of important individuals like monarchs, heroes, saints, and nobilities.
History was also focused on writing wars, revolutions, and other important
breakthroughs. It is thus important to ask: What counts as history? Traditional historians
lived with the mantra “no document, no history”. It means that unless a written
document can prove a certain historical event, then it cannot be considered as a
historical fact.

But as any other academic disciplines, history progressed and opened up to the
possibility of valid historical sources, which were not limited to written documents,
like government records, chroniclers’ accounts, or personal letters. Giving premium
to written documents essentially invalidates the history of other civilizations that do not
keep written records. Some were keener on passing their history by word of mouth.
Others got their historical documents burned or destroyed in the events of war or
colonization. Restricting historical evidence as exclusively written is also
discrimination against other social classes who were not recorded in paper. Nobilities,
monarchs, the elite, and even the middle class would have their birth, education,
marriage, and death as matters of government and historical record. But what of
peasant families or indigenous groups who were not given much thought about being
registered to government records? Does the absence of written documents about them
mean they were people of no history or past? Did they even exist?

This loophole was recognized by historians who started using other kinds of
historical sources, which may not be in written form but were just as valid. A few
examples are oral traditions in forms of epics and songs, artifacts, architecture, and

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memory. History thus became more inclusive and started collaborating with other
disciplines as its auxiliary disciplines.

Other Definitions of History:

➢ History is defined as a documented record of man and his society. (Gray,
1956, pp.1-3).
➢ As a field of study, history is a study of man and his achievements from the
beginning of written records to the present.
➢ As a literary form of history is an effective presentation of the unfolding
events. But as a type of literature history falls under non-fiction work.
➢ History comes from social history which defines it as a record of events
showing the evolution of man and his society from the earliest and from the age
of barbarism to what he is today.
➢ Classical Definition: History is the account of the past written by humans.
➢ Modern View: History is not just a record of events, but an interpretation of the
past based on evidence.
➢ E.H. Carr: “History is an unending dialogue between the past and present.”
➢ R.G. Collingwood: “History is a science concerned with the human actions in the
past.”

Subject Matter includes:

1. Deals with human activities through time.
2. Focuses on change and continuity in societies.
3. Involves different dimensions:
a. Political (e.g., governance, laws)
b. Economic (e.g., trade, agriculture)
c. Cultural (e.g., traditions, beliefs)
d. Social (e.g., family structure, classes)

UNDERSTANDING HISTORY

Why don’t we learn from history? (An excerpt from Lidell Hart, 1971)

What is the objective of history? One would simply answer, quite simply -
“truth”. It is a word and an idea that has gone out of fashion.

The object might be more cautiously expressed thus: to find out what happened
while trying to find out why it happened. It seeks the casual relations between
events.

History has limitations as a guiding signpost; although it can show us the right
direction, it does not give detailed information about the road conditions. But its
negative value as a warning sign is more definite. History can show us what to avoid,

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even if it does not teach us what to do - by showing the most common mistakes
that mankind is apt to make and to repeat.

A second object lies in the practical value of history. The knowledge gained from
the study of true history is the best of all education for practical life. The study of history
embraces every aspect of life. It lays the foundation of education by showing how
mankind repeats its errors and what those errors are.

Importance and Uses of History

Given are the uses of history as summarized by Foray and Salevouris (1988).
Some of these are interestingly explained by B.H. Lidedell Hart (1971).

A. History provides a source of personal and social identity.

B. History helps us understand the problems of the present.
C. History – good history – corrects misleading analogies and “lessons” of the past.
D. History can help one develop tolerance and open-mindedness.
E. History helps us better understand all human behaviors and all aspects of
the human condition.
F. History provides the basic background for many disciplines.
G. History can be a source of entertainment.
H. History, when studied, can teach many critical skills.

Issues and Questions in History

• Subjectivity: Can historians be truly objective?
• Perspective: Whose voices are recorded or silenced in history?
• Source Validity: Are sources accurate or biased?
• Historical Gaps: What about unwritten histories or marginalized groups?
• Moral Judgment: Should historians judge the actions of the past using modern
values?

Who is a Historian?
• A historian is a scholar or researcher who studies and writes about the past
based on evidence and interpretation.
• Qualifications:
o Academic training in historical research
o Mastery of historical methods
o Ethical responsibility to truth and fairness

Tasks of the Historian

1. Selection of Sources – Choose credible and relevant documents or materials.
2. Interpretation – Analyze and synthesize findings to explain what happened
and why.
3. Narration – Present findings in a coherent, accurate, and engaging narrative.

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 4. Criticism – Apply external and internal criticism to assess authenticity and
reliability.
5. Contextualization – Understand the historical context behind every event.

Objectivity of the Historian

• Objectivity means being unbiased and factual, but:
o Historians bring their own backgrounds and perspectives.
o Complete neutrality is challenging, but awareness of bias is crucial.
• Historians strive for balanced representation by using multiple sources,
acknowledging their limitations, and explaining interpretations.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Quiz #1 – Lesson 1

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 LESSON 2: Doing History: A Guide for Students

Lesson 2.1: Historical Research

A. What is Historical Research?

Historical research is the careful, methodical, and analytical study of past events,
individuals, societies, and processes based on the interpretation of historical sources. It
is both an intellectual discipline and a creative pursuit, where historians seek not
only to chronicle what happened but also to understand why events occurred, how they
unfolded, and what their consequences were.

Key Features:
• Systematic Process: Historical research involves a clear methodology—
selecting a topic, identifying and gathering relevant sources, evaluating their
credibility, interpreting evidence, and presenting findings in a coherent narrative.
• Evidence-Based: It is rooted in evidence. Historians do not merely tell stories—
they reconstruct the past using primary and secondary sources.
• Interpretive Nature: History is not just about facts; it’s also about
interpretations. Different historians may interpret the same events differently
based on available evidence, their perspectives, and historiographical debates.

Aims of Historical Research:

o To uncover truths: Discover what really happened in the past.
o To challenge myths and historical distortions: Correct or reframe
misleading or one-sided accounts.
o To contribute to knowledge: Offer new insights or reinterpret existing
narratives.
o To connect past and present: Help societies understand current
realities by contextualizing them in historical development.

B. Sources for Historical Research

The quality and depth of historical research rely heavily on the sources
consulted. These sources can be categorized into two main types:

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1. Libraries and Archives
Libraries and archives are essential institutions that safeguard and provide access
to historical documents and materials.

Types of Institutions:
• National Library of the Philippines (NLP):
o The country's main repository of printed heritage.
o Houses rare books, periodicals, newspapers, theses, and manuscripts.
• National Archives of the Philippines (NAP):
o Maintains historical government records, official correspondences, census
data, court records, and land documents.
• University Libraries:
o Many major universities such as UP, Ateneo, and UST have special
collections and Filipiniana sections that contain valuable historical sources.
• Local Libraries and Municipal Archives:
o Hold materials such as local ordinances, resolutions, community records,
and even oral history transcripts specific to the region.

Types of Materials:
• Primary Sources:
o Firsthand accounts or evidence from the time period under study.
o Examples: personal letters, diaries, official records, photographs,
speeches, legal documents, maps.
• Secondary Sources:
o Interpretations or analyses based on primary sources.
o Examples: history books, scholarly articles, biographies, critical essays.

2. The Internet
In the digital age, the internet has become a powerful tool for historical
research, but it must be used critically and responsibly.

Valuable Online Resources:

• Digitized Archives:
o British Library Online Archive, Spanish Archives (Archivo General de
Indias), National Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP) digital
collections.
• Academic Databases:
o JSTOR, Project Muse, Google Scholar, [Link]—provide access to
peer-reviewed historical journals and theses.
• Digital Libraries and Museums:
o Philippine eLib, World Digital Library, Smithsonian, and other cultural
heritage websites.

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 • Multimedia Sources:
o Historical documentaries, podcasts, virtual museum tours, and oral history
interviews.

Guidelines for Using Internet Sources:

• Verify Credibility:
o Check if the source comes from a reputable institution or is authored by a
credible historian.
• Check Authorship and Publication Date:
o Look for the name of the author, their qualifications, and whether the
content is up to date or outdated.
• Evaluate Purpose and Bias:
o Ask: Is this site educational, political, or commercial in nature? Does it
show any bias?

C. Avoiding Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a serious academic offense that undermines the integrity of
historical research. It involves presenting someone else's work or ideas as your own
without proper acknowledgment.

Forms of Plagiarism:
• Direct Copying: Copying someone else’s exact words without quotation marks
or citation.
• Paraphrasing without Citation: Rewriting another person’s idea in your own
words without giving credit.
• Self-Plagiarism: Reusing your own previous work for a new assignment or
publication without disclosure.

Why Avoid Plagiarism?

• It is unethical and dishonest.
• It disrespects the work and effort of original authors.
• It results in academic penalties, damaged reputation, and lack of credibility as a
researcher.

Best Practices to Avoid Plagiarism:

1. Cite All Sources:
o Use appropriate citation styles such as:
▪ APA (American Psychological Association) – common in social
sciences.
▪ MLA (Modern Language Association) – used in humanities.
▪ Chicago Manual of Style – popular among historians.
2. Use Quotation Marks for Direct Quotes:
o If you quote someone word for word, enclose it in quotation marks and
cite the source.

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 3. Paraphrase Properly:
o Rephrase ideas in your own words and still cite the original source.
4. Create Original Interpretations:
o Go beyond simply repeating what others have said—develop your own
thesis, perspective, or argument.
5. Use Plagiarism Detection Tools:
o Tools like Turnitin, Grammarly, or Quetext can help check for accidental
plagiarism.

Lesson 2.2: Life History and Biographical Research

A. Biography vs. Life History

Understanding the distinction between biography and life history is crucial in
historical research, especially when focusing on individual narratives and their
connection to larger social and historical processes.

Biography
• A biography is a narrative or written account of a person’s life.
• Typically written in the third-person point of view, often by someone other
than the subject.
• It follows a structured, often chronological format, covering major life
events: birth, education, career, personal milestones, death.
• Focus is often on notable individuals: leaders, artists, activists, public figures.
• Emphasizes achievements, challenges, and character development.
✅ Example: A published biography of Jose Rizal that highlights his early education,
Noli Me Tangere, his exile in Dapitan, and his martyrdom.

Life History
• A life history is a qualitative research method that involves collecting personal
narratives and memories of individuals, often through interviews.
• It emphasizes the subject’s own voice, emotions, experiences, and
interpretations.
• Usually conducted in the first-person point of view or as told by the subject,
allowing for more intimate, in-depth insights.
• Life histories are contextual—used to illustrate broader social, cultural, or
historical conditions.
• Often focuses on ordinary people whose lives reflect larger societal
phenomena (e.g., migration, poverty, war, gender roles).
✅ Example: An oral life history of a Martial Law survivor in a rural community,
capturing personal suffering, resistance, and community dynamics.

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B. Importance in Philippine History
Life histories and biographical accounts are essential tools in constructing a
richer, more inclusive historical narrative of the Philippines.

Why They Matter:

1. Revealing Lived Experiences
o Through personal stories, we gain access to how historical events—wars,
revolutions, political transitions—were experienced at the individual level.
o These stories provide insights that official documents or statistical data
often overlook.
2. Highlighting Diverse Perspectives
o History is not only made by the powerful; life histories give voice to
women, farmers, indigenous peoples, workers, and other marginalized
groups.
o For example, oral life histories of women comfort victims during World
War II bring out dimensions of the war not captured in official military
records.
3. Challenging Dominant Narratives
o Biographical and life history research helps deconstruct nationalist or
elite-centered histories.
o They help historians construct more plural and critical interpretations
of Philippine history.
4. Documenting Memory and Identity
o Personal narratives contribute to the collective memory of a nation.
o They help construct a sense of cultural identity, resistance, survival,
and pride—essential in postcolonial and post-conflict societies like the
Philippines.

C. Writing Life Histories

Writing a life history is not simply recording someone’s story. It involves ethical,
methodological, and analytical considerations.

Ethical Considerations:
• Informed Consent:
o The subject must freely and knowingly agree to be interviewed and have
their story shared or published.
o The researcher must explain the purpose, methods, potential use, and
scope of the research.
• Respect for Privacy:
o Not all details must be included; respect personal boundaries.
o Researchers must be sensitive to traumatic experiences, family matters, or
politically dangerous topics.

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 • Anonymity and Confidentiality:
o In sensitive cases, names and locations may need to be changed to
protect the subject.
o Clear agreements should be made on what information is public and what
should remain private.

Steps in Writing Life Histories

1. Identify a Subject or Theme
o Choose a person whose experiences represent a significant social issue or
historical period.
o Examples:
▪ A local hero during the anti-Japanese resistance.
▪ A survivor of Martial Law torture and detention.
▪ A migrant worker’s journey from rural poverty to overseas
employment.
▪ A barangay midwife and her role in community health during the
1970s.
2. Conduct Interviews and Gather Supporting Documents
o Use oral history methods: semi-structured interviews, recorded
conversations, and follow-ups.
o Gather documents such as letters, photographs, diaries, identification
cards, news clippings, awards, and memorabilia.
o Use audio/video recordings with permission, and always take notes.
3. Organize Material Chronologically or Thematically
o Chronological: Present the life in linear order—childhood, adulthood, old
age.
o Thematic: Group experiences into themes such as education, migration,
political involvement, or family life.
4. Analyze and Contextualize
o Do not just retell the story—analyze it in the light of historical context.
o Ask:
▪ How does this personal story reflect broader historical events?
▪ What can this tell us about life under Spanish, American, or
Japanese rule?
▪ How does this narrative intersect with class, gender, or ethnicity?
▪ Connect the micro (individual story) with the macro
(historical structures/events).

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 Lesson 2.3: Local and Oral History

A. What is Local History?

Local history is the study of the past with a focus on specific geographic
areas, such as a town, city, province, or region. Unlike national history, which often
centers on prominent leaders and major events, local history emphasizes
grassroots-level experiences, community memory, and regional identities. It is a
critical field for uncovering hidden or neglected narratives that are often excluded
from grand, centralized accounts of history.

Key Characteristics:
• Place-based: Focused on a town, barangay, city, or province.
• Community-centered: Looks at how people in the locality lived, organized,
resisted, and survived across time.
• Connected to National Events: Examines how national events (e.g., Spanish
colonization, American occupation, Martial Law) were experienced locally.

What Local History Reveals:

1. Community Traditions:
o Oral lore, fiestas, folk practices, indigenous rituals, and local beliefs.
o Example: Ati-atihan Festival in Aklan as a syncretic celebration of
indigenous and Christian culture.
2. Local Responses to National Events:
o How a town responded to the Japanese invasion, Marcos dictatorship, or
EDSA revolution.
o Resistance or collaboration at the barangay level, or the impact of
agrarian reform in a specific community.
3. Local Heroes and Movements:
o Individuals who led revolts, organized protests, defended cultural
traditions, or served as healers, educators, and artists.
o Example: Macli-ing Dulag, a Kalinga chieftain who led opposition against
the Chico River Dam project during the Marcos era.

Importance of Local History:

• Challenges the "Manila-centric" narrative of history.
• Empowers communities to preserve their heritage and assert their identity.
• Serves as a source of civic pride and promotes cultural awareness.

B. What is Oral History?

Oral history is a method of gathering, preserving, and interpreting
historical information through firsthand interviews with people who lived
through past events. It is a powerful tool in societies like the Philippines where many
historical records are oral, informal, or undocumented.

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Definition and Scope:
• A recorded conversation or testimony from an individual recalling personal
experiences related to significant historical periods or themes.
• Can be audio, video, or written transcripts.

Key Purposes of Oral History:

1. Preserving Social History:
o Captures the experiences of ordinary people: farmers, fisherfolk,
housewives, factory workers, etc.
o Gives voice to the masses, not just politicians and elites.
2. Recovering Indigenous and Ethnic Narratives:
o Many indigenous groups have rich oral traditions (e.g., tudtul of the T’boli
or ullalim of the Kalinga).
o These contain histories of migrations, battles, alliances, and worldviews
passed down through generations.
3. Understanding Everyday Experiences During Key Periods:
o Personal stories about Martial Law, the Japanese Occupation, the People
Power Revolution, or diaspora migration.
o These insights often humanize the historical record by showing
emotions, trauma, survival, and resistance.

Importance of Oral History in the Philippine Context:

• Many communities have limited access to written documents, especially in
rural or indigenous areas.
• Oral history ensures that "history from below" is not lost.
• It enhances the plurality of voices in national memory, promoting a more
inclusive understanding of the past.

C. Interviewing as a Method in Oral and Local History

Oral history relies heavily on the interview process, which must be approached
with ethical care, sensitivity, and methodological discipline.

1. Preparation Phase:
• Research Background:
o Understand the historical period or context of the interviewee’s life.
o Know the subject’s background: age, occupation, family, community
history.
• Prepare Guiding Questions:
o Use open-ended, non-leading questions to invite detailed storytelling.
o Group questions thematically: childhood, education, livelihood, key events,
family, etc.
o Example:
▪ “Can you describe what life was like in your town during the
Japanese Occupation?”

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 ▪ “What do you remember about the Martial Law years in your
community?”

2. During the Interview:

• Establish Rapport and Trust:
o Begin with small talk to make the subject comfortable.
o Explain the purpose of the interview and how the information will be used.
• Use Open-Ended Questions:
o Let the respondent narrate freely. Avoid yes/no questions.
o Be patient. Let silences happen—they can lead to deeper revelations.
• Record with Permission:
o Use an audio recorder or camera (if appropriate), but always ask for
consent.
o Respect cultural protocols, especially when dealing with elders or
indigenous peoples.

3. After the Interview:

• Transcribe and Verify:
o Write down the interview accurately.
o If possible, go back to the respondent to clarify names, dates, or events.
• Analyze Content and Cross-Check:
o Compare the oral account with available written records,
photographs, and newspaper articles.
o Identify patterns, contradictions, and points of convergence between
memory and documented history.
• Store and Archive:
o Keep the recordings and transcripts safe, preferably in community
archives or university libraries for future use.
o With permission, consider publishing excerpts or incorporating them into
historical narratives.

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 Lesson 2.4: History through Paintings and Films

A. PAINTING PHILIPPINE HISTORY

Art as Historical Medium

Art—particularly painting—is not merely a tool for aesthetic expression. It is also
a powerful vehicle for historical memory, nationalism, and identity formation.
Visual art allows people to reflect on, remember, and interpret past events in ways that
textual sources cannot always capture.
Unlike formal history books or documents, paintings use symbolism, emotion, and
visual storytelling to convey experiences and values of a particular period. Artists
play a role not just as observers but as interpreters of history—selecting what to
emphasize, how to depict it, and what message to communicate.

Notable Historical Painters:

1. Carlos “Botong” Francisco (1912–1969)
o Known for his mural paintings depicting pivotal events in Philippine
history.
o One of the greatest Filipino modernist artists and declared a National
Artist for Visual Arts.
o Key Works:
▪ The Blood Compact – depicts the Sandugo between Legazpi and
Sikatuna.
▪ First Mass at Limasawa – a visual narrative of religious beginnings.
▪ Martyrdom of Rizal – captures Rizal’s execution in a dramatic,
almost cinematic portrayal.
o Significance: Botong Francisco’s murals are rich in movement, heroism,
and patriotism, often emphasizing the collective spirit of Filipinos.
2. Fernando Amorsolo (1892–1972)
o First to be awarded as National Artist of the Philippines.
o Renowned for his romanticized depictions of rural life, traditional
Filipino customs, and post-war struggles.
o Key Themes:
▪ Idyllic countryside: carabaos, rice fields, nipa huts, and festive
traditions.
▪ Post-war realities: paintings of ruins, refugees, and reconstruction
after World War II.
o Significance: While Amorsolo’s works were often idealized, they served
to preserve national identity and evoke a sense of nostalgia, especially
during and after wartime.

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Art as Documentation and Interpretation
Paintings are not photographs—they are selective, emotional, and subjective. To
“read” a historical painting means to analyze:
• Themes: What is the message? Heroism? Suffering? Unity?
• Symbols: What objects or figures represent broader ideas (e.g., flags, light and
shadow, facial expressions)?
• Artist’s Intent: Is the painting meant to inspire, to inform, to criticize, or to
celebrate?
• Cultural Context: When and why was the painting made? Under what social or
political conditions?
✅ Example: Spoliarium by Juan Luna
• Though not about Philippine history directly, it metaphorically reflects the
oppression of the Filipino people under Spanish rule.

B. FILMING PHILIPPINE HISTORY

Film is a modern and dynamic medium of historical narration. Through
motion picture, filmmakers can reach wide audiences and make the past emotionally
engaging, dramatic, and visually immersive. Like painting, film is also a form of
interpretation, not just representation.

Historical Films: Education, Critique, and Distortion

Historical films can:
• Educate – dramatize historical events in a way that’s accessible to viewers
unfamiliar with the period.
• Romanticize – emphasize love stories, dramatic heroism, or nationalism,
sometimes at the cost of accuracy.
• Distort – alter or oversimplify facts for entertainment, political agendas, or
commercial reasons.

Key Examples:
1. Heneral Luna (2015)
o Directed by Jerrold Tarog
o Focuses on General Antonio Luna and the internal divisions within the
Filipino revolutionary leadership.
o Highlights:
▪ Luna’s fiery patriotism and tragic downfall.
▪ Conflicts not just against Americans, but among Filipinos
themselves.
o Significance: A critical commentary on disunity, egotism, and colonial
mentality—issues still relevant today.
2. Dekada '70 (2002)
o Based on the novel by Lualhati Bautista
o Narrates the impact of Martial Law on a middle-class Filipino family
during the 1970s.

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 o Themes of resistance, youth activism, and political awakening.
o Significance: Offers a personal and feminist lens to national turmoil.
3. Jose Rizal (1998)
o Directed by Marilou Diaz-Abaya
o A biographical film exploring Rizal’s writings, imprisonment, and
execution.
o Interweaves Rizal’s novels with his personal experiences.
o Significance: Bridges literature and history, idealism and reality.

C. READING HISTORICAL FILMS

Viewing a historical film should go beyond passive watching. Films must be
treated as texts that can be read, analyzed, and critiqued.

Critical Analysis Includes:

1. Historical Accuracy vs. Creative License:
o What parts of the story are based on documented facts?
o What scenes are dramatized or fictionalized for narrative purposes?
o Does the film claim to be “based on true events,” or is it a total
dramatization?
2. Representation of Characters and Social Groups:
o Who is portrayed as the hero? Who is villainized?
o Are women, indigenous people, the poor, and other marginalized groups
represented fairly?
o Is the portrayal inclusive or stereotypical?
3. Cultural and Political Context of Production:
o When and why was the film made?
o Was it released during a politically tense moment? (e.g., Martial Law
anniversaries)
o Was it supported by the government, private sector, or independent
producers?
4. Narrative Focus:
o Whose perspective is being shown?
o Are there missing voices or alternative viewpoints that were left out?

Encourage Critical Viewing:

• Remind students that films are interpretations, not documentaries.
• They reflect the filmmaker’s bias, ideology, and creative goals.
• They can spark interest in history, but should not replace historical study
based on evidence and critical inquiry.

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 Lesson 2.5: Historical Sites, Structures, and Museums

A. HISTORICAL SITES AND STRUCTURES

Definition and Importance:

Historical sites and structures are physical spaces and architectural
landmarks that hold cultural, historical, political, or religious significance.
These places are either the actual locations of important historical events, or they
are symbolic representations of a particular historical period or cultural identity.
They serve as tangible connections to the past, allowing people to interact with
history in a spatial and sensory manner. Walking through these sites is like walking
through history itself—bringing abstract historical knowledge into direct experience.

Examples of Notable Philippine Historical Sites and Structures:

1. Intramuros (Manila)
o The old Spanish-era walled city founded in 1571.
o Contains Fort Santiago, San Agustin Church (a UNESCO World Heritage
Site), and other colonial buildings.
o Significance: Reflects Spanish colonial urban planning, architecture, and
religious dominance. Also a site of Filipino resistance during WWII and the
Philippine Revolution.
2. Barasoain Church (Malolos, Bulacan)
o Birthplace of the First Philippine Republic in 1899.
o Hosted the Malolos Congress, which drafted the first Philippine
Constitution.
o Significance: A symbol of Filipino nationalism and the quest for
independence.
3. EDSA Shrine (Ortigas, Quezon City)
o Built to commemorate the 1986 People Power Revolution that
peacefully ended the Marcos dictatorship.
o Significance: Represents the strength of collective nonviolent action,
democracy, and civilian courage.
4. Corregidor Island (Manila Bay)
o Served as the last stronghold of Allied Forces in the Philippines during
World War II.
o Features ruins, tunnels, and memorials from the Battle of Corregidor.
o Significance: Memorializes Filipino and American resistance, sacrifice,
and the tragedy of war.

Functions of Historical Sites and Structures:

1. Memorialization
o Sites serve as places of remembrance for individuals and communities.

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 o They honor heroes, commemorate sacrifices, and keep alive the memory
of both triumphs and tragedies.
o Example: Bantayog ng mga Bayani (Monument to Martial Law victims).
2. Education
o Offer immersive learning experiences beyond textbooks.
o Students and visitors gain contextual understanding of historical
events.
o Include markers, guided tours, reenactments, and multimedia displays.
3. Cultural Preservation
o Serve as repositories of heritage and identity, especially in the face
of modern development and globalization.
o They preserve architectural styles, building methods, and spatial histories.
o Help communities reconnect with their roots.

B. MUSEUMS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

What is a Museum?
A museum is an institution that collects, preserves, researches, and
exhibits objects of historical, artistic, scientific, or cultural significance. Museums are
guardians of memory, playing a key role in shaping public understanding of history.
They offer a multi-sensory experience—engaging visitors through visuals, texts,
artifacts, interactive media, and curated storytelling.

Types of Museums in the Philippines:

1. National Museum of the Philippines (Manila)
o Composed of:
▪ National Museum of Fine Arts
▪ National Museum of Anthropology
▪ National Museum of Natural History
o Houses national treasures like the Spoliarium (Juan Luna), ancient
artifacts (e.g., Manunggul Jar), and ethnographic materials.
2. Museo ng Katipunan (San Juan, Metro Manila)
o Focuses on the Katipunan revolutionary movement and its key
figures such as Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Jacinto.
o Features weapons, documents, and personal belongings.
3. Museo Pambata (Manila)
o A children’s museum that introduces Filipino culture and history in an
interactive, educational format.
o Makes historical learning accessible and fun for young learners.
4. Local Heritage Museums
o Found in provinces and municipalities (e.g., Museo Iloilo, Museo Sugbo in
Cebu, Davao Museum).
o Highlight regional history, culture, and achievements.
o Often operated by local governments or NGOs.

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Roles and Contributions of Museums:
1. Promote Public History
o Make history accessible to the general public, not just academics or
students.
o Allow communities to explore history through objects, stories, and
lived experiences.
o Encourage lifelong learning and public engagement with heritage.
2. Foster National Identity
o Museums reflect what a nation values and remembers.
o The artifacts displayed—heroes’ relics, ancestral tools, war remnants—
form a narrative of Filipino resilience, creativity, and diversity.
o They strengthen patriotism and historical consciousness.
3. Serve as Sites for Critical Reflection
o Museums are not only celebratory—they can also prompt critical
thinking about the past.
o Exhibits on Martial Law, colonialism, or indigenous struggles challenge
visitors to confront difficult truths.
o Museums provide space for dialogue, debate, and healing.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Quiz #2 – Lesson 2

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 LESSON 3: Sources of Historical Data

Historical Sources

With the past as history's subject matter, the historian's most important
research tools are historical sources, this sources are the raw materials of history. In
general, historical sources can be classified between primary and secondary sources. The
classification of sources between these two categories depends on the historical subject
being studied.

Primary sources are those sources produced at the same time as the event,
period, or subject being studied. For example, if a historian wishes to study the
Commonwealth Constitution Convention of 1935, his primary sources can include
the minutes of the convention, newspaper clippings Philippine Commission reports of
the U.S. Commissioners, records of the convention, the draft of the Constitution, and
even photographs of the event. Eyewitness accounts of convention delegates and their
memoirs can also be used as primary sources. The same goes with other subjects
of historical study. Archival documents, artifacts, memorabilia, letters, census, and
government records, among others are the most common examples of primary sources.

On the other hand, secondary sources are those sources, which were produced
by an author who used primary sources to produce the material. In other words,
secondary sources are historical sources, which studied a certain historical subject. For
example, on the subject of the Philippine Revolution of 1896, students can read
Teodoro Agoncillo's Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan
published originally in 1956. The Philippine Revolution happened in the last years of the
nineteenth century while Agoncillo published his work in 1956, which makes the Revolt
of the Masses a secondary source. More than this, in writing the book, Agoncillo
used primary sources with his research like documents of the Katipunan, interview
with the veterans of the Revolution, and correspondence between and among
Katipuneros.

Primary versus Secondary Sources

It is very important to know the difference between primary and secondary sources.
These two concepts will help readers for better understanding of the past.

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Primary sources are original, first -hand account of an occasion or period that are
usually written or made during or on the brink of the event or period. These sources are
basically original and factual.
Examples: Diaries, journals, letters, newspapers and magazines articles (factual
accounts), government records, photographs, maps, postcards, posters, recorded or
transcribed speeches.

Secondary sources are materials made by people long after the events. These sources
provide valuable interpretations of historical events. - interprets and scrutinizes primary
sources. Examples: biographies, histories, literary criticism.

1. Primary Sources – Direct, first-hand evidence from the past.

o Examples: diaries, letters, official documents, photos, artifacts
2. Secondary Sources – Interpretations or analyses of primary sources.
o Examples: textbooks, biographies, scholarly articles

Classification of Sources
• Written Sources: letters, books, inscriptions
• Non-Written Sources: oral traditions, artifacts, architecture
• Oral Sources: interviews, folk songs, legends
• Visual Sources: paintings, maps, photographs

However, a student should not be confused about what counts as a primary or a

secondary source. As mentioned above, the classification of sources between primary
and secondary depends not on the period when the source was produced or the type of
the source but on the subject of the historical research. For example, a textbook is
usually classified as a secondary source, a tertiary source even. However, this
classification is usual but not automatic. If a historian chooses to write the history
of education in the 1980s, he can utilize textbooks used in that period as a primary
source. If a historian wishes to study the historiography of the Filipino-American
War for example, he can use works of different authors on the topic as his primary source
as well.

Both primary and secondary sources are useful in writing and learning history.
However, historians and students of history need to thoroughly scrutinize these
historical sources to avoid deception and to come up with the historical truth. The
historian should be able to conduct an external and internal criticism of the source,
especially primary sources which can age in centuries. External criticism is the practice of
verifying the authenticity of evidence by examining its physical characteristics;
consistency with the historical characteristic of the time when it was produced; and the
materials used for the evidence. Examples of the things that will be examined when
conducting external criticism of a document include the quality of the paper, the type of
the ink, and the language and words used in the material, among others.

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 Historical data are source from artifacts that have been left by the past. These
artifacts can either be relics or remains, or the testimonies of witnesses to the past.
Therefore, historical sources are those materials from which the historians construct
meaning. The historian deals with the dynamic (the becoming) as well as the static (the
being) and aims at being interpretative (explaining why and how things happened and
were interrelated) as well as descriptive (telling what happened, when and where, and
who took part). Besides, such descriptive data as can be derived directly and immediately
from surviving artifacts are only small parts of the periods to which they belong.

There are written and non- written sources of history. Let us explain each.

First, written sources of history are usually categorized in three ways:

(1) narrative or literary,
(2) diplomatic or juridical, and
(3) social documents.

Narrative or literature are chronicles or tracts presented in narrative form, written to

impart a message whose motives for his or her compositions vary widely. Examples:
biography, novel or film, and hagiography

Diplomatic Sources are understood to be those which document/record an existing legal

situation or create a replacement one, and it's these sorts of sources that professional
historians once treated as the purest, the “best” source. Example: Charter

Social documents are information concerning economic, social, political, or judicial

significance. They are records kept by bureaucracies. Examples: government reports such
as municipal accounts, research findings, and documents like these parliamentary
procedures, civil registry records, property registers, and records of census.

Second, unwritten sources - these are as essentials as written sources. There are two
types: the fabric evidence and oral evidence.

Material evidence, also referred to as archaeological evidence is one among the foremost
important unwritten evidences. Examples: pottery, jewelry, dwellings, graves, churches,
roads, and others that tell a story about the past.

Oral evidence is additionally a crucial source of data for historians. Examples of

this are tale sagas of an ancient peoples and the folk songs or popular rituals from the
pre-modern period of the Philippine history.

Historical Criticism

To verify the credibility of sources, historians apply historical criticism, which has two
main types:

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1. External Criticism (Authenticity)
• Focuses on the genuineness of a document.
• Questions to ask:
o Is the source original or forged?
o When and where was it produced?
o Is the handwriting, ink, paper consistent with the period?
2. Internal Criticism (Credibility)
• Focuses on the truthfulness and accuracy of the content.
• Questions to ask:
o Is the author trustworthy?
o Is there internal consistency?
o Are there any exaggerations or bias?

Historical Criticism examines the origins of the earliest text to appreciate the underlying
circumstance upon which the text came to be (Soulen & Soulen, 2001).

It has two important goals:

First, to discover the original meaning of the text in its primitive or historical context and
literal sense.

Second, to create a restoration of the historical situation of the author and receivers of
the text.

There are two parts to historical criticisms:

1. External criticism determines the authenticity of the source. The authenticity of

the fabric could also be tested in two ways, by paleographical (the deciphering
and dating of historical manuscripts) and diplomatic criticism (critical analysis of
historical paper to understand how the document came to be, the information
transmitted, and the relationships between the facts purported in the document
and the reality).

External Criticism (Authenticity)

o Focuses on the genuineness of a document.
o Questions to ask:
▪ Is the source original or forged?
▪ When and where was it produced?
▪ Is the handwriting, ink, paper consistent with the period?

2. Internal criticism determines the historicity of the facts contained within the
document. It is not necessary to prove the authenticity of the material or
document. However, the facts contained in the document must first be tested
before any conclusion pertaining to it can be admitted. In determining the worth

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 of the facts, the characters of the sources, the knowledge of the author, and
therefore the influences prevalent at the time of writing must be carefully
investigated.

Internal Criticism (Credibility)

o Focuses on the truthfulness and accuracy of the content.
o Questions to ask:
▪ Is the author trustworthy?
▪ Is there internal consistency?
▪ Are there any exaggerations or bias?

Internal criticism, on the other hand, is the examination of the truthfulness

of the evidence. It looks at the content of the source and examines the
circumstance of its production. Internal criticism looks at the truthfulness and factuality
of the evidence by looking at the author of the source, its context, the agenda behind
its creation, the knowledge which informed it, and its intended purpose, among others.
For example, Japanese reports and declarations during the period of the war should not
be taken as a historical fact hastily. Internal criticism entails that the historian
acknowledge and analyze how such reports can be manipulated to be used war
propaganda. Validating historical sources is important because the use of unverified,
falsified, and untruthful historical sources can lead to equally false conclusions. Without
thorough criticisms of historical evidences; historical deceptions and lies will be highly
probable.

One of the most scandalous cases of deception in Philippine history is the hoax
Code of Kalantiaw. The code was a set of rules contained in an epic, Maragtas, which
was allegedly written by a certain Datu Kalantiaw. The document was sold to the National
Library and was regarded as an important precolonial document until 1968, when
American historian William Henry Scott debunked the authenticity of the code due to
anachronism and lack of evidence to prove that the code existed in the precolonial
Philippine society Ferdinand Marcos also claimed that he was a decorated World War II
soldier who led a guerilla unit called Ang Maharlika. This was widely believed by
students of history and Marcos had war medals to show. This claim, however,
was disproven when historians counterchecked Marcos's claims with the war records
of the United States. These cases prove how deceptions can propagate without rigorous
historical research.

The task of the historian is to look at the available historical sources and select the
most relevant and meaningful for history and for the subject matter that he is studying.
History, like other academic discipline, has come a long way but still has a lot of remaining
tasks to do. It does not claim to render absolute and exact judgment because as
long as questions are continuously asked, and as long as time unfolds, the study of
history can never be complete. The task of the historian is to organize the past that is
being created so that it can offer lessons for nations, societies, and civilization. It

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is the historian's job to seek for the meaning of recovering the past to let the people see
the continuing relevance of provenance, memory, remembering, and historical
understanding for both the present and the future.

Philippine Historiography underwent several changes since the precolonial

period until the present. Ancient Filipinos narrated their history through communal songs
and epics that they passed orally from a generation to another. When the Spaniards
came, their chroniclers started recording their observations through written accounts.
The perspective of historical writing and inquiry also shifted. The Spanish colonizers
narrated the. history of their colony in a bipartite view They saw the age before
colonization as a dark period in the history of the islands, until they brought light through
Western thought and Christianity. Early nationalists refuted this perspective and
argued the tripartite view. They saw the precolonial society as a luminous age
that ended with darkness when the colonizers captured their freedom. They believed
that the light would come again once the colonizers were evicted from the Philippines.
Filipino historian Zeus Salazar introduced the new guiding philosophy for writing
and teaching history: pantayong pananaw (for us-from us perspective). This perspective
highlights the importance of facilitating an internal conversation and discourse
among Filipinos about our own history, using the language that is understood by
everyone.

Historiography is the study of how history is written, who writes it, the
methods used, and the biases that may influence the narrative. It is also the history
of historical writing itself.

Development of Philippine Historiography

1. Pre-Colonial Period
• Oral traditions, epics (e.g., Biag ni Lam-ang), artifacts
• No formal written historical record but rich oral histories
2. Spanish Colonial Historiography
• Spanish friars and officials recorded events
• Often written from a colonial and religious perspective
• Example: Antonio Pigafetta, Fr. Pedro Chirino, Fr. Francisco Colin
3. American Period
• Introduction of the scientific method in history writing
• Rise of Filipino historians like Teodoro Agoncillo and Renato Constantino
• Focus on national identity and revising colonial narratives
4. Post-Colonial and Contemporary Historiography
• Emphasis on:
o Nationalism
o Regional histories
o People's history (Kasaysayan ng Masa)
o Gender, class, and cultural lenses

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Prominent Filipino Historians
• Teodoro Agoncillo – nationalist historian; author of The Revolt of the Masses.
• Renato Constantino – critical of colonial influences; wrote The Miseducation of
the Filipino.
• Ambeth Ocampo – popularized history through accessible writing.
• Floro Quibuyen, Caroline Hau – contemporary scholars focusing on post-
colonial critique.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Quiz #3 – Lesson 3

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 LESSON 4: Knowing the Philippine History: Philippine
Geographical, and Historical Foundation

The Birth of Philippine History

The history of the Philippines (according to H.O. Beyer’s Migration Theory) is

believed to have taken off with the arrival of the first humans using rafts or boats at least
67,000 years ago as the 2007 discovery of Callao Man suggested. Negrito tribes first
inhabited the isles and more groups later migrated to the islands like the story of the Ten
(10) Bornean Datus.

Philippines is rich in history however the written record started with the coming of
the Spaniards. Many believed that Spaniards destroyed the earlier records as completely
as possible. The same scenario happened when the Philippines was under the American
and Japanese colonization. Many precolonial records were lost and were no longer
retrieved. Therefore, much of what is known about Pre- Spanish days are still insufficient.
There are still much to be uncovered. Other said that some of our recovered records
came from other countries which were in touch with the islands. Take for example,
Murillo-Velarde Map. It was a hydrographical and chorographical chart of the Philippines
Island drawn by the Jesuit Father Pedro Murillo Velarde (1696-1753) and published in
Manila in the year 1734. It was the first and believed to be the most important map of
the maritime routes from Manila to Spain and to those colony of Spanish Empire in the
new world. The map contains captions, it also shows of great from the geographic point
of view, and as an ethnographic document.

History as Records of the Past

The process of critically examining and analyzing the records and survivals of the past is
very important in order for us, readers to really understand history. Historians create their
narratives through a survey and analysis of primary sources available in the archives,
libraries or the antique collections of document enthusiasts. Relying on different materials
and resources (both primary and secondary) will truly help us to bring us back to the past
events that may lead us for better understanding of the present.

Philippines Before the Conquest

Philippine history writing started during Spanish time when Ferdinand Magellan
landed in the Philippine archipelago in the year 1521, followed by Filipinos like Dr. Jose
Rizal who annotated Antonio Morga’s book “Sucesos De Las Islas Filipinas” (Events of the

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Philippine Islands) and Americans. But before the Spaniards, there were archaeological
records of the early Chinese and some Muslim scholars narrating the existence of
civilization in the archipelago even before Magellan landed. And if you have read the
Rizal’s annotation on Morga’s book, we can tell that there was already an organized.

Let us take a look on the life of the native people of Philippine archipelago prior to
the arrival of the Spaniards

The Early Philippine Society

There were group of people that the historians believed they existed here in the Philippine
Islands before the colonization period. They are as follow:

1. Tabon Man. The Tabon Man skull cap was discovered by Dr. Robert Fox an
American Anthropologist within the Tabon subside Palawan in 1962. According to
research this Man lived on the first days called Stone Age and inside the cave. He
also founded evidence that this early human already knew how to make and use
tools. Experts said skeletal remains found in Tabon was not a Negrito.

2. Negrito. Henry Otley Beyer, a known anthropologist introduced the “Theory of

Migration” that the first Human who came to the Philippine Archipelago through
the Land Bridges were Negritos, the ancestors of the Aetas, but many
anthropologist and experts opposed and disproved the belief.

3. Callao Man. Dr. Armand Mijares of University of the Philippines led the team of
Archeologist in 2007. They found a foot bone inside the Callao cave in Cagayan.
They said this man existed 20,000 years older than the Tabon man. They needed
to consume almost three years to determine the age of the bone. They used the
method called Uranium Series Dating conducted in France. However, their team is
still planning to conduct more excavations and study to re- enforce their findings
and theories.

The early Filipinos started building their communities along the mouth of the river
or coastal areas. They choose the place because of economic opportunities wherein
they access the land and the water for their everyday routines of life. Their community
was a Barangay setup with 50 or 2000 people as residents.

There are social classes in the barangay namely:

1. Maharlika (Noble People)
2. Timawa (Free men)
3. Alipin (Slaves) - Aliping Namamahay - Aliping Saguiguilid

The early Filipinos used caves for their housing until they learned to build houses
outside using wood or bamboo and nipa leaves or cogon grass for their roofing suited

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 for our tropical climate. Later on, they called Bahay Kubo. There were places in the
Philippines particularly in the mountainous areas where people make their houses at
the top of the tree (tree house). This is to protect them from wild animals that can
hurt them. For those people residing beside the sea like the Badjao or sea gypsies,
their boats already serve as their houses.

Early Filipinos did not have religion, but they believed that there is a powerful
being from the sky and that they called God. They were pagans, they believe in
different gods and goddesses.

Even prior to the coming of the Spaniards, Filipinos were already believers of
superstitious beliefs. Among them include aswang, kapre, dwende, tiyanak, and
tikbalang which until now still exist especially in the remote places of different
provinces.

The Baybayin or the Alibata was the pre- Hispanic writing system in the
Philippines. Filipinos believed that this system originated from Kawi (a Javanese old
script with a large number of loanwords from Sanskrit. (Java is a place in Indonesia
and a Sanskrit is a classical language of India.)

The discovery of archeological artifacts in the Philippines manifested that during

the Neolithic means the last age of Stone Age and the beginning of Human
development in technology. Since the beginning in the Philippines, rice was already
the principal crop aside from hunting, trapping animals, and fishing.

A traditional music and dance are the reflection of life and culture of people of
one place. In music, we have instruments like kudyapi, kalaleng, a tingguian Nose
flute, slit drum. Some pre- Hispanic songs were called Kundiman, Kumintang o
Tagumpay, Ang Dalit o Imno at Oyayi o Hele. Primitive dances of the early Filipinos
were linked with rituals and to their daily lives.

Analyzing Primary Sources in Philippine History

Early Philippine Society and the First Spanish Contact: Understanding Pre-
Hispanic Civilization Through Texts and Encounters

Contrary to the long-standing myth that the Philippines had no culture or

civilization before colonization, historical sources reveal a vibrant, complex, and
connected society long before the Spanish arrived. Through archaeological finds,
foreign chronicles, and early European accounts, we gain insight into the political,
economic, legal, and cultural systems of early Filipino communities.

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Three key historical sources shed light on this era:

1. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription (c. 900 CE) – the oldest known written
record in the country
2. Chau Ju-kua's Chu Fan Chi (13th century) – a Chinese record of trade with
Filipino communities
3. Antonio Pigafetta’s account of Magellan’s 1521 expedition – the first European
interaction with Filipinos

PRIMARY SOURCE: The Laguna Copperplate Inscription (c. 900 CE): “A Legal
Document from the Distant Past”

Source: Postma, Antoon. “The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and

Commentary.” Philippine Studies, Vol. 40, No. 2 (1992), pp. 183–203. Ateneo de Manila
University Press. URL (JSTOR): [Link]

A. Background and Discovery

• Discovered in 1989 near Lumban, Laguna.
• A thin copper plate measuring 20 x 20 cm with inscriptions written in Old
Kawi script.
• The language is a mix of Old Malay, with elements of Sanskrit, Old
Tagalog, and Javanese—indicating strong regional connections.
B. Content Summary
• The inscription records the forgiveness of a debt owed by a man named
Namwaran and his children by the ruling authority in Tondo.
• Mentions various places such as Tondo, Pailah, Puliran, and
Binwangan, implying established geopolitical boundaries and
governance.
C. Significance
• Oldest known written document in the Philippines (~900 CE),
predating Spanish arrival by over 600 years.
• Proves that early Filipinos had legal systems, social hierarchies, and
writing traditions.
• Demonstrates cosmopolitan influences: trade and cultural exchanges
with other parts of Southeast Asia and India.
• Highlights the presence of ruling elites (e.g., datus, lakans) and legal
recognition of personal rights—a sign of an organized polity.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Chau Ju-kua’s Chu Fan Chi (13th Century): “Chinese
Accounts of Early Filipino Trade”

Source: Hirth, Friedrich, and W.W. Rockhill (Translators). Chau Ju-Kua: His Work
on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-

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chï. St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1911. Reprint: Taipei: Ch'eng Wen
Publishing Co., 1967.

A. Who was Chau Ju-kua?

• A Chinese trade inspector during the Song Dynasty (active around 1225
CE).
• Compiled Chu Fan Chi (“Description of the Barbarous Peoples”)—a record
of Chinese maritime trade partners, including Philippine societies.
B. Account of “Ma-i”
• “Ma-i” is believed by historians to refer to Mindoro or possibly other parts
of the central Philippines.
• Chau described Ma-i as:
o A peaceful trading polity with clear social hierarchies and
local governance.
o Exporters of beeswax, cotton, pearls, betel nuts, tortoise
shells, and coconut oil.
o Traders who used silver and iron as currency and followed
organized trade customs.
C. Importance of the Account
• Shows that Filipino societies were already part of trans-Asian trade
centuries before Spanish colonization.
• Confirms that early communities had:
o Maritime skills
o Sophisticated economic systems
o Political institutions with recognized leaders (chieftains or
datus)
• Suggests economic diplomacy and cultural interaction with China and
Southeast Asia, long before European contact.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Antonio Pigafetta’s First Voyage Around the World (1521):
“Europeans Meet the Philippines”

Source: Pigafetta, Antonio. The First Voyage Around the World (1519–1522): An
Account of Magellan’s Expedition. Translated and edited by Lord Stanley of Alderley.
In The Philippines: A Century Hence, Volume 52 of Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society,
London: Hakluyt Society, 1874. Full text available at:
[Link] (via Project Gutenberg)
[Link] (via Internet Archive)

A. Background
• Pigafetta was an Italian scholar and chronicler aboard Ferdinand
Magellan’s expedition, the first to circumnavigate the globe.
• He wrote detailed journals describing the places visited and people
encountered—including the first European interaction with Filipinos.

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 B. Key Observations in the Philippines
• Arrival in the Visayas:
o Describes encounters with Rajah Humabon of Cebu, who
welcomed the Spaniards.
o Hospitality of locals was highlighted—offering food, gifts, and
alliances.
o Noted customs such as tattooing (pintados), diet, religious
rituals, and clothing.
• Conversion and Baptism:
o Rajah Humabon and his people were baptized into Christianity—
a critical moment that signaled the beginning of religious
colonization.
o Magellan believed this to be a victory of faith and alliance.
• Battle of Mactan:
o Magellan’s overreach in trying to subjugate Lapu-Lapu and his
warriors in Mactan led to his death on April 27, 1521.
o Pigafetta provides the only eyewitness account of the Battle of
Mactan, showing early Filipino resistance to foreign dominance.
C. Historical Value
• Reveals the first impressions of Europeans toward native Filipinos: both
admiration and misunderstanding.
• Offers detailed ethnographic information on precolonial Filipino culture,
beliefs, and political organization.
• Marks the beginning of a new phase in Philippine history—one of
conquest, resistance, and eventual colonization.

Synthesis: A Glimpse of a Complex Precolonial World

Source Origin Key Contribution Historical Value

Proof of writing system, legal
Laguna Copperplate Native Legal record of debt
traditions, and political
Inscription (c. 900) (Philippine) cancellation
structures
Evidence of active trade,
Description of trade
Chu Fan Chi (13th c.) Chinese organized economies, and social
with Ma-i
order
Cross-cultural encounters,
Pigafetta’s First First European
European political alliances, and early
Voyage (1521) account of Filipinos
resistance

The Philippines before Spanish colonization was not a cultural void—it was a
literate, economically vibrant, politically organized archipelago connected to a
broader Southeast Asian and East Asian world. The Laguna Copperplate, Chu Fan Chi,
and Pigafetta’s accounts together present a multifaceted picture of early Philippine
society—far from the primitive image portrayed by colonial narratives.

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The arrival of the Spanish in 1521, as documented by Pigafetta, did not bring civilization
to the islands—it disrupted a civilization already flourishing with its own laws, customs,
and global connections. These early sources are vital to rethinking national history
and decolonizing our understanding of the Filipino past.

Preservation of the Pre-Hispanic Culture and Traditions: Recovering Indigenous

Identity in a Postcolonial Nation

It is not new to us that even prior the arrival of the Westerners, the early people of
the Philippine archipelago had already built and established their unique customs and
traditions. As we observe in the present time, there are still some group of Indigenous
tribes who are preserving their culture that we can call ours and not brought by the
colonizers.

The Philippine archipelago has a rich and diverse cultural heritage that
predates Spanish colonization in 1521. This pre-Hispanic culture—composed of
oral traditions, spiritual beliefs, social structures, craftsmanship, and indigenous systems
of governance—reflects the deep-rooted identity and worldviews of various
ethnolinguistic groups. However, centuries of colonial rule, modernization, and
globalization have led to the marginalization or erasure of many of these traditions.

The preservation of pre-Hispanic culture and traditions is not merely about

safeguarding artifacts or rituals; it is a reclamation of indigenous heritage, a
resistance to cultural homogenization, and a way to strengthen national
identity rooted in precolonial experience.

Characteristics of Pre-Hispanic Philippine Culture

Before Spanish contact, indigenous Filipino communities already had complex
societies, each with their own customs and systems. Some key features include:
A. Social and Political Organization
• The barangay system, led by a datu, functioned as an independent political
unit.
• Social classes existed: maharlika (nobles), timawa (freemen), and alipin
(dependents/slaves).
• Communities engaged in diplomacy, alliances, and warfare.
B. Spiritual and Religious Beliefs
• Filipinos were animists, believing that spirits resided in nature (trees, rivers,
animals).
• They worshiped anitos (spiritual deities/ancestors).
• The babaylan or katalonan served as spiritual leaders, often women or
feminized men with high status.

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 C. Art and Oral Literature
• Rich epics and oral stories such as Biag ni Lam-ang, Hudhud, and Darangen
conveyed values of bravery, kinship, and heroism.
• Baybayin, an indigenous script, was widely used.
• Skilled craftsmanship in weaving, pottery, jewelry-making, and
tattooing (e.g., the pintados of Visayas).
D. Trade and Economy
• Engaged in trade with China, India, Arabia, and Southeast Asia before
colonization.
• Exchanged gold, beeswax, pearls, and textiles for goods like porcelain,
spices, and silk.

Challenges to Preservation
Despite this richness, pre-Hispanic culture has faced systemic threats:
A. Colonial Suppression
• Spanish colonizers deemed indigenous beliefs as pagan and worked to
replace them with Catholic doctrines.
• Baybayin was replaced by the Latin alphabet.
• Babaylans were persecuted as witches or subversives.
B. Modernization and Globalization
• Urbanization and Western lifestyles devalue traditional practices and clothing.
• Younger generations grow disconnected from ancestral languages and
customs.
• Commercialism turns sacred traditions into entertainment or tourism.
C. Marginalization of Indigenous Peoples (IPs)
• Ethnolinguistic minorities (Lumad, Aeta, Mangyan, etc.) are often displaced by
mining, logging, or development.
• Discrimination and lack of cultural education threaten indigenous identity.

Efforts and Strategies for Preservation

A. Legal and Institutional Frameworks
• Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997:
o Recognizes ancestral domain rights.
o Protects IPs' right to preserve their traditions and self-governance.
• National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA):
o Oversees documentation, cultural mapping, and heritage programs.
• National Museum and National Archives:
o Safeguard artifacts, oral traditions, and archaeological sites.
B. Education and Integration
• Inclusion of indigenous knowledge systems (IKSP) in school curricula.
• Teaching of precolonial history to deconstruct the narrative that civilization
began with Spanish contact.
• Reviving the use of Baybayin and local languages.

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 C. Community-Based Cultural Revitalization
• Festivals, rituals, and traditional crafts are maintained by elders and local
councils.
• Programs that promote traditional weaving, tattooing, epics, dances,
and healing practices.
• Empowering IP communities to be custodians of their heritage through
sustainable livelihood projects.
D. Media, Arts, and Technology
• Documentaries and digital archives preserving oral literature (e.g., Hudhud
chants).
• Use of social media to showcase traditional crafts, music, and languages.
• Filipino artists blending indigenous motifs with modern styles to promote
cultural pride.

Significance of Preserving Pre-Hispanic Culture

A. Cultural Identity and National Pride
• Reinforces a sense of Filipino identity independent of colonial influence.
• Celebrates diversity among over 110 ethnolinguistic groups.
B. Historical Justice and Decolonization
• Preserving indigenous culture helps undo historical erasures caused by
colonialism.
• It corrects the Eurocentric narrative that viewed native traditions as inferior.
C. Sustainable Knowledge Systems
• Indigenous ecological knowledge contributes to climate resilience and
environmental conservation.
• Traditional healing, farming, and community governance offer alternative
development models.

The preservation of pre-Hispanic culture and traditions is not merely an act

of remembrance—it is an assertion of cultural dignity, historical truth, and national
identity. Amid centuries of colonization and continuing marginalization, honoring
indigenous ways of life helps Filipinos reclaim their roots, protect cultural diversity,
and envision a future grounded in ancestral wisdom.

As students, educators, and citizens, we are all custodians of this heritage—

responsible for keeping it alive, relevant, and respected for generations to come.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Quiz #4 – Lesson 4

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SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. ACTIVITY: "Why History Matters" – Concept Mapping

Topic Focus: Meaning and Relevance of Studying History
• In groups, students create a concept map to visually explain the reasons why
studying history is important to individuals, society, and the nation.
• Include key themes such as identity, civic awareness, nationalism, and lessons
from the past.
• Present and discuss with the class.
Purpose: To visualize and understand the broad impact of history in shaping
worldviews and society.

2. ACTIVITY: "Be the Historian" – Source Analysis Workshop

Topic Focus: Doing History & Sources of Historical Data
• Students are given samples of primary and secondary sources (e.g.,
newspaper clippings, historical letters, photos, textbook excerpts).
• They will analyze each using a guided worksheet:
o What type of source is it?
o What can we learn from it?
o Is it reliable? What is its context?
• Conduct a short group reporting after the workshop.
Purpose: To develop critical historical thinking and basic source analysis skills.

3. ACTIVITY: "Timeline of the Nation" – Historical Highlights of the Philippines

Topic Focus: Knowing the Philippine History
• Individually or in pairs, students construct a timeline of significant events in
Philippine history from pre-colonial to modern times.
• Each event must include a short explanation of its importance and impact on
Filipino identity or society.
• Encourage students to include lesser-known regional or local events.
Purpose: To understand Philippine historical development and national identity.

SUGGESTED OUTPUTS AND ASSESSMENT TOOLS:

Output 1: Reflective Essay – “What History Taught Me”

Connected Activity: Concept Mapping
• Write a 500-word reflective essay discussing how learning history changes the
way one sees the world.
• Reflect on personal relevance and relate it to Philippine society and current issues.

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 Assessment Criteria:
Criteria Weight
Depth of reflection and insight 30%
Clarity and organization 25%
Relevance to the topic 20%
Use of examples or experiences 15%
Grammar and mechanics 10%

Output 2: Source Analysis Report

Connected Activity: Source Analysis Workshop
• Submit a written worksheet or report analyzing at least two historical
sources (one primary, one secondary).
• Include their origin, purpose, content, reliability, and contribution to understanding
history.
Assessment Criteria:
Criteria Weight
Correct identification of source type 20%
Depth of analysis and interpretation 30%
Critical thinking and evaluation 25%
Organization and clarity 15%
Grammar/mechanics 10%

Output 3: Timeline Poster or Digital Presentation

Connected Activity: Philippine Historical Timeline
• Create a poster or slideshow featuring at least 10 key events in Philippine
history.
• Each should include the date, brief description, and historical significance.
Assessment Criteria:
Criteria Weight
Accuracy and selection of events 30%
Explanation of historical relevance 25%
Visual organization and creativity 20%
Presentation skills (if oral) 15%
Effort and completeness 10%

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 MODULE 2
Content and Contextual Analysis of Selected
Primary Sources in Philippine History

Lesson 1: The KKK and the Kartilya ng Katipunan

Lesson 2: Making Sense of the Past: A Historical Interpretation

GE11
Readings
in Philippine History
Asst. Prof. Jayson C. Peñaflor, MAED

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Module 2
Content and Contextual Analysis of Selected Primary
Sources in Philippine History

Overview
In the preceding module, we have discussed the importance of familiarizing
oneself about the different kinds of historical sources. The historian's primary tool of
understanding and interpreting the past is the historical sources. Historical sources
ascertain historical facts. Such facts are then analyzed and interpreted by the historian
to weave historical narrative. Specifically, historians who study certain historical subjects
and events need to make use of various primary sources in order to weave the
narrative. Primary sources, as discussed in the preceding chapter, consist or
documents, memoir, accounts, and other materials that were produced at the
period of the event or subject being studied.

Using primary sources in historical research entails two kinds of criticism. The first
one is the external criticism, and the second one is the internal criticism. External criticism
examines the authenticity of the document or the evidence being used. This is
important in ensuring that the primary source is not fabricated. On the other hand,
internal criticism examines the truthfulness of the content of the evidence. However,
this criticism requires not just the act establishing truthfulness and/or accuracy but also
the examination of the primary sources in terms of the context of its production.
For example, a historian would have to situate the document in the period of its
production, or in the background of its authors. In other words, it should be
recognized that facts are neither existing in a vacuum nor produced from a blank slate.
These are products of the time and of the people.

In this module, we are going to look at a number of primary sources from

different historical periods and evaluate these documents content in terms of
historical value, and examine the context of their production. The primary sources that
we are going to examine is Emilio Jacinto's "Kartilya ng Katipunan and afterwards you
will be examining selected primary sources; these are: Manunggul Jar, Dasalan at
Tocsohan, and Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Pilipino.

Needless to say, different types of sources necessitate different kinds of analysis

and contain different levels of importance. You are going to explore that in this module.

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Learning Objectives

On successful completion of this topic, you should be able to:

a. To familiarize oneself with the primary documents in different historical periods

of the Philippines;
b. To learn history through primary sources.;
c. To properly interpret primary sources through examining the content and
context of the document;
d. To understand the context behind each selected document;
e. To interpret historical events using primary sources;
f. To recognize the multiplicity of interpretation than can be read from a historical
text;
g. To identify the advantages and disadvantages of employing critical tools in
interpreting historical events through primary sources;
h. To demonstrate ability to argue for or against a particular issue using primary
sources.

Required Readings:

➢ Macdonald, C. (2004). Folk Catholism and Pre-Spanish Religions in the

Philippines. Philippine Studies, 52(1), 78-93.
[Link]/stable/42633685

References:

➢ Candelaria, J. L., & Alphora, V. C. (2018). Readings in Philippine

History. Quezon City: Rex Printing Company, inc.

➢ Torres, J. V. (2018). BATIS Sources in Philippine History. Quezon City:

C & E Publishing, Inc.

➢ Christopher F. B., Raymond E. B, Julie C. L., Fatima F. R., Tecah C. S.

(2006) Philippine History Coursebook, Trinitas Publishing. INC.

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 LESSON 1: The KKK and the Kartilya ng Katipunan

The Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KAK)

or Katipunan is arguably the most important organization formed n the Philippine
history. While anti-colonial movements, efforts, and organizations had already been
established centuries prior to the foundation of the katipunan, it was only this
organization that envisioned:

(1) a united Filipino nation that would revolt against the Spaniards for
(2) the total independence of the country from Spain.

Previous armed revolts had already occurred before the foundation of the
Katipunan, but none of them envisioned a unified Filipino nation revolting against the
colonizers. For example, Diego Silang was known as a llocano who took up his arms and
led one of the longest running revolts in the country. Silang. however, was mainly
concerned about his locality and referred to himself as El Rey de Ilocos (The King of
locos). The imagination of the nation was largely absent in the aspirations of the
local revolts before Katipunan. On the other hand, the propaganda movements led by the
ilustrados like Marcelo H. del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, and Jose Rizal did not
envision a total separation of the Philippines from Spain, but only demanded equal
rights, representation and protection from the abuses of the friars.

In the conduct of their struggle, Katipunan created a complex structure and a

defined value system that would guide the organization as a collective aspiring for a
single goal. One of the most important Katipunan documents was the Kartilya ng
Katipunan. The original title of the document was "Manga [sic] Aral Nang [sic]
Katipunan ng mga A.N.B." or "Lessons of the Organization of the Sons of Country" The
document was written by Emilio Jacinto in the 1896. Jacinto was only 18 years old when
he joined the movement. He was a law student at the Universidad de Santo Tomas.
Despite his youth, Bonifacio recognized the value and intellect of Jacinto that upon seeing
that Jacinto's Kartilya was much better than the Decalogue he wrote, he willingly favored
that the Kartilya be distributed to their fellow Katipuneros. Jacinto became the
secretary of the organization and took charge of the short-lived printing press of the
Katipunan On 15 April 189 Bonifacio appointed Jacinto as a commander of the
Katipunan in Northern Luzon. Jacinto was 22 years old. He died of Malaria at a
young age ot 24 in the town of Magdalena, Laguna.

The Kartilya can be treated as the Katipunan's code of conduct. It contains

fourteen rules that instruct the way a Katipunero should behave, and which specific
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 values should he uphold. Generally, the rules stated in the Kartilya can be classified
into two. The first group contains the rules that will make the member an upright
individual and the second group contains the rules that will guide the way he treats his
fellowmen.

Below is the translated version of the rules in Kartilya:

I. The life that is not consecrated to a lofty and reasonable purpose is a tree without
a shade, if not a poisonous weed.
II. To do good for personal gain and not for its own sake is not a virtue.
III. It is rational to be charitable and love one's fellow creature, and to adjust one's
conduct, acts and words to what is in itself reasonable.
IV. Whether our skin be black or white, we are all born equal: Superiority in
knowledge, wealth and beauty are to be understood, but not superiority by
nature.
V. The honorable man prefers honor to personal gain; the scoundrel, gain to honor.
VI. To the honorable man, his word is sacred.
VII. Do not waste thy time: wealth can be recovered but not time lost.
VIII. Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor before the law or in the field.
IX. The prudent man is sparing in words and faithful in keeping secrets.
X. On the thorny path of life, man is the guide of woman and the children,
and if the guide leads to the precipice, those whom he guides will also go there.
XI. Thou must not look upon woman as a mere plaything, but as faithful
companion who will share with thee the penalties of life; her (physical) weakness
will increase thy interest in her and she will remind thee of the mother who
bore thee and reared thee.
XII. What thou dost not desire done unto thy wife, children, brothers and sisters, that
do not unto the wife, children, brothers and sisters of thy neighbor.
XIII. Man is not worth more because he is a king, because his nose is aquiline, and his
color white, not because he is a priest, a servant of God, nor because of the high
prerogative that he enjoys upon earth, but he is worth most who is a man of
proven and real value, who does good, keeps his words, is worthy and honest; he
who does not oppress nor consent to being oppressed, he who loves and
cherishes his fatherland though he be born in the wilderness and know no tongue
but his own.
XIV. When these rules of conduct shall be known to all, the longed- for sun of Liberty
shall rise brilliant over this most unhappy portion of the globe and its rays shall
diffuse everlasting joy among the confederated brethren of the same rays, the
lives of those who have gone before, the fatigues and the well-paid sufferings will
remain. If he who desires to enter has informed himself of all this and believes he
will be able to perform what will be his duties, he may fill out the application for
admission.

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 As the primary governing document, which determines the rules of conduct in the
Katipunan, properly understanding the Kartilya will thus help in understanding the
values, ideals, aspirations, and even the ideology of the organization.

Analysis of the "Kartilya ng Katipunan

This primary source also needs to be analyzed in terms of content and

context. As a written document for a fraternity whose main purpose is to overthrow
a colonial regime, we can explain the content and provisions of the Kartilya as a reaction
and response to certain value systems that they found despicable in the present state of
things that they struggled against with. For example, in the fourth and the thirteen rules
in the Kartilya are an invocation of the inherent equality between and among men
regardless of race, occupation or status. In the context of the Spanish colonial era
where the indios were treated as the inferior of the white Europeans, the Katipunan
saw to it that the alternative order that they wished to promulgate through their
revolution necessarily destroyed this kind of unjust hierarchy.

Moreover, one can analyze the values upheld in the document as consistent with
the burgeoning rational and liberal ideals in the eighteenth and nineteenth century.
Equality, tolerance, freedom, and liberty were values that first emerged in the eighteenth
century French Revolution, which spread throughout Europe and reached the
educated class of the colonies. Jacinto,an ilustrado himself, certainly got an
understanding of these values. Aside from the liberal values that can be dissected in the
document, we can also decipher certain Victorian and chivalrous values in the text.
For example, various provisions in the Kartilya repeatedly emphasized the
importance of honor in words and in action. The teaching of the Katipunan on how
women should be treated with honor and respect, while positive in many respects
and certainly a significant stride from the practice of raping and physically abusing
women, can still be telling of the Katipunan's secondary regard for women in
relation to men. For example, in the tenth rule, tne document of specifically stated
that men should be the guide of women and children, and that he should set a good
example, otherwise the women and children would be guided in the path of evil.
Nevertheless, the same documents stated that women should be treated as companions
of men not as playthings that can be exploited for their pleasure.

ln the contemporary eyes, the Katipunan can be criticized because of these

provisions. However, one must not forget the context where the organization was born.
Not even in Europe or in the whole of the West at that juncture recognized the
problem of gender inequality. Indeed, it can be argued that Katipunan's recognition
of women as important partners in the struggle, as reflected not just in Kartilya but also
in the organizational structure of the fraternity where a women's unit was established, is
an endeavor advanced for its time. Aside from Rizal's known Letter to the Women of
Malolos, no same effort by the supposed cosmopolitan Propaganda Movement was
achieved until the movement's eventual disintegration in the latter part of the 1890s.

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 Aside from this, the Kartilya was instructive not just of the Katipunan's
conduct toward other people, but also for the members' development as individuals in
their own rights. Generally speaking, the rules in the Kartilya can be classified as either
directed to how one should treat his neighbor or to how one should develop and conduct
one's self, Both are essential to the success and fulfillment of the Katipunan's
ideals. For example, the Kartilya's teachings on honoring one's word and not wasting time
are teachings directed toward self-development, while the rules on treating the neighbor's
wife, children, and brothers the way that you want yours to be treated is an
instruction on how Katipuneros should treat and regard their neighbors.

All in all, proper reading of the Kartilya will reveal a more thorough
understanding of the Katipunan and the significant role that it played in the revolution
and in the unfolding of the Philippine history, as we know it.

The Kartilya ng Katipunan – 1896: Emilio Jacinto’s Ethical Blueprint for

Revolutionary Nationhood

I. Historical Background
• The Kartilya ng Katipunan was written in 1896 by Emilio Jacinto, known as
the “Brains of the Katipunan,” when he was only 21 years old.
• It served as the guidebook for all members of the Kataastaasan,
Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK), the
revolutionary secret society founded by Andres Bonifacio.
• The Kartilya was intended to educate recruits about the ideals and values of
the movement, shaping not only their political consciousness but also their moral
character.

II. Structure and Content of the Kartilya

The Kartilya consists of 13 guiding principles or "mga aral," which serve as
the code of conduct for all Katipuneros. Each principle is written in a didactic and
reflective tone, combining moral instruction, social ethics, and nationalist
ideology.

III. Core Values and Principles in the Kartilya

1. Equality and Human Dignity
• “Ang tunay na pag-ibig sa Diyos ay ang pag-ibig sa kapwa.”
• Every person, regardless of race, wealth, or status, deserves respect and
equal treatment.
• The Kartilya rejects racial superiority imposed by the Spanish colonizers and
affirms the intrinsic dignity of the Filipino.
2. Patriotism and National Liberation
• True loyalty to the nation is measured by one’s willingness to fight for
freedom and justice.

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 • Love of country is not merely an emotion—it must manifest in self-sacrifice,
courage, and action.
3. Self-Discipline and Moral Responsibility
• Katipuneros are taught to avoid vices such as greed, cruelty, and laziness.
• Personal morality was considered foundational to social reform—without
inner discipline, true national transformation would be impossible.
4. Moral Integrity and Honor
• Honor and virtue are more valuable than wealth or position.
• A Katipunero must act with honesty, humility, and fairness, especially in
dealings with fellow Filipinos.
• Leadership is not about entitlement but about service and righteousness.
5. Education and Enlightenment
• Ignorance is a tool of colonial oppression.
• Knowledge is crucial for liberation—not only military struggle, but also
intellectual and spiritual awakening.
• Members are encouraged to study history, politics, and ethics.
6. Respect for Women
• The Kartilya asserts that women must be respected and treated as
equals, not objects or possessions.
• This was radical during a time when Spanish colonial norms promoted
patriarchal domination.

IV. Political and Ideological Significance

A. Ideological Foundation of the Revolution
• The Kartilya demonstrates that the Katipunan was not a violent mob, but
a disciplined and principled organization.
• It emphasized ethical revolution—a rebellion not just of arms, but of
conscience, values, and national spirit.
• It refutes colonial propaganda that portrayed the Katipuneros as savages
or bandits.
B. Moral Legitimacy of the Katipunan
• The Kartilya was a tool to morally prepare recruits to understand the
ethical reasons for rebellion.
• It was part of the initiation process—new members were required to read and
internalize its teachings before fully joining.
• Thus, the Katipunan was not just a secret society but a moral and
educational movement.
C. Influence of Enlightenment and Asian Thought
• While Emilio Jacinto was influenced by Enlightenment ideals of liberty,
equality, and fraternity, he also integrated Filipino and Asian values
like:
o Pakikipagkapwa (relational personhood)
o Hiya (moral shame)
o Bayanihan (community solidarity)

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V. Emilio Jacinto’s Role and Legacy
• Known as the “Utak ng Katipunan,” Jacinto’s philosophical and ethical vision
complemented the political leadership of Bonifacio.
• He represents a generation of young, educated Filipinos who believed that true
revolution begins in the mind and heart.
• Unlike some reformists who sought assimilation, Jacinto believed in full
independence rooted in ethical nationalism.

VI. Critical Reflection and Contemporary Relevance

A. Kartilya as Civic Ethics
• The Kartilya remains relevant as a code of civic virtue, offering timeless
lessons on integrity, nationalism, and justice.
• In a time of modern political corruption and apathy, Jacinto’s words remind
us that revolution is a moral act.
B. Application in Modern Citizenship
• The principles in the Kartilya can be taught in values education, civic
education, and ethics classes.
• It challenges us to ask:
o What does it mean to be a true Filipino today?
o How do we practice patriotism beyond slogans?
o Are our leaders living up to the ideals of national service and moral
conduct?
C. Legacy in Historical Memory
• Despite its importance, the Kartilya is often overshadowed by other
documents like Rizal’s novels or the Malolos Constitution.
• Re-centering the Kartilya helps us reclaim grassroots revolutionary
thought that came not from elites, but from ordinary workers, peasants, and
youth.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Written Assessment #1 – Lesson 1

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 LESSON 2: Making Sense of the Past: A Historical
Interpretation

In this lesson, we will analyze three historiographical problems in Philippine history

in an attempt to apply what we have learned thus far in the work of a historian and
the process of historical inquiry. Earlier, we have been introduced to history as a
discipline, the historical method, and the content and context analysis of primary
sources. Two key concepts that need to be defined before proceeding to the historical
analysis of problems in history are interpretation and multi-perspectivity.

History is the study of the past, but a more contemporary definition is

centered on how it impacts the present through its consequences. (Geoffrey
Barraclough defines history as "the attempt to discover, on the basis of fragmentary
evidence, the significant things about the past. He also notes the history we read, though
based on facts, is strictly speaking, not factual at all, but a series of accepted judgments.
Such judgments of historians on how the past should be seen make the foundation of
historical interpretation.

The Code of Kalantiaw is a mythical legal code in the epic history Maragtas.
Before it was revealed as a hoax, it was a source of pride for the people of Aklan. In
fact, a historical marker was installed in the town of Batan, Aklan in 1956, with
the following text:

"CODE OF KALANTIAW. Datu Bendehara Kalantiaw, third Chief of Panay,

born in Aklan, established his government in the peninsula of Batang, Aklan
Sakup. Considered the First Filpino Lawgiver, he promulgated in about 1433 penal code
now known as Code of Kalantiaw containing 18 articles. Don Marcelino Orilla of
Zarugoza, Spain, obtained the original manuscript from an old chief of Panay which
was later translated into Spanish by Rafael Murviedo Yzamaney.”

It was only in 1968 that it was proved a hoax, when William Henry Scott, then a
doctoral candidate at the University of Santo Tomas, defended his research on pre-
hispanic sources in Philippine history. He attributed the code to a historical fiction
written in 1913 by Jose E. Marco titled Las Antiguas Leyendas de la lsla de Negros.
Marco attributed the code itself to a priest named Jose Maria Pavon. Prominent
Filipino historians did not dissent to Scott s findings, but there are still some who would
like to believe that the code is a legitimate document.

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 Cruz said he received the poem from Gabriel Beato Francisco, who claimed to
have received it in 1884 from Rizal's close friend, Saturnino Raselis. Rizal never
mentioned writing this poem anywhere in his writings, and more importantly, he never
mentioned of having a close friend by the person of Raselis.

Further criticism of the poem reveals more about the wrongful attribution of the
poem to Rizal. The poem was written in Tagalog and referred to the word "kalayaan.
But it was documented in Rizal's letters that he first encountered the word through a
Marcelo H. del Pilar's translation of Rizal's essay El Amor Patrio, where it was spelled as
kalayahan.

While Rizal's native tongue was Tagalog. he was educated in panish, starting from
his mother, Teodora Alonso. Later on, he would express disappointment in his
difficulty in expressing himself in his native tongue.

The poem's spelling is also suspect-the use of letters "k and "w" to replaced c and
u, respectively was suggested by Rizal as an adult. If the poem was indeed written during
his time, it should use the original Spanish orthography that was prevalent in his time.

This should not be the case anymore, just because these were taught o us as facts
when we were younger does not mean that it is set in stone-history is, after all, a
construct. And as a construct, it is open for interpretation. There might be conflicting
and competing accounts of the past that need one's attention, and can impact the way
we view our country's history and identity. It is important, therefore, to subject to
evaluation not only the primary source, but also the historical interpretation of the
same, to ensure that the current interpretation is reliable to support our acceptance of
events of the past.

HISTORICAL INTERPETATION: Understanding How Historians Make Sense of the Past

History is not just a record of dates, events, and people. It is also a discipline that
involves interpretation—the process of making meaning out of facts, constructing
narratives, and drawing insights about the past.

Historical interpretation is what transforms isolated pieces of evidence into a

coherent understanding of historical events. This process is at the heart of studying
history because the past does not speak for itself. It must be understood, explained,
and narrated through the lens of historians, who bring with them their knowledge,
questions, biases, and contexts.
Historical interpretation refers to the analytical process of:
• Understanding historical facts and events,
• Constructing narratives that explain sequences of events,
• Analyzing causes, consequences, and motivations, and
• Offering explanations grounded in evidence and context.

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 It is not merely a summary of what happened—it is a critical act of explaining why
it happened, how it was perceived, who benefited or suffered, and what it
means in the broader scope of human experience.

Why Interpretation is Necessary

A. Historical Events Are Not Self-Explanatory
• Events do not carry inherent meanings.
• The meaning of an event like the Cavite Mutiny, the First Mass, or the
People Power Revolution depends on how it is explained and by whom.
B. Facts Alone Are Not Enough
• While facts provide the foundation of historical knowledge, interpretation
weaves them into meaningful insights.
• A fact: “Jose Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896.”
o Interpretation: Why was he executed? What did it symbolize for
Filipinos? Was he a reformist or a revolutionary?

Elements That Shape Historical Interpretation

1. Available Sources
• Interpretation depends on what evidence is available, which may include:
o Written documents (letters, reports, diaries)
o Oral testimonies
o Paintings, photographs, films
o Artifacts and archaeological data
• If sources are scarce, incomplete, or biased, interpretation becomes more
complex and tentative.
2. The Intent and Perspective of the Historian
• Historians bring their own questions, belief systems, and theoretical
frameworks to their work.
• A Marxist historian may focus on class struggle, while a feminist historian
might explore gender dynamics.
• The historian's cultural background, education, and political context all
influence their lens.
3. The Historical Context of the Event and the Historian
• The event’s context includes the cultural, political, economic, and social
realities of the time.
• The historian’s context (when and where they are writing) also influences
how they interpret the past.
• Example: A Filipino historian writing in the post-Martial Law era may interpret
the Marcos regime differently from someone writing during his presidency.

Examples of Historical Interpretation in Action

Example 1: The Cry of Pugad Lawin (or Balintawak?)
• Historians debate where and when the first act of rebellion (tearing of cedulas)
took place.

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 •Some interpret it as symbolic of national unity, while others question the
reliability of eyewitnesses.
• The interpretation varies based on regional pride, source credibility, and
nationalistic agendas.
Example 2: Martial Law (1972–1986)
• Some interpret it as a time of discipline and development (often from pro-
Marcos narratives).
• Others see it as a dark era of human rights violations, corruption, and
cronyism (based on testimonies, documents, and global reports).
• The interpretations often depend on political leanings, access to sources, and
lived experiences.
Example 3: The Philippine-American War
• American sources once called it an “insurrection,” implying illegitimacy.
• Filipino historians interpret it as a war of independence, asserting the
legitimacy of the First Philippine Republic.

Historical Interpretation vs. Historical Distortion

While interpretation involves critical engagement with evidence, historical
distortion occurs when:
• Evidence is ignored, falsified, or manipulated.
• The past is rewritten for political gain, ideological agenda, or
disinformation.
• Therefore, interpretation must always be:
o Rooted in credible evidence
o Contextualized
o Subject to peer review and critique

Skills Involved in Historical Interpretation

1. Critical Thinking – Questioning assumptions and evaluating conflicting
sources.
2. Source Analysis – Assessing bias, credibility, purpose, and audience of
documents.
3. Synthesis – Connecting multiple pieces of evidence to create a coherent
narrative.
4. Empathy and Imagination – Understanding people from the past on their
own terms.
5. Argumentation – Presenting evidence-based conclusions and defending
them logically.

Importance in Historical Education

• Encourages students to think historically, not just memorize facts.
• Helps them recognize bias and resist historical manipulation.
• Builds citizenship skills: the ability to analyze news, question authority,
and engage in informed debates.

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 • Promotes respect for multiple perspectives, especially from marginalized
or forgotten voices.

Historical interpretation is what gives meaning to the past. It is a dynamic

and reflective process that requires historians to think deeply, examine evidence
critically, and explain the complex web of human actions and decisions. Through
interpretation, we understand not just what happened, but why it matters.

By embracing historical interpretation as a tool for inquiry and not just storytelling,
we empower ourselves to become active learners, critical citizens, and responsible
custodians of historical truth.

MULTIPERSPECTIVITY: Exploring the Diversity of Historical Narratives and

Interpretations

With several possibilities of interpreting the past, another important concept

that we must note is multi-perspectivity. This can be defined as a way of looking at
historical events, personalities, developments, cultures, and societies from different
perspectives. This means that there is a multitude of ways by which we can view the
world, and each could be equally valid, and at the same time, equally partial as
well. Historical writing is, by definition, biased, partial, and contains preconceptions.
The historian decides on what sources to use, what interpretation to make more
apparent, depending on what his end is. Historians may misinterpret evidence, attending
to those that suggest that a certain event happened, and then ignore the rest that goes
against the evidence. Historians may omit significant facts about their subject which
makes the interpretation unbalanced. Historians may impose a certain ideology to their
subject, which may not be appropriate the period the subject was from. Historians may
also provide a single cause for an event without considering other possible causal
explanations of said event. These are just many of the ways a historian may fail in his
historical inference, description, and interpretation. With multi-perspectivity as an
approach in history, we must understand that historical interpretations contain
discrepancies, contradictions, ambiguities, and are often the focus of dissent.

Exploring multiple perspectives in history requires incorporating source materials

that reflect different views of an event in history, because singular historical
narratives do not provide for space to inquire and investigate. Different sources that
counter each other may create space for more investigation and research, while
providing more evidence for those truths that these sources agree on.

Different kinds of sources also provide different historical truths -an official
document may note different aspects of the past than, say, a memoir an ordinary person
on the same event. Different historical agents create different historical truths, and
while this may be a burdensome work for the historian, it also renders more validity
to the historical scholarship. Taking these in close regard in the reading of historical

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interpretations it provides for the audience a more complex, but also a more complete
and richer understanding of the past.

Multiperspectivity refers to the inclusion and consideration of multiple

viewpoints, narratives, and interpretations of a single historical event. It challenges
the notion that history is a single, objective truth and instead promotes the idea that
history is constructed from different perspectives, sources, and memories.

Why Is Multiperspectivity Important?

1. Promotes Critical Thinking
o Encourages students and readers to question the sources of historical
knowledge and examine bias, intent, and context.
2. Fosters Historical Empathy
o Allows people to understand the motivations, struggles, and emotions of
different actors in history, including colonizers, revolutionaries,
peasants, and minorities.
3. Inclusion of Marginalized Voices
o Goes beyond dominant or elite accounts by including indigenous,
women’s, regional, and subaltern perspectives.
4. Decolonizes Historical Narratives
o Challenges colonial or official versions of history and helps in the
reclamation of indigenous and national identity.
5. Encourages Dialogue Over Division
o Helps resolve conflicting versions of history by promoting understanding
rather than imposing a single narrative.

Tools and Methods in Practicing Multiperspectivity

• Source Criticism: Evaluating authorship, purpose, audience, and context of
sources.
• Comparative Reading: Placing side-by-side different texts or accounts of the
same event.
• Oral Histories and Memoirs: Listening to voices outside official documents.
• Interdisciplinary Approaches: Integrating anthropology, literature, sociology,
and art to understand different interpretations.

CASE STUDIES: Multiperspectivity in Philippine History

Case Study 1: Where Did the First Catholic Mass Take Place in the Philippines?

Debates on Place, Memory, and Historical Meaning

The First Catholic Mass in the Philippines marks a foundational moment in

the country's religious and colonial history, symbolizing the arrival of Christianity
and the beginning of Spain’s religious and cultural influence. However, the precise

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location of this event remains a long-standing historical controversy that reflects
broader issues of national memory, historical interpretation, and local identity.

Historical Context
• The first documented mass was held during the Magellan expedition, which set
sail from Spain in 1519 and arrived in the Philippines in March 1521.
• Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan’s chronicler, recorded details of the expedition,
including interactions with local rulers, the mass, and subsequent events such as
the Battle of Mactan.
• The event occurred shortly after Magellan’s fleet sighted land in the Philippine
archipelago—believed by many to be Mazaua (or Limasawa).

Disputed Sites: Limasawa vs. Butuan

A. Limasawa, Southern Leyte
• Traditionally recognized by the Philippine government and Catholic Church
as the official site of the first mass.
• The National Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP), based on the
Pigafetta account and geographic markers, designated March 31, 1521, at
Limasawa Island as the site of the mass.
• This was officiated by Fr. Pedro de Valderrama, the expedition’s chaplain,
on Easter Sunday.
• The mass was attended by Magellan, his men, and Rajah Kolambu of the
island.
B. Butuan, Agusan del Norte
• Advocates argue that Pigafetta's account corresponds better to Butuan, where
an earlier flourishing trade settlement existed and archaeological artifacts
(e.g., the Butuan boats) have been found.
• A mass site in Pinamanculan, Butuan was commemorated with a marker in
the 19th century, and local historical commissions have maintained that
Butuan was the actual site of the mass.
• Supporters cite geographical inconsistencies in Pigafetta’s account and
argue that early cartographic interpretations might have confused Mazaua with
Limasawa.

The Central Historical Issues

A. Which Site Hosted the First Documented Mass?
• This question hinges on interpreting:
o Pigafetta’s chronicle (translated from Italian/Latin)
o Early maps by Ramusio, Herrera, and others
o Navigational routes of Magellan’s fleet
• Modern historians have used archival research, topographic
comparisons, and astronomical data to pinpoint the likely location.

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 B. Religious and Colonial Significance
• The mass was more than a religious ritual—it was a symbolic act of cultural
imposition and alliance-building.
• It marked the start of Spain's religious mission in the islands, leading to
widespread conversion, colonial rule, and the establishment of the
friar-dominated society.
C. Implications for Local Identity and National Memory
• For Limasawa, the recognition elevates its historical importance and boosts
local pride and tourism.
• For Butuan, the dispute represents a regional claim to historical
centrality, supported by long-held traditions and community advocacy.
• The debate also reflects how history shapes local identity and how regions
compete for cultural recognition and national attention.

Key Sources and Evidence

A. Antonio Pigafetta’s Account
• The primary source for the event.
• Describes the fleet anchoring at a port called "Mazaua", where they were
received by friendly local rulers.
• Describes a mass held on March 31, and later a blood compact
(kasunduan) between Magellan and the local chieftains.
B. Archaeological and Cartographic Studies
• Butuan boasts physical archaeological evidence of early Christian and trading
activity.
• Historical cartographers in Europe sometimes placed Mazaua closer to
Mindanao.
• Limasawa defenders point to geographic consistency between Pigafetta’s
description and the island’s topography.
C. Modern Institutional Verdicts
• The National Historical Institute (now NHCP) reaffirmed in 2021, after
review by a panel of historians, that the first mass took place in Limasawa,
based on dominant academic consensus and source validation.
• Still, the Butuan Historical Commission and local historians continue to
present counter-evidence.

Historical Interpretation and Multiperspectivity

This controversy is a rich example of multiperspectivity in history:
1. Colonial Perspective:
o The event symbolized Spain’s successful Christianizing mission.
o But fails to acknowledge how this marked the beginning of cultural
erasure and conquest.
2. Religious Perspective:
o Seen as a divine milestone that brought salvation to the islands.
o Used by the Church as a foundation for religious authority.

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 3. Local/Regional Perspective:
o Limasawa and Butuan claim the event as part of their heritage.
o Underscores how localities use history to assert identity and claim
resources.
4. Critical Nationalist Perspective:
o Questions the celebration of colonizers’ arrival and seeks to re-center
indigenous agency.
o Views the first mass as the beginning of foreign domination rather
than spiritual liberation.

Contemporary Relevance
• The debate over the first mass continues to reflect larger questions:
o Who writes history?
o How is official history shaped by politics, religion, and power?
o Whose voices are excluded or included in national memory?
• Events such as the 500th anniversary of Christianity in the Philippines
(2021) reignited debates and challenged educators to teach the nuances
behind celebrated events.

The popularity of knowing where the "firsts" happened in history has been an easy
way to trivialize history, but this case study will not focus on the significance (or lack
thereof) of the site of the First Catholic Mass in the Philippines, but rather, use
it as a historiographical exercise in the utilization of evidence and interpretation in
reading historical events.

Butuan has long been believed as the site of the first Mass. In fact, this has been
the case for three centuries, culminating in the erection of a monument in 1872
near Agusan River, which commemorates the expedition's arrival and celebration of
Mass on 8 April 1521. The Butuan claim has been based on a rather elementary reading
of primary sources from the event.

Toward the end of the nineteenth century and the start of the twentieth century,
together with the increasing scholarship on the history of the Philippines, a more
nuanced reading of the available evidence was made, which brought to light more
considerations in gong against the more accepted interpretation of the first Mass in the
Philippines, made both by Spanish and Filipino scholars.

It must be noted that there are only two primary sources that historians refer to
in identifying the site of the first Mass. One is the log kept by Francisco Albo, a pilot of
one of Magellan's ship, Trinidad. He was one of the 18 survivors who returned with
Sebastian Elcano on the ship Victoria after they circumnavigated the world. The other,
and the more complete, was the account by Antonio Pigafetta, Primo Maggio Antonio al
Mondo (First Voyage Around the World). Pigafetta, like Albo, was a member of the
Magellan expedition and an eyewitness of the events, particularly, of the first Mass.

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PRIMARY SOURCE: Albo's Log

Source: Diario o derotero del viage de Magallanes desde el cabo se S. Agustin en el

Brazil hasta el regreso a Espana de la nao Victoria, escrito por Frandsco Albo,"
Document no. xxii in Colleción de viages descubrinmientos que hicieron por mar los
Españoles desde fines del siglo XV, Ed. Martin Fernandez de Navarrete (reprinted Buenos
Aires 1945, 0 Vols) IV, 191-225. As cited in Miguel A. Bernad "Butuan or Limasawa The
Site of the First Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Evidence 1981,
Künaadman: A Journal of Southern Philippines, Vol. 111, 1-35.

1. On the 16th of March (1521) as they sailed in a westerly course from Ladrones,
they saw land towards the northwest; but owing to many shallow places they did
not approach it. They found later that its name was Yunagan.
2. They went instead that same day southwards to another small island named
Suluan, and there they anchored. There they saw some canoes but these fled at
the Spaniards' approach. This island was at 9 and two-thirds degrees North
latitude.
3. Departing from those two islands, they sailed westward to an uninhabited
island of Gada" where they took in a supply of wood and water. The sea around
that island was free from shallows. (Albo does not give the latitude of this island,
but from Pigatetta's testimony, this seems to be the "Acquada or Homonhon,
at 10 degrees North latitude.)
4. From that island they sailed westwards towards a large island names Seilani
that was inhabited and was known to have gold.(Seilani- or, as Pigafetta calls
it, "Ceylon-was the island of Leyte.)
5. Sailing southwards along the coast of that large island of Seilani, they turned
southwest to a small island called "Mazava." That island is also at a latitude of 9
and two-thirds degrees North.
6. The people of that island of Mazava were very good. There the Spaniards
planted a cross upon a mountain-top, and from there they were shown three
islands to the west and southwest, where they were told there was much gold.
"They showed us how the gold was gathered, which came in small pieces like
peas and lentils.
7. From Mazava they sailed northwards again towards Seilani. They followed the
coast of Seilani in a northwesterly direction, ascending up to 10 degrees of latitude
where they saw three small islands.
8. From there they sailed westwards some ten leagues, and there they saw three
islets, where they dropped anchor for the night. In the morning they sailed
southwest some 12 leagues, down to a latitude of l0 and one-third degree. There
they entered a channel between two islands, one of which was called "Matan" and
the other "Subu."
9. They sailed down that channel and then turned westward and anchored at
the town (la villa) of Subu where they stayed many days and obtained provisions
and entered into a peace-pact with the local king.

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 10. The town of Subu was on an east-west direction with the islands of Suluan and
Mazava. But between Mazava and Subu, there were so many shallows that the
boats could not go westward directly but has to go (as they did) in a round-about
way.

It must be noted that in Albo's account, the location of Mazava fits the location of the
island of Limasawa, at the southern tip of Leyte, 9°54N. Also, Albo does not mention the
first Mass, but only the planting of the cross upon a mountain-top from which could be
seen three islands to the west and southwest, which also fits the southern end of
Limasawa.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Pigafetta's Testimony on the Route of Magellan's

Expedition

Source: Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Vols. 33
and 34, as cited in Miguel A. Bernad, "Butuan or Limasawa? The Site of the First
Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Evidence" 1981, Kinaadman: A Journal of
Southern Philippines, Vol. III, 1-35.

1. Saturday, 16 March 1521- Magellan's expedition sighted a "high land" named

"Zamal" which was some 300 leagues westward of Ladrones (now the
Marianas) Islands.
2. Sunday, March 17 "The following day" after sighting Zamal Island, they landed on
"another island which was uninhabited" and which lay "to the right" of the above-
mentioned island of "Zamal." (To the "right here would mean on their starboard
going south or southwest.) There they set up two tents for the sick members of
the crew and had a sow killed for them. The name of this island was Humunu
(Homonhon). This island was located at 10 degrees North latitude.
3. On that same day (Sunday, March 17), Magellan named the endure archipelago
the "Islands of Saint Lazarus," the reason being that it was Sunday in the
Lenten season when the Gospel assigned for the Mass and the liturgical Office was
the eleventh chapter of St. John, which tells of the raising of Lazarus from the
dead.
4. Monday, March 18- In the afternoon of their second day on that island, they saw
a boat coming towards them with nine men in it. An exchange of gifts was effected.
Magellan asked for food supplies, and the men went away, promising to bring rice
and other supplies in "four days.
5. There were two springs of water on that island of Homonhon. Also they saw there
some indications that there was gold in these islands. Consequently, Magellan
renamed the island and called it the "Watering Place of Good Omen" (Acquada la
di bouni segniali).
6. Friday, March 22-At noon the natives returned. This time they were in two boats,
and they brought food supplies.

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 7. Magellan's expedition stayed eight days at Homonhon: from Sunday, March
17, to the Monday of the following week, March 25.
8. Monday, March 25 In the afternoon, the expedition weighed anchor and left the
island of [Link] the ecclesiastical calendar, this day (March 25) was the
feast-day of the incarnation, also called the feast of the Annunciation and therefore
"Our Lady's Day. On this day, as they were about to weigh anchor, an accident
happened to Pigafëtta: he fell into the water but was rescued. He attributed his
narrow escape from death as grace obtained through the intercession of the
Blessed Virgin Mary on her feast-day.
9. The route taken by the expedition after leaving Homonhon was "toward the
west southwest, between four islands: namely, Cenalo, Hiunanghan, Ibusson and
Albarien." Very probably "Cenalo is a misspelling in the Italian manuscript for
what Pigafetta in his map calls "Ceilon and Albo calls "Seilani: namely the
island of Leyte. Hiunanghan" (a misspelling of Hinunangan) seemed to Pigafetta
to be a separate island, but is actually on the mainland of Leyte G.e.,
"Ceylon'"). On the other hand, Hibuson (Pigafetta's Ibusson) is an island
east of Leyte's southern tip. Thus, it is easy to see what Pigafetta meant by sailing
toward the west southwest" past those islands. They left Homonhon sailing
westward towards Leyte, then followed the Leyte coast southward, passing
between the island of Hibuson on their portside and unangan Bay on their
starboard, and then continued southward, then turning westward to "Mazaua.
10. Thursday, March 28 In the morning of Holy Thursday, March 6, they anchored off
an island where the previous night they had seen a light or a bonfire. That island
"lies in a latitude of nine and two-thirds towards the Arctic Pole (i.e., North) and
in a longitude of one hundred and sixty-two degrees from the line of demarcation.
lt is twenty-five leagues from the Acquada, and is called Mazaua.
11. They remained seven days on Mazaua lsland.
12. Thursday, April 4-They left Mazaua, bound for Cebu. They were guided thither by
the king of Mazaua who sailed in his own boat. Their route took them past five
"islands" namely: "Ceylon, Bohol, Canighan, Baibai, and Gatighan."
13. At Gatighan, they sailed westward to the three islands of the Camotes
Group, namely, Poro, Pasihan and Ponson. Here the Spanish ships stopped to allow
the king of Mazaua to catch up with them, since the Spanish ships were much
faster than the native balangha-a thing that excited the admiration of the king of
Mazaua.
14. From the Camotes Islands they sailed southwards towards "Zubu.
15. Sunday, April 7 - At noon they entered the harbor of "Zubu (Cebu). It had taken
them three days to negotiate the journey from Mazaua northwards to the Camotes
Islands and then southwards to Cebu. It must be pointed out that both Albo and
Pigafetta's testimonies coincide and corroborate each other. Pigafetta gave more
details on what they did during their weeklong stay at Mazaua.

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 PRIMARY SOURCE: Pigafetta and Seven Days in Mazaua

Source: Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Vols.
33 and 34, as cited in Miguel A. Bernad, "Butuan or Limasawa? The Site of
the First Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Evidence" 1981, Kinaadman:
A Journal of Southern Philippines, Vol. III, 1-35.

1. Thursday, March 28-In the morning they anchored near an island where they
had seen a light the night before a small boat (boloto) came with eight
natives, to whom Magellan threw some trinkets as presents. The natives
paddled away, but two hours later two larger boats (balanghai) came, in one
of which the native king sat under an awning of mats. At Magellan's invitation
some of the natives went up the Spanish ship, but the native king remained
seated in his boat. An exchange of gifts was affected. In the afternoon that
day, the Spanish ships weighed anchor and came closer to shore, anchoring
near the native king’s village. This Thursday, March 28, was Thursday in Holy
Week, i.e., Holy Thursday.
2. Friday, March 29-"Next day. Holy Friday, Magellan sent his slave interpreter
ashore in a small boat to ask the king if he could provide the expedition with
food supplies, and to say that they had come as friends and not as enemies.
In reply the king himself came in a boat with six or eight men, and this time
went up Magellan's ship and the two men embraced. Another exchange of gifts
was made. The native king and his companions returned ashore, bringing
with them two members of Magellan's expedition as guests for the night. One
of the two was Pigafetta.
3. Saturday, March 30 Pigafetta and his companion had spent the previous
evening feasting and drinking with the native king and his son. Pigafetta
deplored the fact that, although it was Good Friday, they had to eat meat.
The following morning (Saturday) Pigafetta and his companion took leave of
their hosts and returned to the ships.
4. Sunday, March 31-"Early in the morning of Sunday, the last of March
and Easter day," Magellan sent the priest ashore with some men to
prepare for the Mass. Later in the morning Magellan landed with some fifty
men and Mass was celebrated, after which a cross was venerated. Magellan
and the Spaniards returned to the ship for the noon-day meal, but in the
afternoon they returned ashore to plant the cross on the summit of the highest
hill. In attendance both at the Mass and at the planting of the cross were the
king of Mazaua and the king of Butuan.
5. Sunday, March 31-On that same afternoon, while on the summit of the highest
hill, Magellan asked the two kings which ports he should go to in order to
obtain more abundant supplies of food than were available in that island.
They replied that there were three to choose from: Ceylon, Zubu, and
Calagan. Of the three, Zubu was the port with the most trade. Magellan
then said that he wished to go to Zubu and to depart the following morning.

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 He asked for someone to guide him thither. The kings replied that the pilots
would be available "any time. But later that evening the King of Mazaua
changed his mind and said that he would himself conduct Magellan to Zubu
but that he would first have to bring the harvest in. He asked Magellan to send
him men to help with the harvest.
6. Monday, April 1 - Magellan sent men ashore to help with the harvest,
but no work was done that day because the two kings were sleeping off their
drinking bout the night before.
7. Tuesday, April 2 and Wednesday, April3- Work on the harvest during the
"next to days, 1.e., Tuesday and Wednesday, the 2nd and 3rd of April.
8. Thursday, April 4-They leave Mazaua, bound for Cebu.

Using the primary sources available, Jesuit priest Miguel A. Bernad in his
work Butuan or Limasauwa: The Site of the First Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination
of Evidence (1981) lays down the argument that in the Pigafetta account, a crucial aspect
of Butuan was not mentioned-the river. Butuan is a riverine settlement, situated on the
Agusan River. The beach off Masno is in the delta of said river. It 18 a curious omission
in the account of the river, which makes part of a distinct characteristic of Butuan's
geography that seemed to be too important to be missed.

The Age of Exploration is a period of competition among European rulers to conquer and colonize
lands outside their original domains. Initially, the goal was to find alternative routes by sea to get to Asia,
the main source of spices and other commodities. Existing routes to Asia were mainly by land and cost very
expensive. A sea route to Asia means that Europeans could access the spice trade directly, greatly reducing
costs for traders. Spain's major foray into the exploration was through Christopher Columbus, who proposed
to sail westward to find a shortcut to Asia. He was able to reach the Americas, which was then cut-off from
the rest of the known world.
Spain colonized parts of North America, Mexico, and South America in the sixteenth century. They were
also able to reach the Philippines and claim it for the Spanish crown. Later on, other European rulers
would compete with the activities of exploring and conquering lands.
It must also be pointed out that later on, after Magellan s death, the survivors of his expedition went
to Mindanao, and seemingly went to Butuan. In this instance, Pigafetta vividly describes a trip in a
river. But note that this account already happened after Magellan's death.

The question of where the first Catholic mass was held is not just about
pinpointing a site on the map. It is a window into deeper historical processes: how
colonization began, how faith and empire intersected, how local identities are shaped by
the past, and how history is continuously debated, interpreted, and reinterpreted.

Ultimately, the event—and the debate surrounding it—should encourage learners

not to memorize a fixed answer, but to critically examine sources, listen to multiple
perspectives, and reflect on how history lives on in our present-day narratives and
identities.

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Case Study 2: What Happened in the Cavite Mutiny?

The year 1872 is a historic year of two events: the Cavite Mutiny and the
martyrdom of the three priests: Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, later
on immortalized as GOMBURZA. These events are very important milestones in
Philippine history and have caused ripples throughout time, directly influencing the
decisive events of the Philippine Revolution toward the end of the century. While
the significance is unquestioned, what made this year controversial are the different
sides to the story, a battle of perspectives supported by primary sources. ln this
case study, we zoom in to the events of the Cavite Mutiny, a major factor in
the awakening of nationalism among the Filipinos of that time.

The Cavite Mutiny of 1872: A Pivotal Moment in Philippine Colonial History and
Nationalism

The Cavite Mutiny of 1872 is one of the most controversial and historically
significant events in the late Spanish colonial period in the Philippines. Although it was a
brief and localized military uprising, the way it was interpreted and manipulated by both
Spanish authorities and Filipino nationalists had far-reaching consequences. It led
to the execution of three Filipino priests—Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora
(GomBurZa)—who later became martyrs of the nationalist movement.

Historical Background
• By the late 19th century, the Philippines under Spanish colonial rule was
experiencing increasing unrest due to:
o Economic hardship and unfair taxation.
o Discontent among Filipino soldiers and workers, particularly those in
the Spanish arsenal in Cavite.
o Growing resentment over the secularization issue, where Filipino priests
demanded equal rights to administer parishes dominated by Spanish friars.
o The rise of a Filipino educated class (ilustrados) exposed to liberal
European ideals following reforms in Spain after the Glorious Revolution of
1868.

The Mutiny Itself – January 20, 1872

• The mutiny occurred in the Spanish naval arsenal of Fort San Felipe in
Cavite, involving around 200 Filipino soldiers and workers.
• It was reportedly triggered by the removal of privileges, such as tax
exemptions and forced labor exemptions, that had previously been granted to the
workers.
• The mutineers believed they could inspire a wider rebellion in Manila and that
sympathetic civilians and liberal clergy would support them.

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 However, the uprising was swiftly crushed by Spanish forces within 24 hours.
Despite its short duration and limited scope, the event became highly politicized.

The Conflicting Narratives: Spanish vs. Filipino Perspectives

A. 🇪🇸 Spanish Colonial Perspective (Official Account)
• The Spanish authorities, led by Governor-General Rafael Izquierdo,
claimed that the mutiny was part of a larger, well-planned nationalist
conspiracy.
• They alleged that Filipino priests—Mariano Gomez, José Burgos, and
Jacinto Zamora (GomBurZa)—were the intellectual leaders of a plot to
overthrow Spanish rule and establish an independent nation.
• The official narrative painted the event as a premeditated insurrection,
fueled by liberal ideas and anti-Spanish sentiments, promoted by the
native clergy and ilustrados.
• As a result:
o Hundreds were arrested.
o A quick and heavily biased military trial ensued.
o GomBurZa were executed by garrote on February 17, 1872, in
Bagumbayan (now Luneta Park).

Implications:
• This version justified the harsh crackdown on secular Filipino priests and
reformist movements.
• It reasserted Spanish colonial and religious authority, while suppressing
liberal thought.

B. 🇵🇭 Filipino Nationalist Perspective (Alternative Account)

• Filipino historians like Dr. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera and Dr. Jose Rizal
later refuted the Spanish version.
• According to this account, the Cavite Mutiny was a small-scale,
spontaneous protest by workers and soldiers who were angered by the
removal of their privileges.
• There was no nationwide plot, and certainly no involvement of
GomBurZa, who were respected but non-militant advocates of
secularization and equal rights for native clergy.
• The Spanish government deliberately exaggerated the scale of the
mutiny in order to eliminate the growing influence of Filipino intellectuals,
reformists, and secular clergy.
• The execution of GomBurZa was seen as a grave injustice, and their
martyrdom would become a rallying point for Filipino nationalism.

Implications:
• The incident exposed the oppressive nature of Spanish rule, especially the
abuse of judicial power.

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 • It ignited the consciousness of Filipino reformers and revolutionaries,
including Jose Rizal, who dedicated El Filibusterismo to GomBurZa.

Role of Key Figures

1. GomBurZa (Gomez, Burgos, Zamora)
• Mariano Gomez: An elderly parish priest known for his advocacy for native
clergy rights.
• Jose Burgos: A young, outspoken priest with a doctorate from the University
of Santo Tomas; active in reformist circles.
• Jacinto Zamora: A quiet, intellectual priest who was allegedly implicated due
to a misinterpreted gambling note.
Their execution without credible evidence exemplified the repression of
liberal reformist ideals under Spanish rule.

2. Governor-General Rafael Izquierdo

• He reversed many liberal reforms introduced by his predecessor.
• A staunch conservative, Izquierdo used the mutiny to justify a political purge
of reformists, especially the native clergy.

Repercussions and Legacy

A. Short-Term Consequences
• Heightened repression of native clergy and Filipino intellectuals.
• Spanish authorities increased censorship, surveillance, and arrests of reformist
elements.
• Many ilustrados fled to Europe, where they continued the Propaganda
Movement.
B. Long-Term Significance
• The execution of GomBurZa galvanized the nationalist movement.
• Influenced Jose Rizal, who would later become the leading voice of reform
and resistance.
• Became a powerful symbol of colonial injustice, used to awaken Filipino
identity and resistance.

Importance in Philippine Historiography

• The Cavite Mutiny illustrates the importance of multiperspectivity in
historical interpretation.
• Understanding the biases of colonial narratives is essential in decolonizing
Philippine history.
• The event marks a transition from reformism to revolution—from
petitioning for change to fighting for independence.

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Spanish Accounts of the Cavite Mutiny

The documentation of Spanish historian Jose Montero y Vidal centered on

how the event was an attempt in overthrowing the Spanish government in the
Philippines. Although regarded as a historian, his account of the mutiny was criticized
as woefully biased and rabid for a scholar. Another account from the official report written
by then Governor General Rafael Izquierdo implicated the native clergy, who were
then, active in the movement toward secularization of parishes. These two accounts
corroborated each other.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Excerpts from Montero's Account of the Cavity Mutiny

Source: Jose Monteroy Vidal, "Spanish Version of the Cavite Mutiny of 1872," in Gregorio
Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 7 (Manila:
National Book Store, 1990), 269- 273.

The abolition of privileges enjoyed by the laborers of the Cavite arsenal of

exemption from the tribute was, according to some, the cause of the insurrection.
There were, however, other causes. The Spanish revolution which overthrew a secular
throne, the propaganda carried on by an unbridled press against monarchical
principles, attenuators [sic] of the most sacred respects towards the dethroned majesty;
the democratic and republican books and pamphlets; the speeches and preaching
of the apostles of these new ideas in Spain; the outbursts of the American publicists and
the criminal policy of the senseless Governor whom the Revolutionary government
sent to govern the Philippines, and who put into practice these ideas were the
determining circumstances which gave rise, among certain Filipinos, to the idea of
attaining their independence. It was towards this goal that they started to work, with the
powerful assistance of a certain section of the native clergy, who out of spite toward
friars, made common cause with the enemies of the mother country.

At various times but especially in the beginning of year 1872, the authorities
received anonymous communications with the information that a great uprising
would break out against the Spaniards, the minute the fleet at Cavite left for the South,
and that all would be assassinated, including the friars. But nobody gave importance
to these notices. The conspiracy had been going on Since the days of La Torre with
utmost secrecy. At times, the principal leaders met either in the house of Filipino
Spaniard, D. Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, or in that of the native priest, Jacinto Zamora, and
these meetings were usually attended by the curate of Bacoor, the soul of the movement,
whose energetic character and immense wealth enabled him to exerc1se a strong
influence.

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PRIMARY SOURCE: Excerpts from the Official Report of Governor Izquierdo on
the Cavite Mutiny of 1872

Source: Rafael Izquierdo, "Official Report on the Cavite Mutiny," in Gregorio Zaide
and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 7 (Manila: National
Book Store, 1990), 281-286.

...It seems definite that the insurrection was motivated and prepared by the native clergy,
by the mestizos and native lawyers, and by those known here as abogadillos..

The instigators, to carry out their criminal project, protested against the
injustice of the government in not paying the provinces for their tobacco crop, and
against the usury that some practice in documents that the Finance department gives
crop owners who have to sell them at a loss. They encouraged the rebellion by
protesting what they called the injustice of having obliged the workers in the
Cavite arsenal to pay tribute starting January 1 and to render personal service, from
which they were formerly exempted..

Up to now it has not been clearly determined if they planned to establish a

monarchy or a republic, because the Indios have no word in their language to describe
this different form of government, Whose head in Filipino would be called hari; but it
turns out that they would place at the head of the government a priest. that the head
selected would be D. Jose Burgos, or D. Jacinto ZamOrä. Such is... the plan of the rebels,
those who guided them, and the means they counted upon for its realization.

It is apparent that the accounts underscore the reason for the "revolution": the
abolition of privileges enjoyed by the workers of the Cavite arsenal such as exemption
from payment of tribute and being employed in polos y servicios, or force labor. They
also identified other reasons which seemingly made the issue a lot more serious,
which included the presence of the native clergy, who, out of spite against the Spanish
friars, "conspired and supported the rebels. Izquierdo, in an obviously biased report,
highlighted that attempt to overthrow the Spanish government in the Philippines to
install a new "hari in the persons of Fathers Burgos and Zamora. According to
him, native clergy attracted supporters by giving them charismatic assurance that their
fight would not fail because they had God's support, aside from promises of lofty rewards
such as employment, wealth, and ranks in the army.

In the Spaniard's accounts, the event of 1872 was premeditated, and was
part of a big conspiracy among the educated leaders, mestizos, lawyers, and residents of
Manila and Cavite. They allegedly plan to liquidate high ranking Spanish officers, then kill
the friars. The signal they identified among these conspirators of Manila and Cavite was
the rockets fired from Intramuros.

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 The accounts detail that on 20 January 1872, the district of Sampaloc
celebrated the feast of the Virgin of Loreto, and came with it were some fireworks display.
The Caviteños allegedly mistook this as the signal to commence with the attack. The 200-
men contingent led by Sergeant Lamadrid attacked Spanish officers at sight and seized
the arsenal. Izquierdo, upon learning of the attack, ordered the reinforcement of
the Spanish forces in Cavite to quell the revolt. The "revolution was easily crushed,
when the Manileños who were expected to aid the Caviteños did not arrive. Leaders
of the plot were killed in the resulting skirmish, while Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and
Zamora were tried by a court-martial and sentenced to be executed. Others who were
implicated such as Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Antonio [Link], Jose and Pio Basa,
and other Filipino lawyers were suspended from the practice of law, arrested, and
sentenced to life imprisonment at the Marianas Island. Izquierdo dissolved the native
regiments of artillery and ordered the creation of an artillery force composed
exclusively by Peninsulares.

On 17 February 1872, the GOMBURZA were executed to serve as a threat to

Filipinos never to attempt to fight the Spaniards again.

Differing Accounts of the Events of 1872

Two other primary accounts exist that seem to counter the accounts of
Izquierdo and Montero. First, the account of Dr. Trinidad Hermenegildo Pardo de Tavera,
a Pilipino scholar and researcher, who wrote a Filipino version of the bloody incident in
Cavite.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Excerpts from Pardo de Tavera's Account of the Cavite

Mutiny

Source: Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, "Filipino Version of the Cavity Mutiny," in Gregorio
Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 7 (Manila:
National Book Store, 1990), 274 280.

This uprising among the soldiers in Cavite was used as s powerful level by
the Spanish residents and by the friars. the Central Government in Madrid had
announced its intention to deprive the friars in these islands of powers of
intervention in matters of civil government and of the direction and management of
the university .. it was due to these facts and promises that the Filipinos had great
hopes of an improvement in the affairs of their country, while the friars, on the
other hand, feared that their power in the colony would soon be complete a thing of the
past.
...Up to that time there had been no intention of secession from Spain, and the
only aspiration of the people was. to secure the material and education advancement of
the country...

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 According to this account, the incident was merely a mutiny by Filipino soldiers
and laborers of the Cavite Arsenal to the dissatisfaction arising from the draconian policies
of Izquierdo, such as the abolition of privileges and the prohibition of the founding of the
school of arts and trades tor Filipinos, which the General saw as a smokescreen to
creating a political club.

Tavera is of the opinion that the Spanish friars and Izquierdo used the Cavite
Mutiny as a way to address other issues by blowing out of proportion the isolated mutiny
attempt. During this time, the Central Government in Madrid was planning to deprive the
friars of all the powers of intervention in matters of civil government and direction and
management of educational institutions. The friars needed something to justify their
continuing dominance in the country, and the mutiny provided such opportunity.

However, the Central Spanish Government introduced an educational decree

fusing sectarian schools run by the friars into a school called the Philippine Institute.
The decree aimed to improve the standard of education in the Philippines by requiring
teaching positions in these schools to be filled by competitive examinations, an
improvement welcomed by most Filipinos.

Another account, this time by French writer Edmund Plauchut, complemented

Tavera's account and analyzed the motivations of the 1872 Cavite Mutiny.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Excerpts from Plauchut's Account of the Cavite Mutiny

Source: Edmund Plauchut, The Cavite Mutiny of 1872 and the Martyrdom of Gom-
Bur-Za," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine
History, Volume 7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 251-268.

General La Torre.. created a junta composed of high officials... including some

friars and six Spanish officials.... At the same time there was created by the
government in Madrid a committee to investigate the same problems submitted to
the Manila committee. When the two finished work, it was found that they came to the
same conclusions. Here is the summary of the reforms they considered necessary
to introduce:

1. Changes in tariff rates at customs, and the methods of collection.

2. Removal of surcharges on foreign importations.
3. Reduction of export fees
4. Permission for foreigners to reside in the Philippines, buy real estate, enjoy
freedom of worship, and operate commercial transports flying the Spanish flag.
5. Establishment of an advisory council to inform the Minister of Overseas
Affairs in Madrid on the necessary reforms to be implemented.
6. Changes in primary and secondary education.

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 7. Establishment of an Institute of Civil Administration in the Philippines,
rendering unnecessary the sending home of short-term civil officials every time
there is a change of ministry.
8. Study of direct-tax system.
9. Abolition of the tobacco monopoly.

...The arrival in Manila of General Izquierdo... put a sudden end to all dreams of
reforms... the prosecutions instituted by the new Governor General were probably
expected as a result of the bitter disputes between the Filipino clerics and the friars.
Such a policy must really end in a strong desire on the part of the other to repress cruelly.

In regard to schools, it was previously decreed that there should be in Manila a Society
of Arts and Trades to be opened in March of 1871... to repress the growth of liberal
teachings, General Izquierdo suspended the opening of the school... the day previous
to the scheduled inauguration..

The Filipinos had a duty to render service on public roads construction and pay
taxes every year. But those who were employed at the maestranza ot the artillery, in
the engineering shops and arsenal of Cavite, were exempted trom this obligation
from time immemorial... Without preliminaries of any kind, a decree by the
Governor withdrew from such old employees their retirement privileges and
declassified them into the ranks of those who worked on public roads.

The friars used the incident as a part of a larger conspiracy to cement their dominance,
which had started to show cracks because of the discontent of the Filipinos. They
showcased the mutiny as part of a greater conspiracy in the Philippines by Filipinos to
overthrow the Spanish Government. Unintentionally, and more so, prophetically, the
Cavite Mutiny of 1872 resulted in the martyrdom of GOMBURZA, and paved the way to
the revolution culminating in 1898.

The GOMBURZA is the collective name of the three martyred priests Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto
Zamora, Who were tagged as the masterminds of the Cavite Mutiny. They were prominent Filipino priests charged with
treason and sedition. It is believed that the Spanish clergy connected the priests to the mutiny as part or a conspiracy
to stifle the movement of secular priests who desired to have their own parishes instead of being merely assistants
to the regular friars. The GOMBURZA were executed by garrote in public, a scene purportedly witnessed by a young
Jose Rizal.

Their martyrdom is widely accepted as the dawn of Philippine nationalism in the nineteenth century, with Rizal
dedicating his second novel, El Filibusterismo, to their memory:

“The Government, by enshrouding your trial in mystery and pardoning your co-accused, has suggested that some
mistake was committed when your fate was decided; and the whole of the Philippines, in paying homage to your
memory and calling you martyrs, totally rejects your guilt. The Church, by refusing to degrade you, has put in doubt
the crime charged against you.

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 The Cavite Mutiny of 1872 was not merely a failed revolt—it was a turning
point that exposed the abuses of Spanish colonial rule and ignited the flames of
Filipino nationalism. The conflicting accounts—Spanish versus Filipino—reveal how
history can be shaped by power, politics, and perspective. By revisiting this event
critically, we gain not just knowledge of the past, but insight into the ongoing struggle
for truth, justice, and national identity.

Case Study 3: Where Did the Cry of Rebellion Happen?

Momentous events swept the Spanish colonies in the late nineteenth century,
including the Philippines. Journalists of the time referred to the phrase El Grito de
Rebellion" or "Cry of Rebellion" to mark the start of these revolutionary events,
identifying the places where it happened. In the Philippines, this happened in August
1896, northeast of Manila, where they declared rebellion against the Spanish colonial
government. These events are important markers in the history of colonies that
struggled for their independence against their colonizers.

The controversy regarding this event stems from the identification of the
date and place where the Cry happened. Prominent Filipino historian Teodoro
Agoncillo emphasizes the event when Bonifacio tore the cedula or tax receipt before the
Katipuneros who also did the same. Some writers identified the first military event with
the Spaniards as the moment of the Cry, for which, Emilio Aguinaldo commissioned
an "Himno de Balintawak to inspire the renewed struggle after the Pact of the
Biak-na-Bato failed. A monument to the Heroes of 1896 was erected in what is
now the intersection of Epifanio de los Santos (EDSA) Avenue and Andres Bonifacio
Drive-North Diversion road, and from then on until 1962, the Cry of Balintawak was
celebrated every 26th of August. The site of the monument was cho8en for an unknown
reason.

Different Dates and Places of the Cry: The Cry of Rebellion – Pugadlawin or
Balintawak?

Event: The symbolic tearing of cedulas as a sign of defiance against Spanish rule—an
event marking the start of the Philippine Revolution in 1896.
• Dispute over the exact location and date:
o Some accounts claim it happened in Pugadlawin on August 23 (as
per historian Teodoro Agoncillo).
o Others argue for Balintawak on August 26 (supported by some
veterans’ testimonies).
o The confusion arises from inconsistent oral testimonies, shifting
place names, and memory gaps.
• Underlying Issues:
o Debates over Andres Bonifacio’s role as revolutionary leader.

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 o Some regions and historians emphasize regional contributions,
leading to fragmented commemorations.

Various accounts of the Cry give different dates and places. A guardia civil, Lt.
Olegario Diaz, identified the Cry to have happened in Balintawak on 25 August 1896.
Teodoro Kalaw, Filipino historian, marks the place to be in Kangkong, Balintawak, on
the last week of August 1896. Santiago Alvarez, a Katipunero and son of Mariano
Alvarez, leader of the Magdiwang faction in Cavite, put the Cry in Bahay Toro in
Quezon City on 24 August 1896. Pio Valenzuela, known Katipunero and privy to many
events concerning the Katipunan stated that the Cry happened in Pugad Lawin on 23
August 1896. Historian Gregorio Zaide identified the Cry to have happened in Balintawak
on 26 August 1896, while Teodoro Agoncillo put it at Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896,
according to statements by Pio Valenzuela. Research by historians Milagros Guerrero,
Emmanuel Encarnacion, and Ramon Villegas claimed that the event took place in
Tandang Sora's barn in Gulod, Barangay Banlat, Quezon City, on 24 August 1896.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Accounts of the Cry

Guillermo Masangkay

Source: Guillermo Masangkay, "Cry of Balintawak" in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide,
Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 8 (Manila: National Book Store,
1990), 307-309.

On August 26th, a big meeting was held in Balintawak, at the house of Apolonio
Samson, then cabeza of that barrio of Caloocan. Among those who attended, I
remember, were Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, Aguedo del Rosario, Tomas Remigio, Briccio
Pantas, Teodoro Plata, Pio Valenzuela, Enrique Pacheco, and Francisco Carreon. They
were all leaders of the Katipunan and composed the board of directors of the organization.
Delegates from Bulacan, Cabanatuan, Cavite, and Morong were also present.

At about nine o'clock in the morning of August 26, the meeting was opened with
Andres Bonifacio presiding and Emilio Jacinto acting as secretary. The purpose was to
discuss when the uprising was to take place. Teodoro Plata, Briccio Pantas, and Pio
Valenzuela were all opposed to starting the revolution too early... Andres Bonifacio,
sensing that he would lose in the discussion then, left the session hall and talked to the
people, who were waiting outside for the result of the meeting of the leaders. He told the
people that the leaders were arguing against starting the revolution early, and appealed
to them in a fiery speech in which he said: "You remember the fate of our
countrymen who were shot in Bagumbayan. Should we return now to the towns, the
Spaniards will only shoot us. Our organization has been discovered and we are all marked
men. If we don't start the uprising, the Spaniards will get us anyway. What then, do you
say?

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 "Revolt!" the people shouted as one.

Bonifacio then asked the people to give a pledge that they were to revolt. He told
them that the sign of slavery of the Filipinos were (Sic) the cedula tax charged each
citizen. "If it is true that you are ready to revolt... I want to see you destroy your cedulas.
It will be a sign that all of us have declared our severance from the Spaniards.

Pio Valenzuela

Source: Pio Valenzuela, "Cry of Pugad Lawin," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide,
Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 8 (Manila: National Book Store,
1990), 301-302.

The first place of refuge of Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, Procopio

Bonifacio, Teodoro Plata, Aguedo del Rosario, and myself was Balintawak, the first five
arriving there on August 19, and I, on August 20, 1896. The first place where some 500
members of the Katipunan met on August 22, 1896, was the house and yard of Apolonio
Samson at Kangkong. Aside from the persons mentioned above, among those who were
there were Briccio Pantas, Alejandro Santiago, Kamon Bernardo, Apolonio Samson,
and others. Here, views were only exchanged, and no resolution was debated or
adopted. It was at Pugad lawin, the house store-house, and yard of Juan Ramos, son
of Melchora Aquino, where over 1,000 members of the Katipunan met and carried out
considerable debate and discussion on August 23, 1896. The discussion was on
whether or not the revolution against the Spanish government should be started on
August 29, 1896... After the tumultuous meeting, many of those present tore their
cedula certificates and shouted "Long live the Philippines! Long live the Philippines!

From the eyewitness accounts presented, there is indeed marked

disagreement among historical witnesses as to the place and time of the occurrence
of the Cry. Using primary and secondary sources, tour places have been identified:
Balintawak, Kangkong, Pugad Lawin, and Bahay Toro, while the dates vary: 23, 24, 25,
or 26 August 1896.

Valenzuela's account should be read with caution: He once told a Spanish

investigator that the "Cry happened in Balintawak on Wednesday, 26 August 1896.
Much later, he wrote in his Memoirs of the Revolution that it happened at Pugad Lawin
on 23 August 1896. Such inconsistencies in accounts should always be seen as a red flag
when dealing with primary sources.
According to Guerrero, Encarnacion, and Villegas, all these places are in
Balintawak, then part of Caloocan, now, in Quezon City. As for the dates, Bonifacio and
his troops may have been moving from one place to another to avoid being located
by the Spanish government, which could explain why there are several accounts of the
Cry.

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 Multiperspectivity helps us move beyond the quest for a single "correct" answer
and instead explore why different versions exist, and what they reveal about
memory, power, and identity.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Written Assessment #2 – Lesson 2

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SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. ACTIVITY: Primary Source Reading Circle – Kartilya ng Katipunan

Focus Topic: The KKK and the Kartilya ng Katipunan
• Students form small groups and read selected excerpts from Kartilya ng
Katipunan (original Tagalog and translated versions).
• Each group discusses the core values, teachings, and moral code presented by
Emilio Jacinto.
• Students identify which values are still relevant today.
Learning Goal: To analyze primary historical texts and extract moral and political
values relevant to nation-building.

2. ACTIVITY: Source Detective – Comparing Accounts of the KKK

Focus Topic: Historical Context and Source Evaluation
• Present students with two to three accounts of the Katipunan (e.g., memoirs,
newspaper articles, Spanish colonial documents, biographies).
• Students compare the tone, perspective, and reliability of each.
• Discuss how interpretation varies based on the source and author.
Learning Goal: To evaluate bias and context in historical narratives and explore how
history is constructed.

3. ACTIVITY: Interpretation Workshop – Making Sense of the Past

Focus Topic: Making Sense of the Past: A Historical Interpretation
• Provide students with an image, quote, or paragraph from a primary source about
the Katipunan.
• Students write a short reflection answering:
o “What does this tell us about the past?”
o “Why does this matter today?”
• End with a short oral sharing or gallery walk.
Learning Goal: To practice interpretive skills and connect past events to present
values or issues.
SUGGESTED OUTPUTS AND ASSESSMENT TOOLS:

Output 1: Reflection Essay – “The Kartilya and Me”

Connected Activity: Reading Circle on Kartilya ng Katipunan
• Students write a 500–700-word reflection on how the Kartilya’s teachings
apply to their personal life or modern society.
• May include modern equivalents of its values and a brief reaction to Emilio Jacinto’s
moral philosophy.

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 Assessment Rubric:
Criteria Weight
Depth of personal insight 30%
Relevance to the Kartilya’s values 25%
Connection to present context 20%
Coherence and structure 15%
Grammar and mechanics 10%

Output 2: Source Comparison Matrix + Analysis Paragraph

Connected Activity: Source Detective
• Students complete a comparison matrix analyzing 2–3 sources on the KKK.
• Follow with a short paragraph explaining which source they consider most
reliable and why.
Assessment Rubric:
Criteria Weight
Correct identification of source bias 25%
Historical accuracy and content 25%
Critical comparison and evaluation 25%
Logical reasoning in paragraph 15%
Clarity and organization 10%

Output 3: Interpretive Poster – “Making Sense of the Past”

Connected Activity: Interpretation Workshop
• Create a visual poster (digital or paper) featuring an excerpt or image from a
primary source, a title, and a personal or historical interpretation of the excerpt.
• Include a short explanation of why the excerpt is meaningful in understanding the
past.
Assessment Rubric:
Criteria Weight
Historical relevance of chosen source 25%
Depth of interpretation 30%
Creativity and design 20%
Clarity of written explanation 15%
Effort and presentation 10%

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 MODULE 3
Occupations in the Philippines

Lesson 1: Spanish Occupation in the Philippines

Lesson 2: The Philippines Under the American Regime
Lesson 3: The Philippines Under the Japanese Rule

GE11
Readings
in Philippine History
Asst. Prof. Jayson C. Peñaflor, MAED

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Module 3
Occupations in the Philippines

Overview
The origins of the Philippine nation-state can be traced to the overlapping histories
of three empires that swept onto its shores: the Spanish, the North American, and the
Japanese. This history makes the Philippines a kind of imperial artifact. Like all nation-
states, it is an ineluctable part of a global order governed by a set of shifting power
relationships. Such shifts have included not just regime change but also social revolution.
The modernity of the modern Philippines is precisely the effect of the contradictory
dynamic of imperialism. The Spanish, the North American, and the Japanese colonial
regimes, as well as their postcolonial heir, the Republic, have sought to establish power
over social life, yet found themselves undermined and overcome by the new kinds of lives
they had spawned. It is precisely this dialectical movement of empires that we find starkly
illuminated in the history of the Philippines.

Learning Objectives

On successful completion of this topic, you should be able to:

a. Describe and analyze the reaction of the early Filipinos to Spanish Occupation
b. Analyze the different economic policies of the Americans in the Philippines that
made impact to the society during and after the American rule
c. Effectively communicate and articulate the historical analysis of a particular event
or issue that could help other people understand and manage present day issues
and concerns.

Required Readings:

➢ Bernard, M. E. (2002) “Butuan or Limasawa: The Site of the First Mass

in the Philippines: A Reexamination of the Evidence”, BUDHI A Journal
of Ideas and Culture, Vol. 5, No. 3.6.1.
[Link]

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 ➢ LeRoy, J. (1903). The Friars in the Philippines. Political Science
Quarterly, 18(4), [Link]/2140780

References:

➢ Candelaria, J. L., & Alphora, V. C. (2018). Readings in Philippine

History. Quezon City: Rex Printing Company, Inc.

➢ Torres, J. V. (2018). BATIS Sources in Philippine History. Quezon City:

C & E Publishing, Inc.

➢ Christopher F. B., Raymond E. B, Julie C. L., Fatima F. R., Tecah C. S.

(2006) Philippine History Coursebook, Trinitas Publishing. INC.

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 LESSON 1: Spanish Occupation in the Philippines

Lesson 1.1: Spanish Colonial Way of Life

A. Spanish Colonial Experience

The Spanish Expansion is a result of various forces. Aside from the Philippines, the
Spaniards have already colonized parts of South, North, and Central America. The
inclusion of the Philippines resulted out of the attempts of Spaniards to control the
spice trade in the Moluccas islands. Aside from the interests in spices, Spain had been
motivated by its mercantilist nature or accumulation wealth in the form of gold.
This was simultaneous with the invention of new technologies needed for
exploration like the compass and sextant. Maps were also refined at this time that
greatly aided the explorers.

Before Spain actually decided to occupy the Philippines, two noted voyages
already reached the Philippines. This was Magellan voyage in 1521 and the Villalobos
voyage in 1543. These did not start Spanish colonialism although they provide
information and fed the interest of the Spanish government to finally take the islands.
In 1565, Legaspi carried the Spanish flag and set up in the Philippine islands another
colony for Spain. This commenced the Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines.

Exploration and colonization during this time were realized through contractual
agreements between the Crown and the Conquistadores. In essence, the
Consquistadores conquered for Spain but they shall share in the riches of the new
territories they conquered. Thus, conquistadores like Legaspi instituted measures
both for the pacification of the people and the satisfaction of their private goals.
It is within this frame that we understand that the pacification efforts of the
colonizers were also coupled with exploitation.

B. Instruments of Pacification and Exploitation

Encomienda. A system of organizing territories to be under the care of an

Encomendero. It was an administrative unit for the purpose of exacting tributes from the
natives. The Encomendero unit for the purpose of extracting tributes from the natives.

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The Encomendero had the power to collect tributes and to use the personal services of
the inhabitants of the encomienda. The Encomienda shall take care of the welfare of the
natives.

1. Protect natives by maintaining peace and order

2. 2. Support missionaries in conversion to Catholicism
3. 3. Help in defense of country.

The services are compensated from the shares an Encomendero can get from the
tributes and the services of the natives. So, while the system was meant to facilitate the
organization and administration of the colony, the Encomendero gave a negative
image to it. This system was characterized by greed and cruelty. It was an opportunity
for one to enrich oneself primarily by collection of tribute or unlawful exaction of
numerous services.

a. Tributor. This is levying of tax to all Filipinos aged 19-60 except

government employees, soldiers with distinguished services, descendants of
Lakandula and some few native chieftains, choir members, sacristans,
porters of the church, and government witnesses. The alcalde mayors,
encomendero, gobernadorcillo, and the cabezas acted as tribute collectors.

The Spanish form of “taxation” was by itself heavy for the native. But this
was aggravated by the force and abuses that accompanied its implementation.
Soldiers were used to escort tax collectors to force collection and these often
resulted to violence. Worst, of course, is the act of collecting much more than what the
law required by the tax collectors.
b. Polo Y Servicio. This is another colonial policy that obliged male natives
aged 16-60 except chieftains and their eldest son to serve 40 days each
year in labor pools. The labor pools refer to the site of labor that were mostly
of construction kind. The natives were asked to build buildings both for the
church and the government. They were also made to make roads and build
ships.

This policy was meant to help set up of government infrastructure and the
laborers were even given ration of rice and paid minimal amounts. There were other
regulations to ensure the protection of the workers. In practice though, all these
regulations were violated. Laborers were not paid and were not given any rice
ration. The policy became insensitive to the need of the communities so that it was still
enforced in time of planting or harvest seasons.

In the end, polo y servicio became a forced labor that contributed to

famine experiences and the destruction of communities.

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 c. Bandala. This is another policy meant to augment the finances of the colonial
government. It required the compulsory sale of products to the
government. Communities were given quotas to produce and sold only
to the government. The prices set by the government were lower than the
prevailing prices of these products but were sold back to the people for a high
price. This practice formed natives to be indebted to the chieftain entrenching
the socio-economic position of the chief. In worst cases, which was
usually the case, farmers were not paid at all of their produce and were
given promissory notes. In effect, this policy became a virtual confiscation of
natives’ products.

Divide and Rule: This is a military strategy utilized by the Spaniards against
the natives. In this method, native mercenaries were used against other groups to
beef op limited military contingency of the Spaniards. Ny its very nature, it was
exploitative as the inter-village warfare tradition of the early Filipinos was reinforced to
serve the interests of the colonizers.

The policies provide clear examples as to how the colonial policies impacted
on the native Filipinos. For them, the policies were exploitative even if these were just
part of the pacification process of the Spaniards.

These difficulties were compounded by the constant war Spain was into against
the Dutch and Portuguese.

In all the abusive policies, the traditional head of barangay as the Maginoo and
Datu became intermediaries. They were converted into willing allies of the Colonizers and
their powers and authority were complicated by the colonizers. As traditional barangay
authority, they were used as intermediaries between the natives and the Spaniards.
Political privilege was also granted by Spaniards as tribute collectors, gobernadorcillos
and thus helped in mobilizing labor for government construction of projects.
Economically, the Chiefs were given the opportunity and took advantage of the concept
of private property of land. In the end, the traditional chiefs were transformed into a
willing ally and were called principals. One can see the prestige of principalia in the social
hierarchy of the period. Of the native Filipinos, they were ranked higher next to the
Spaniards.

C. Analyzing Colonial Accounts and Interpretations

The Spanish colonial period (1565–1898) drastically altered the socio-

political, religious, and cultural landscape of the Philippines. Much of what we know about
the early years of Spanish rule comes from written accounts by Spanish
missionaries, colonial administrators, and officials. These documents are
invaluable historical sources—but they are also problematic, as they often reflect
colonial biases and Eurocentric perspectives.

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This discussion centers on three important sources:
1. Customs of the Tagalog by Juan de Plasencia (1589)
2. Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas by Antonio de Morga (1609)
3. Letter of Francisco de Sande to Estevan Rodriguez de Figueroa (1576)

Through these texts, we explore how Spanish colonization was justified, how
Filipino life was portrayed, and how these writings continue to shape historical
interpretation and debate.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Juan de Plasencia’s Customs of the Tagalog (1589)

Source: Plasencia, Juan de. Customs of the Tagalogs (1589).

In: Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander (Eds. & Trans.).
The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, Vol. 7 (1588–1591).
Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1903. pp. 173–196. Online Access:
University of Michigan’s "Philippine Islands 1493–1898" Collection

A. Context and Purpose

• Juan de Plasencia was a Franciscan missionary who came to the Philippines
during the early phase of Spanish rule.
• He wrote Customs of the Tagalog in 1589 to document the beliefs, practices,
and social structures of the native population.
• The work was intended as a guide for missionaries tasked with converting
Filipinos to Christianity.

B. Key Content
• Plasencia provides a detailed description of:
o Social classes: datu (chief), maharlika (nobility), timawa (freemen), and
alipin (servants/slaves).
o Justice system: Trial-by-ordeal, tribal councils, and customary fines (e.g.,
killing, paninilbihan, or labor as payment).
o Religious beliefs: Worship of nature spirits (anito), presence of shamans
or babaylans.
o Marriage customs, inheritance, burial rites, and economic transactions.

C. Importance and Critical Analysis

• Historical Value:
o Offers a rare glimpse into precolonial Filipino life from a first-hand
observer.
o Preserves details about indigenous laws, belief systems, and kinship
patterns that were later suppressed.
• Colonial Bias:
o Plasencia’s intent was to “civilize” and “Christianize”—thus, many
descriptions label native practices as “barbaric” or “idolatrous.”

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 o Uses Christian frameworks to interpret indigenous concepts, resulting in
cultural misrepresentation.
• Debate:
o Historians question whether Plasencia’s account is ethnographic
documentation or a colonial construct aimed at justifying
conversion and imposing Spanish authority.
o Still, the text remains a foundational document in understanding
Philippine precolonial society.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Antonio de Morga’s Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609)

Source: Morga, Antonio de. Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609).

Translated and annotated by José Rizal (1890).
English translation by Blair, Emma Helen, and Robertson, James Alexander, in The
Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, Vol. 16.
Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1904. Online Access: Project Gutenberg: Sucesos
de las Islas Filipinas (Rizal edition, 1890); University of Michigan’s “Philippine Islands,
1493–1898” Vol. 16 (Blair & Robertson)

A. Context and Purpose

• Antonio de Morga was a Spanish colonial official, lawyer, and historian who
served in the Philippines.
• His book, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, was published in 1609 in Mexico, with the
aim of recording the history of Spanish colonization in the Philippines.

B. Content Highlights
• Morga discusses:
o The arrival of Spanish forces and their early encounters with native
communities.
o Filipino political and cultural life prior to conquest: commerce, warfare,
local governance.
o Spanish expeditions, missionary activities, and resistance from native
groups and Muslim leaders in Mindanao and Sulu.
o Observations on Filipino customs, tools, ships, clothing, and war
practices.

C. Importance and Relevance

• Unlike most Spanish writers of his time, Morga wrote with a relatively neutral
tone, occasionally praising Filipino ingenuity and civilization.
• His work was rediscovered and annotated by Dr. Jose Rizal in 1890, who
used it to:
o Refute the myth that Spanish colonization “civilized” the Filipinos.
o Highlight that Filipinos had a vibrant culture, complex society, and
established trade networks before Spanish arrival.

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D. Critical Perspective
• Morga’s account is a unique blend of colonial administration and early
ethnography.
• Rizal’s annotations emphasize the need to reclaim indigenous identity and
deconstruct colonial narratives that portray pre-Hispanic Filipinos as primitive.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Francisco de Sande’s Letter to Estevan Rodriguez de

Figueroa (1576)

Source: Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander (Eds. & Trans.).
The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, Volume 4: 1576–1582.
Cleveland, OH: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1903. Letter title: “Letter from Francisco
de Sande to Estevan Rodríguez de Figueroa”; Date: June 12, 1576; Pages: 39–53. Full
Text Online: University of Michigan Digital Library:
[Link]

A. Background and Purpose

• Francisco de Sande was the third Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines.
• His 1576 letter to Estevan Rodriguez de Figueroa, a Spanish colonizer assigned to
conquer Mindanao, outlined strategies for Spanish expansion in the southern
Philippines.

B. Key Themes
• Justification of Conquest:
o Sande portrays the mission as both a spiritual endeavor (Christianizing
Muslims) and an act of imperial authority.
• Economic Exploitation:
o He emphasizes the value of exploiting native labor, highlighting the
encomienda system, where Filipinos were compelled to pay tribute or
work for Spanish encomenderos.
• Use of Religion:
o Religion was framed as a tool for pacification, to justify military
action, and to create loyalty to Spanish rule.

C. Critical Assessment
• The letter exposes the true motivations behind Spanish colonial expansion:
wealth extraction, territorial control, and religious hegemony.
• It also reveals the instrumental use of faith—not as purely spiritual outreach,
but as colonial strategy.

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Comparative Insights of the three Primary Sources:

Value to
Source Authorship Focus Colonial Bias?
Historians
Juan de Plasencia Indigenous Strong Christian Rich in detail on
Customs of
(Franciscan customs and lens; aims to precolonial social
the Tagalog
missionary) beliefs convert systems
Sucesos de History of Spanish Used by Rizal to
Antonio de Morga Moderate bias;
las Islas conquest and counter colonial
(Colonial official) more descriptive
Filipinas native society distortions
Letter to Strategy for High bias; Reveals colonial
Francisco de Sande
Estevan conquest of unapologetic motives and labor
(Governor-General)
Rodriguez Mindanao imperialism exploitation

Relevance in Today’s Historical Study

• These texts serve as primary sources in historical interpretation and source

criticism.
• Encourage students to analyze intent, bias, and perspective in colonial
documents.
• Help uncover indigenous perspectives by reading "between the lines."
• Prompt reflection on how colonial history is constructed and how modern
Filipinos understand their past.

The Philippines under Spain was not just a period of conquest and conversion—it was
also a time of narrative construction, where colonial authors shaped the way Filipino
identity was perceived and recorded. Through critical reading of Plasencia, Morga, and
Sande, we see the tension between documentation and domination, between
genuine observation and imperial agenda.

These accounts challenge us to reclaim our indigenous history, question

colonial narratives, and embrace a more balanced, inclusive, and critical
approach to Philippine historiography.

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 Lesson 1.2: Filipino Nationalism

A. Early Revolts and Resistance in Philippine History: Texts and

Turning Points of the Filipino Struggle for Independence

The long history of resistance in the Philippines reflects the deep desire of Filipinos
to assert autonomy, dignity, and identity in the face of foreign domination. From
early regional uprisings against the Spanish colonial regime to the formation of
revolutionary movements in the late 19th century, the trajectory of Filipino resistance
evolved in ideology, strategy, and scope.

Key documents and voices from this period—such as Diego Silang’s letter to the
British, the Kartilya ng Katipunan, Emilio Aguinaldo’s memoirs, and the
Declaration of Philippine Independence—offer unique windows into the political
consciousness and aspirations of the Filipino people.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Diego Silang’s Letter to the British – 1762: “A Spark of

Regional Resistance”

Source: Ocampo, Ambeth R. (1995). Talking History: Conversations with Filipino

Historians. Manila: Anvil Publishing. Document Title: Diego Silang’s Letter to the British
Commander of the East India Company, Manila, December 1762

A. Historical Context
• In 1762, the British occupied Manila during the Seven Years’ War between
Britain and Spain.
• The temporary disruption of Spanish authority created opportunities for local
leaders to rise against colonial power.
• Diego Silang, a native Ilocano leader from Vigan, emerged as a prominent
figure of resistance in Northern Luzon.

B. Content and Purpose

• In his letter, Diego Silang:
o Proposed an alliance with the British to remove Spanish rule in
the Ilocos region.
o Requested local autonomy, including freedom from Spanish taxation
and abuse.
o Offered the support of his followers in exchange for British military and
political backing.

C. Significance
• Demonstrates the rise of localized political agency and early anti-colonial
sentiment.

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 • Illustrates how external powers (Britain) were viewed as potential liberators,
a pattern later repeated during U.S. intervention.
• Marks a shift from religious and tax-related revolts to politically driven
resistance with broader goals.

PRIMARY SOURCE: The Kartilya ng Katipunan – 1896: “The Moral Blueprint of the
Revolution”

Source: Jacinto, Emilio. (1896). Kartilya ng Katipunan.

In: Agoncillo, Teodoro A. (1990). History of the Filipino People (8th ed.). Quezon City:
Garotech Publishing. Contains translated excerpts and historical context.

A. Authorship and Background

• Written by Emilio Jacinto, the "Brains of the Katipunan" and chief adviser to
Andres Bonifacio.
• The Katipunan (KKK) was a secret revolutionary society founded in 1892 to
gain independence from Spain through armed revolt.

B. Core Values and Teachings

The Kartilya was not just a manual but a moral and philosophical guide that
emphasized:
• Equality – Rejection of social hierarchies; all men are equal regardless of
wealth or education.
• Patriotism – Love of country over self-interest.
• Self-discipline – A true revolutionary must live with honor, restraint, and
moral integrity.
• Human dignity – Value of education, respect for women, and justice.

C. Significance
• Counters the narrative that the Katipunan was merely violent or anarchic.
• Proves the revolution was ideologically grounded, driven by enlightened
principles similar to other democratic revolutions globally.
• Serves as an ethical framework that elevated the struggle beyond military
action to a moral and spiritual crusade.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Emilio Aguinaldo’s Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan (Memoirs of

the Revolution): “From the Perspective of a President-Revolutionary”

Source: Aguinaldo, Emilio. (1964). Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan.

Manila: E. Aguilar Cruz Publishing House. Alternate Title in English: Memoirs of the
Revolution. Language: Originally written in Filipino (Tagalog). This work is a first-
person autobiographical account by General Emilio Aguinaldo, President of the
First Philippine Republic.

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 A. Overview and Content
• A first-person account by General Emilio Aguinaldo, leader of the
revolutionary forces and the first President of the Philippines.
• Recounts events during the Philippine Revolution (1896–1898) and the
Philippine-American War (1899–1902).

B. Key Themes
• Strategic Military Decisions – Describes operations against Spanish forces,
including battles, retreats, and alliances.
• Internal Conflicts – Reveals power struggles within the revolution,
including the execution of Bonifacio and tensions with rival factions.
• Pact of Biak-na-Bato (1897) – Truce with the Spanish government, leading
to Aguinaldo’s temporary exile in Hong Kong.
• U.S. Betrayal – His account of the deceptive role of the United States,
which initially posed as an ally but later emerged as a new colonial master.

C. Historical Importance
• Offers a revolutionary leader's view of complex decisions and
consequences.
• Highlights the fragility and heroism of Filipino unity during the fight for
freedom.
• Provides insight into the challenges of transitioning from rebellion to
nation-building.

PRIMARY SOURCE: The Declaration of Philippine Independence – June 12,

1898: “A Moment of Sovereignty—Short-lived but Symbolic”

Source: Bautista, Ambrosio Rianzares. (1898). Acta de la Proclamación de

Independencia del Pueblo Filipino [Act of the Proclamation of Independence of the Filipino
People]. Archived by: National Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP)
[Link]

A. Background
• Proclaimed by Emilio Aguinaldo at Kawit, Cavite, with the reading of the
declaration by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista.
• Occurred in the context of Spanish defeat in the Spanish-American War and
Filipino revolutionary gains.

B. Content and Symbolism

• Proclaimed the end of Spanish colonial rule.
• Raised the Philippine flag and played the national anthem for the first time.
• Recognized Aguinaldo as the President of the revolutionary government.

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 C. Key Points of Importance
• Marks the establishment of the First Philippine Republic—Asia’s first
democratic republic.
• Showcases Filipino efforts at self-governance, independence, and
constitutional democracy.
• However, the declaration was not recognized by the United States, which
annexed the Philippines through the Treaty of Paris (1898).

D. Irony and Aftermath

• Filipinos fought a new war of resistance, now against the Americans—
leading to the Philippine-American War (1899–1902).
• The dream of independence was delayed, but the spirit of revolution lived
on through continued struggles.

Synthesis: From Regional Resistance to National Revolution

Kartilya ng Gunita ng Declaration of

Aspect Diego Silang
Katipunan Himagsikan Independence
1762 (British 1896 (Revolution 1897–1899
Time Period June 12, 1898
Occupation) vs. Spain) (Revolution Memoirs)
Regional alliance Moral-political Personal
Nature Political proclamation
and revolt manifesto revolutionary account
Early expression Revolutionary Insider account of Official bid for
Contribution of Filipino ideology and internal/external international
autonomy ethics conflicts recognition
Shows early Refutes myth of Reveals inner Symbol of national
Historical
anti-Spanish impulsive tensions and strategic pride and
Value
strategy violence failures independence

Given the exploitive nature of Spanish colonialism, early Filipinos chose to revolt
against the regime. Among the earliest revolts were those by Lakandula in Manila. Revolts
became an indispensable response of early Filipinos to Spanish Rule. Revolts became
an indispensable response of early Filipinos to Spanish rule. In the 1600’s nativistic revolts
characterized the reactions of the people towards the Spanish rule. More complicated
revolts continued up to the 1700’s. the earlier revolts could be generalized as revolts
from ordinary natives. These revolts could be generalized as revolts from ordinary
natives. These revolts include Tamblot, Bankaw, Tapar, Dagohoy, Sumuroy, Dabao,
and others. Since many of the leaders of these revolts were babaylanes, or
traditional priests, one of important underlying objective was to go back to old native
religion (nativistic). As such leaders emerge as self-proclaimed messiahs saving the
people from evil effects of colonization.

The second group of revolts were those initiated by local chiefs, or the principales,
whose type of leadership are already complicated by Spanish ways. This type of revolt

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manifested class interest where the mass revolts were taken advantage of in the desire
to seize power for themselves. This is why many of these were open to compromises.
Examples of this type of revolt are the revolts of Maniago, Malong, Gumapos, Palaris,
Silang, and others.

Both types of revolts, however, contained the desire to improve the hardship brought
about by the colonial rule. Economic grievance remained the primary reason why
people supported groups and leaders versus Spaniards.

B. The Igorot Resistance to Spanish Interests and the Price of

Igorot Independence

The Igorot, together with the Muslims in Mindanao were the two biggest groups
that were not colonized by the Spaniards. During the entire 300 plus years of Spanish
rule, these groups remained independent. This work shall consider only the Igorot
resistance.

A note on the word Igorot should be made. Historically speaking, the groups that were
referred by Spanish documents as Igorot were the inhabitants of Benguet and Bontoc.
Other groups in the Cordillera region were called distinct names such as Mandayas for
the Apayao, Itneg for the upper Abra area, Ifugao for Ifugaos. This would explain the
reluctance of many people outside Benguet and Bontoc to be considered as Igorot.
Etymologically, Igorot was coined with the use pf two old Austronesian words as “gorot”,
meaning mountain, and “I” referring to the source/place or from where one belongs.
It is etymological sense that this work adopts the word Igorot to refer to all people in
the Cordillera as Igorot or “from the mountains.”

The Spaniards entered the Cordillera for many reasons but gold was initially the
primary aim. As soon as the colonizers learned of Igorot gold in the region,
expeditions were immediately sent to secure it. In the 1600, several attempts like
those of Aldana, Carino, and Quirante. They have taken samples of ores and were
brought to Manila for tests. The attempt at reducing the Igorot to Christianity was
another motivation for the Spaniards. The Augustinians entered the mountain from the
Ilocos areas while the Dominicans penetrated Ifugao in the east. Another reason
for Spanish intrusion into the Cordillera was simply to extend the conquered territories
or to protect the conquered areas of the lowlands.

Still another motivations was the punitive expeditions, which were meant to
punish the Igorot for the resistance they have been showing. However, it was the
sabotage of the tobacco monopoly that really angered the Spaniards to sponsor
succeeding punitive expeditions against the Igorot. The most successful of these
expeditions was the Galvey expedition. Guillermo Galvey led a 10-year campaign
against the Igorot from 1829-1839, burning tobacco plantations and communities, and
crushing Igorot opposition. It was the Galvey expeditions that finally opened the

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region to Spanish conquest. By the later part of 1840’s up to the 1950’s, the Spaniards
were able to set up military posts in key areas in the Cordillera. These posts were called
Commandancia Politico-Militares, which were manned by military people and intended
for collection of taxes.

Confronted by the intrusions, the Igorot responded in different ways but almost
always resisting all the plans of the intruders. In many instances, Igorot simply
abandoned their communities when they learn of Spanish arrival. They would retreat
into deeper parts of the mountain and wait until the Spaniards are gone. If the
Igorot were ready, though, they would engage the Spanish troops with their traditional
weapons as spears, head axes, and bolos. Although the Igorot weapons were of
inferior kind, they relied heavily on ambushes utilizing the mountainous landscape to
their advantages. In some recorded instances, the Igorot used the weaknesses of the
Spanish weapons they came to learn and won over the more supposedly superior
weapons.

In the Christianization efforts, the Spaniards were able to convert some Igorot
into Christianity. Most of these converts have been relocated in the lowland areas of
Ilocos, La Union and Nueva Viscaya. Overall through, the Igorot remained pagans.

Whereabout of their gold have also been denied to Spaniards and other foreigners.
These responses have been largely successful so that at the end of the Spanish
colonial rule, the Igorot remained independent.
A discussion of the Igorot resistance is incomplete without considering the price
that the Igorot had to pay for their freedom.

One is the periodic destruction of homes. Most often than not, the Spaniards burned
villages along their route. These were reconstructed by the Igorot only to be
destructed with the next Spanish expedition.

Another is the estrangement between the lowlanders and the Igorot. Before
Spanish colonization, it has been the case that the two were partners in trade. The
lowlanders brought up salt, animals, threads, and fish to the highlands. Igorot
brought down gold, beeswax, and other forest products. With the colonization of
the lowlands and the resistance of Igorot, the friendly relation soured. This is basically
because lowlanders were colonized while the Igorot remained independent. Specifically,
the lowlanders were used by the Spaniards in their attempts at subjugating the Igorot.
The lowlanders usually accompanied the colonizers as guides and soldiers. One can add
the long period of time that the Spaniards have portrayed negative images of
Igorot to lowlanders painting them as “headhunters”, “pagans”, and “savages”.

After the period of colonization, it became ironic that the Filipinos who resisted
colonialism were indifferently treated by later Philippine government. They have often
been understood as the others or the “minority”. As minority, the state has ignored

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them for a long time and has used their territories only as sources of raw
materials. In the 1970’s the Marcos government ignored the please of Igorot of Bontoc
and Kalinga not to build the dams along the Chico River. It was only stopped when
resistance included international groups and the local resistance became violent.

C. Campaign for Reforms

The unjust execution of the three Filipino priests Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos,
and Jacinto Zamora was a turning point in Philippine history, for it ushered in a new
era – the reform movement.

Realizing the danger of fighting for their cause on the home front, the sons of the
wealthy and the well-to-do Filipino families migrated to Europe to breath the free
atmosphere of the Old World. There they initiated a sustained campaign for reforms
in the Spanish administration of the Philippines. In the homeland, meanwhile, the
Filipino intellectuals secretly collaborated with those in Spain and founded
nationalistic societies.

The dissatisfaction of the Filipino men of wealth and intellect was centered on
the abuses of the Spanish authorities, civil as well as clerical. The middle class denounced
Spanish abuses and asked Spain to make the Philippines one of its provinces. There was
no clamor for independence, for the reformists believed that the Filipinos would be better
off if they were to become Spanish citizens, enjoying the rights and privileges of the
latter. Such a program constituted what has been known as assimilation.
For more than a decade the Filipino propagandists waged their war against the
Spanish authorities and friars, but they failed to awaken the Government of the
Peninsula to the demoralizing realities of colonial administration. The reform movement
was a failure for it did not achieve its goals. In another sense, however, it was a success,
for its failure led to the founding of the Katipunan with separatist aims (Agoncillo, 1990).

D. The Katipunan

The Kataastaasan Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan, otherwise

known as KKK or simply Katipunan, was a secret society that was established by
Andres Bonifacio and some of his comrades on July 7, 1892. This was a significant
event for the Filipinos because it marked the end of the peaceful campaign for reforms
and the beginning of a movement which aimed to end Spanish oppression by uniting
the Filipinos and achieve independence by means of a revolution.

To increase the number of members of the organization, and to stop suspicion on

the part of the family members, the Katipunan accepted women members. The
women were least suspected by the Spanish authorities, so they were able to keep
important documents of the society. They also served as messengers and front for the
secret meetings of the organization (Vivar et al., 1999).

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 The Katipunan became especially popular in the suburbs of Manila and in the
provinces of Central Luzon. But as the number of its affiliates increased, the Spanish
authorities began to suspect its underground character. The friars began to
denounce the nightly meeting held by Katipuneros and on August 19, 1896, a
certain Patino, a Katipunan member, exposed the society to Fr. Mariano Gil. With the
discovery of the Katipunan, Bonifacio had no alternative than to take the field and on
August 23, at Pugadlawin, he and his men declared their intention to fight to the
bitter end. The revolution spread to the other provinces. In Cavite, meanwhile, the two
factions of the society were at loggerheads and Bonifacio was invited to mediate
between them. At Tejeros, it was agreed to change the society with a government
responsive to the demands of the times, and in the election that followed, Bonifacio was
chosen Director of the Interior. Unfortunately, his election was questioned by Daniel
Tirona. Bonifacio hurt by insult, declared the results of the lection null and void. In
April, he was ordered arrested, tried and executed. The Filipinos were at that
time losing battle after battle. Aguinaldo retreated to Baiak-na-Bato, where the
Republic was founded. Later in, December, the Truce of Biak-na-Bato was concluded
between the rebels and the Spanish Government. The truce, however, was a failure
(Agoncillo, 1990).

The journey from revolt to revolution in Philippine history was shaped not only by
bloodshed but also by visionary ideals, personal sacrifices, and collective
aspirations. The documents discussed provide rich insights into the political
awakening of the Filipino people, their struggles for unity, and their determination
to build a nation free from foreign domination.

Understanding these texts helps us appreciate that Philippine independence was not
granted—it was earned through decades of resistance, ideology, and
leadership. These historical moments serve as reminders that freedom must be
protected, contextualized, and remembered.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Quiz #1: Lesson 1

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 Lesson 2: The Philippines under the American
Regime: Self-Government and
Developments in the Philippines
Under the American Colonial Rule

Lesson 2.1: Self-government and developments in

the Philippines Under American Colonial
Rule

A. American Government in The Philippines

a. America’s Policy of Occupation

America’s successful suppression of revolutionary resistance against their
colonial rule forced the Filipino elite to shift to an alternative of peaceful struggle
for independence. Using an altruistic policy for the Philippines, the United States, under
President William Mckinley, enticed the Filipino elites into a compromise with American
Colonialism. Many of the Filipino elite Leaders especially the “Illustrados,” began to
adhere to the well-stated US Policy of President Mckinley in his message to the US
Congress stressing that the Philippines is theirs not to exploit but to develop, to
civilize, to educate, and to train in the science of self-government. In reality,
behind this policy declaration was America’s other colonial objectives, as follows:

1. To pursue a “manifest destiny” for America as a world power

2. To use the Philippines as a source of raw materials for US industries and as
market for US manufactured surplus products
3. To use the Philippines as a military and naval base to balance the power in Asia
4. To have a refueling port for American ships servicing their interest in China.

These ulterior motives of America’s colonial rule later became a reality when
the US government gained complete control of the Philippine archipelago politically.
Finding no other way to repel American motives, the Filipinos painfully succumbed to
compromising their sovereignty to colonialism by way of serving under American
military and civilian rule in the Philippines.

b. Filipino involvement in American Government in the Philippines (1899-

1913)
In preparation for the foundation of a civilian government in the Philippines, the three
successive terms of American military governors, namely General Wesley Merritt

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(August 16, 1898), General Elwell S. Otis (1898-1900), and General Arthur McArthur
(1900-1901), focused on pacifications of campaigns. To win the support of Filipino Elites,
the Americans used a subtle strategy of conquest by introducing the American school
system to civilize and educate Filipinos to embrace democracy. They organized
civil courts and appointed Filipino jurists. They established towns and provinces and
installed pro-American local leaders to participate in local governmental affairs as
apprentices of the American system of governance.

To train Filipinos to govern their constituencies in the way Americans want them
to towards achieving their ulterior motives, the first election was held by Gen. Henry
W. Lawton in Baliwag, Bulacan. These patterns of pacification campaign which
were employed successfully in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao resulted in readiness
of Filipino elite leaders to collaborate with the US government in the Philippines.

In the central American government, those Filipino elites who believed in the
sovereignty of the US over the Philippines were appointed to top executive, legislative,
and judicial positions by being members of the First Philippine Commission, otherwise
known as the Schurman Commission (1899), and the Second Philippine Commission
(1900) also known as the “Taft Commission.”. there were three reasons why
Filipino elite leaders opted to collaborate with the American authorities. The first
reason was to preserve the security of their privileges as there was a growing demand
from the masses for the redistribution of economic benefits and resources. The
second reason was the elite class, distrust of the masses, nothing that some of them
were branded as bandits or trouble makers, ignorant people who possess questionable
moral conduct. Thirdly, the elite could not entrust their interests and future to the masses,
thus, by co-opting with the Americans, they were assured of the protection of their
wealth, power, and prestige. To the Americans, the pro-American attitude of the
Filipino elites was advantageous to their colonial purposes and economic interests in
the Philippines.

Collaborative participation of cultural communities in Luzon, Visayas, and

Mindanao was gained through the efforts of American teachers and missionaries who
played their roles in domestication the tribal leaders. Datus and sultans in Mindanao
were used as key persons in their strategy for collaboration, giving them roles as
promoters of social services to effect social re-orientation favorable to American interests.

In the Cordilleras, the Americans used a strategy to win the Ifugaos, and
Kalingas to cooperate and accept American rule. The head-hunting skirmishes
between and among the Cordillera tribes, as well as the disputes over territorial
boundaries and hostilities, were stopped either with the use of firepower for
pacification or with a compromise settlement. When firepower was not too effective,
the Americans shifted to benevolent treatment of the natives to impress on them their
image as benefactors. Establishment of American local governments in the Cordillera
proved successful after Cordillera natives were appointed as mayors or cabecillos.

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Ifugaos who did not make it to political positions were recruited into the American
Constabulary as regular soldiers who were paid generously.

In Southern Mindanao, the American approach to establish collaboration was a

political co-existence characterized by mutual respect for personal property and political
rights. The sultanate form of government of the datus and sultans was a formidable
block to improve American political presence in Mindanao. Sa as not to agitate the Sultans
and datus from usurping their authorities as leaders of the sultanate government,
American authorities negotiated and concluded treaties with Muslim leaders such as
the Bates Treaty (1899) and later, the Carpenter-Kiriam Agreement (1905).
Consequently, these treaties with the Muslims led to the erosion of power of the sultanate
and paved the way for the total imposition of American sovereignty in all territories of the
sultanate.

Following the end of the Spanish-American War in 1898 and the signing of the Treaty
of Paris, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States. This marked the beginning of
American colonial rule in the country.

Although Filipinos had declared independence in 1898 and established the First
Philippine Republic under Emilio Aguinaldo, the U.S. rejected their sovereignty and
instead treated the Philippines as an American colony. The tension led to the Philippine-
American War (1899–1902), a conflict marked by guerrilla warfare, brutal suppression,
and enormous casualties.

Despite military hostilities, the U.S. began implementing its vision of a "benevolent
assimilation" policy, which promised civil government, public education, and eventual
self-rule. This approach paved the way for Filipino participation in the colonial
administration, though under tight American control.

1) The Shift from Military to Civil Government

A. Military Rule (1899–1901)
• Initially, the Philippines was governed by the U.S. military under General
Elwell S. Otis and later General Arthur MacArthur.
• During this period, Filipinos had minimal involvement in government
beyond the local level.
• Military tribunals and American commanders ran provinces and towns.
• Widespread resistance through guerilla warfare limited American
attempts to create civil structures.
B. Establishment of the Philippine Commission (1900)
• The U.S. established the Second Philippine Commission (also known as
the Taft Commission) in 1900, led by William Howard Taft.
• The Commission functioned as the executive and legislative body of the
colonial government.

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 • It began passing laws, reorganizing local governments, and setting
up a civil service system.
• Filipinos were appointed to advisory positions, but not to significant
policymaking roles yet.

2) Political Participation of Filipinos Under the American Regime

A. Municipal and Provincial Governments (1901)
• The Municipal Code of 1901 allowed for limited Filipino self-
governance at the town and provincial levels.
• Elected Filipino officials such as presidentes (mayors), vice-
presidentes, and municipal councilors began to emerge.
• However, American supervision remained strong, especially in
provincial boards.
B. Creation of the Philippine Assembly (1907)
• A major milestone in Filipino political involvement was the establishment of
the Philippine Assembly through the Philippine Organic Act of 1902
(passed by the U.S. Congress).
• The Assembly was the lower house of a bicameral legislature; the
Philippine Commission remained the upper house.
• First elections held in 1907, with the Nacionalista Party dominating
the Assembly.
• Key Filipino leaders emerged:
o Sergio Osmeña Sr. – First Speaker of the Assembly
o Manuel L. Quezon – Assembly Majority Leader
• Although legislative power was still shared with the American-dominated
Commission, the Assembly became a platform for Filipino nationalist
expression.
C. Appointments to Bureaucracy and Judiciary
• Educated and elite Filipinos (the ilustrados) were appointed to high-
ranking posts in the colonial bureaucracy:
o Cayetano Arellano – appointed as Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court in 1901.
o Gregorio Araneta, Rafael Palma, Manuel L. Quezon, among
others, held various civil and judicial offices.
• Civil Service Act (1900) enabled Filipinos to be employed in
government positions based on merit and examinations.
• This opened the door to greater bureaucratic participation and reduced
the dominance of Americans in administrative roles over time.

3) American Policy Toward Filipino Participation

A. Benevolent Assimilation and Education
• The U.S. claimed its goal was to "prepare the Philippines for self-
government."

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 A public education system was introduced to train Filipinos in democratic
•
ideals and civic values.
• The Pensionado Program (1903) sent Filipino scholars to study in the
U.S. and return as civil servants or professionals.
B. Gradual Political Inclusion
• The American strategy was incremental inclusion, allowing Filipinos to
govern minor and mid-level roles first.
• Higher positions in national policymaking, foreign affairs, and the military
remained under American control.
• Despite this, the U.S. gradually trained a class of Filipino leaders, most
of whom advocated peaceful reform and "eventual independence."

4) Challenges to Filipino Involvement

A. Limitations and Racism
• Filipino officials were often limited to advisory or symbolic roles.
• Many Americans in the colonial administration harbored racist beliefs,
considering Filipinos incapable of self-rule.
• The Jones Law of 1916, which would promise greater autonomy, was still
years away.
B. Elite-Centered Participation
• The Filipinos who participated in governance were mostly landed elites
and ilustrados, sidelining peasants, laborers, and indigenous groups.
• The government became dominated by Western-educated elites, laying
the foundations of the political oligarchy that continues to affect
Philippine democracy.

5) Summary of Filipino Involvement (1899–1913)

Aspect Development
Local Government Filipinos elected as town and provincial officials (1901 onwards)
Philippine Assembly created (1907); Filipinos gained partial legislative
Legislature
power
Judiciary Filipinos like Cayetano Arellano appointed to high positions in the courts
Civil Service Civil Service Act allowed qualified Filipinos to enter bureaucracy
National
Prominent leaders like Osmeña, Quezon, and Palma emerged
Leadership
Limitations Still under American dominance; top-level decisions made by Americans

The period from 1899 to 1913 was foundational in building Filipino political
identity under colonial rule. It created:
• A governing class of Filipino leaders who would eventually push for
independence.
• An educated bureaucracy prepared to take on national governance.

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 • Early democratic structures, although flawed and elitist.

However, it also:
• Cemented American political and economic control for decades.
• Excluded the masses from political participation.
• Delayed full independence while promoting a controlled version of self-rule.

This era laid the groundwork for later reforms, including the Jones Law (1916) and
Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934), which finally set the Philippines on the path to
independence.

c. The Filipinization of American Government in the Philippines

In 1913, Frances Burton Harrison became the first Democratic Governor General
of the Philippines. His appointment saw the full implementation of American policies
and substantial participation of Filipinos in government. As his colonial policy, rapid
Filipinization of government in the Philippines gained momentum then he involved
Filipinos in the various levels of the bureaucracy. Unfortunately, Filipinization in
government was only confined to the Filipino elites who were actually landlords
and capitalists and government employees during the Spanish period, including those
who could read and write.

Filipinization in government involving the participation of Filipino elites was suitable

to the Americans since it was an aid rather than a hindrance to colonialism. In the
purview of the Americans, keeping the elite involved in government would be
beneficial to American economic interests in the Philippines, because it warranted
economic partnership between Americans and Filipino landlords and capitalists.

This partnership eventually led to a special relationship between the American and
Filipino land owners and capitalists as manifested in the so-called “free-trade” which was
provided for in the Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909 during the Harrison Era, consequently
making the Philippines a US market of surplus goods in Asia. The American
capitalists enjoyed the lion’s share in the benefits from the free trade policy. This lopsided
effect of free trade policy permeated further not only in the economic aspect of Filipino
life, but also in the political, social and cultural fields.

The Filipinization of the American colonial government in the Philippines refers

to the gradual process of increasing Filipino participation in the political, administrative,
and judicial structures established by the United States from 1901 to the mid-1930s. This
policy aimed to prepare the country for eventual self-governance, as promised by
American officials under the guise of “benevolent assimilation.”

While the U.S. remained the dominant authority during this period, several reforms—
particularly under Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison (1913–1921)—
allowed Filipinos to take on greater responsibilities in governance. The process was both

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strategic and symbolic, marking a shift from colonial control toward the development of
a Filipino-led bureaucracy.

I. Historical Background and Context

A. American Colonial Rule Begins (1898–1902)
• Following Spain’s defeat in the Spanish-American War, the Philippines
was ceded to the United States through the Treaty of Paris (1898).
• Despite Filipino declarations of independence, the U.S. imposed colonial
rule, leading to the Philippine-American War (1899–1902).
• The U.S. committed to a policy of "benevolent assimilation", claiming it
would civilize and educate Filipinos for eventual independence.

II. Early Limits to Filipino Participation (1901–1912)

A. Military to Civilian Government
• The U.S. established a civil government in 1901, beginning with the
Philippine Commission (all-American at first).
• While Filipinos could vote in local and municipal elections, high offices
were held by Americans.
• The Philippine Assembly, created in 1907 as the lower house of the
legislature, allowed limited Filipino representation.
o Notable leaders emerged: Sergio Osmeña Sr. and Manuel L.
Quezon.
o However, legislative powers were shared with the American-led
Philippine Commission.
B. Civil Service Reforms
• The Civil Service Act of 1900 introduced merit-based appointments,
giving Filipinos access to the bureaucracy.
• Early appointments were limited to minor positions, reinforcing American
dominance in key policymaking areas.

III. The Harrison Administration and Accelerated Filipinization (1913–1921)

A. Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison’s Policy
• Harrison’s term marked a turning point in Filipinization.
• He believed that Filipinos were capable of self-rule and accelerated their
integration into government roles.
B. Key Reforms Under Harrison
1. All-Filipino Philippine Commission
o By 1916, Harrison appointed only Filipinos to the Commission,
effectively creating a fully Filipino legislature when combined
with the Assembly.
2. Appointments to Executive Positions
o Filipinos were appointed as heads of bureaus, departments,
and provincial governments.
o Prominent examples:

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 ▪ Manuel L. Quezon (Resident Commissioner to the U.S.
Congress)
▪ Vicente Singson Encarnacion, Rafael Palma, and
Manuel Roxas in key roles
3. Judiciary and Civil Service
o Filipinos were increasingly appointed as judges, prosecutors,
and legal officers.
o The Chief Justice, Cayetano Arellano, was Filipino as early as
1901.
4. Military Participation
o While the U.S. retained control of the Philippine Constabulary
and military affairs, Filipinos were trained and appointed as junior
officers.

IV. The Jones Act of 1916: A Legislative Milestone

A. Also known as the Philippine Autonomy Act
• Replaced the Philippine Commission with an elected Senate, forming a
fully elected Philippine Legislature.
• Declared that it was U.S. policy to grant the Philippines independence
once a stable government was established.
• Strengthened Filipinization by legalizing and institutionalizing Filipino
leadership.
B. Rise of a New Political Class
• The Nacionalista Party dominated Philippine politics, pushing for greater
autonomy and eventual independence.
• Filipino politicians gained experience in governance, diplomacy, and
administration.

V. Limitations and Criticisms of Filipinization

A. Continued American Control
• Key departments such as Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Finance remained
under American authority.
• The Governor-General (still an American) retained veto powers over laws
passed by the legislature.
B. Elitist Nature of Filipino Participation
• Most appointees were ilustrados (Western-educated elites) and members
of the landed class.
• The masses and peasantry remained politically marginalized,
perpetuating inequality.
C. Economic Dependency
• Filipinization was largely political; economic policies still favored
American interests, particularly in land ownership, export-import
industries, and resource exploitation.

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VI. Towards Independence: Legacy of Filipinization
A. Foundation for the Commonwealth Government
• The experiences of Filipino leaders in the American colonial bureaucracy laid
the groundwork for the 1935 Constitution and the establishment of
the Commonwealth of the Philippines.
• Filipinos had gained sufficient administrative and legislative experience to
run a national government.
B. Preparation for Sovereignty
• Filipinization was seen as a step toward full independence, which came
after World War II in 1946.
• The Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934, which established a ten-year
transition to independence, was possible due to the prior success of
Filipinization.

VII. Summary Table

Aspect Filipinization Development

Legislature All-Filipino Legislature by 1916 (Jones Law)
Executive Filipinos appointed as department heads and bureau directors
Judiciary Filipinos appointed to high courts, including Chief Justice
Civil Service Civil Service Act allowed Filipino entry through merit exams
Military Limited Filipino roles in constabulary and reserve units
Limitations Americans retained control over foreign affairs and defense

The Filipinization of the American government in the Philippines was a

strategic policy to gradually transfer limited political power to Filipinos while maintaining
American supremacy. Although not complete or fully democratic, it allowed Filipino
leaders to gain critical experience in governance and statecraft. This era shaped a
political elite class, created the basis for modern Philippine bureaucracy, and set the
stage for the Commonwealth and eventual independence.

It also exposed the contradictions of colonial rule—offering inclusion while

preserving foreign dominance, and preparing for independence while
maintaining dependency. Nevertheless, Filipinization remains a significant chapter in
Philippine political development.

d. The Socio-Cultural Effects of Filipinization in Government during the

American Period
The American democratic political structure in the Philippines which was largely
manned by Filipino elites who were trained under American tutelage in governance
improved modern ways of American democracy. The pro-American Filipino elites
were referred to outsiders as “little brown American.” They insisted that Filipino

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traditional ways should be abandoned if not substituted totally with modern
bureaucracy. A new brand of democracy known as ‘democracy-Filipino style’ emerged.
This style as a trend of Filipinization gave rise to a new breed of Filipinos who
were involved in the introduction of popular American activities in cultural fields
such as sports, entertainment, education, religion, and the arts.

Despite the fact that American democratic styles have found a distinct place in Filipino
life, Filipino values which were anchored on Filipino tradition were not abandoned by
those who co-opted with the Americans. Large majority of Filipinos saw no contradictions
between the American values and Filipino tradition. This perception of many Filipinos
was contributory to the Americanization of Filipino lifestyle.

The Filipinization of government during the American colonial period (roughly

1900–1935) was a gradual policy of allowing Filipinos to participate more actively in the
civil service, judiciary, legislature, and local governance. While primarily a political and
administrative process, Filipinization had profound socio-cultural consequences that
reshaped Filipino identity, societal values, class structures, education, and perceptions of
leadership. It also sowed the seeds of nationalism, civic engagement, and the idea of
Filipino self-determination.

I. Rise of the Filipino Political Elite and Social Stratification

A. Emergence of a Western-Educated Filipino Class
• Filipinization led to the recruitment of ilustrados (educated elite) and
local leaders into government positions.
• These individuals, many of whom were products of U.S.-sponsored
education, assumed positions as bureaucrats, legislators, and governors.
• A new socio-political class emerged: the "bureaucratic elite"—Filipinos
who gained status through their ties to the colonial government, not just
wealth or land ownership.
B. Reinforcement of Social Inequality
• While Filipinization promoted Filipino leadership, it benefited primarily
the upper and middle classes.
• Peasants, indigenous groups, and the working class remained largely
excluded from power structures.
• This deepened socio-economic gaps and reinforced the dominance of
elite families in politics—paving the way for political dynasties.

II. Cultural Americanization and Shifts in National Identity

A. Adoption of American Cultural Norms
• Filipinos in government were trained in American legal, political, and
administrative systems.
• English became the language of government, law, and public service,
marginalizing native languages in formal discourse.
• The value system promoted included:

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 o Democracy and civic participation
o Individualism and meritocracy
o Western-style governance and liberalism
B. Cultural Conflicts and Identity Crisis
• Filipinization encouraged the internalization of American cultural
superiority, creating tension between Western ideals and indigenous
values.
• Many Filipinos began to equate modernity and intelligence with being
“Americanized,” which contributed to cultural alienation from local
traditions.
C. Redefinition of “Leadership”
• Pre-colonial leadership was based on kinship, valor, or wealth.
• The American period redefined leaders as civil servants, often measured
by educational attainment, English fluency, and alignment with
American values.
• This shifted societal aspirations—education and civil service became
respected career paths.

III. Growth of Nationalism and Civic Consciousness

A. Awareness of Self-Governance
• As Filipinos took part in governance, the idea of national independence
gained momentum.
• Leaders like Manuel Quezon, Sergio Osmeña, and Claro M. Recto used
their positions not only to implement laws but also to advocate for
sovereignty and national dignity.
B. Spread of Political Literacy
• Filipinization fostered greater civic engagement:
o More Filipinos began to attend political meetings, read
newspapers, and participate in local elections.
o Newspapers and periodicals emerged, often discussing Filipino
rights, reforms, and critiques of American policies.
C. Strengthening of Local Identity and Pride
• Provincial and municipal leadership under Filipinos encouraged local pride
and regional political cultures.
• It also prompted the documentation of local customs, languages, and
oral histories, as part of the national project of self-definition.

IV. Educational Reforms and Social Mobility

A. Public Education as a Tool for Filipinization
• American educational policy was central to Filipinization—producing the
civil servants and politicians who would later run the government.
• The establishment of public schools and scholarships (e.g., pensionado
program) created opportunities for Filipinos to move up the social
ladder.

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 B. Cultural Emphasis on English Proficiency and Modern Professions
• English was promoted not only as a medium of instruction but also as a
symbol of intellect and progress.
• Professions in law, education, and civil service became prestigious,
shifting Filipino aspirations away from traditional livelihoods.

V. Challenges to Filipino Culture and Indigenous Systems

A. Erosion of Indigenous Political Systems
• Traditional leaders (like datus, rajahs, timawas) were pushed aside in
favor of educated bureaucrats loyal to the colonial system.
• Indigenous governance systems were not recognized or integrated, leading
to cultural marginalization of non-Christian and upland communities.
B. Suppression of Vernacular Languages in Governance
• As English dominated public administration, vernacular and regional
languages were relegated to informal or domestic use.
• This created generational and cultural divides and contributed to the
weakening of local literatures and oral traditions.

VI. Cultural Legacy and Long-Term Effects

A. Institutionalization of a Patronage Political System
• Although Filipinos were in government, many inherited the patron-
client traditions of precolonial society.
• Government positions became tools of political patronage, weakening
meritocracy and reinforcing elite dominance.
B. Creation of a Filipino National Consciousness
• Despite the colonial framework, Filipinization fostered a national
conversation on governance, justice, and identity.
• It laid the groundwork for postcolonial nation-building and a deeper
understanding of what it meant to be Filipino under a democratic republic.
C. Continued Struggles for Cultural Sovereignty
• Even after independence, Western influence remained embedded in
government, education, and society.
• Many post-independence reforms (e.g., Bilingual Education, Cultural
Renaissance under the Marcos regime) sought to reclaim cultural identity
lost during the American era.

The socio-cultural effects of Filipinization during the American period were

profound and enduring. On the one hand, it empowered a class of Filipino leaders,
expanded access to government and education, and stimulated national
consciousness. On the other, it entrenched social inequality, weakened
indigenous culture, and introduced a hybrid identity shaped by both Filipino values
and American influence.

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 Filipinization was not simply a political transition—it was a cultural revolution that
transformed how Filipinos saw themselves, their leaders, and their nation. Its legacies
continue to be felt in the structure of Philippine politics, education, and civic life today.

e. The American Policy on Philippine Independence

When Filipino nationalists began their advocacy movements for autonomy and
independence, the American authorities in the Philippines had no effective response.
They viewed nationalist efforts as mere agitations of the leaders of insular politics.
As a palliative measure to downplay the clamor for self-government and
independence, the American colonial authorities promised independence as soon as
a stable form of government could be established by them. This was affirmed by the
passage of the Jones Law in 1916 by the US Congress which required the establishment
of a stable government first before independence would be granted. In 1918, just after
the World War 1 ended, the Filipinos began to agitate for the fulfillment of America’s
promise of independence to the Philippines. They were inspired by their belief that
political pressures and consistent campaign efforts could force the US o comply with its
promise. After 1918. Through the leadership of Manual L. Quezon, a more sustained
effort to end American rule and the granting of independence to the Philippines was
directed to the legislators in Washington, the US seat of government.

The American policy on Philippine independence refers to the evolving set of political,
legal, and diplomatic strategies adopted by the United States from 1898 to 1946
concerning the future status of the Philippines as a sovereign nation. While the U.S.
initially viewed the Philippines as a colony acquired after the Spanish-American War,
pressures from Filipino nationalists, American anti-imperialists, and global developments
gradually shifted U.S. policy toward granting independence—albeit in a gradual,
conditional, and strategic manner.

I. The Beginning of American Colonial Rule (1898–1902)

A. U.S. Acquisition of the Philippines
• Following the defeat of Spain in the Spanish-American War (1898), the
Treaty of Paris was signed, ceding the Philippines to the U.S. for $20
million.
• The U.S. justified the occupation through the rhetoric of benevolent
assimilation—a civilizing mission to prepare Filipinos for self-rule.
• However, Filipino revolutionaries, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, had already
declared independence (June 12, 1898) and established the First Philippine
Republic.
B. The Philippine-American War (1899–1902)
• The war erupted due to conflicting claims of sovereignty.
• The U.S. officially labeled the resistance an "insurrection" to delegitimize
Filipino claims to independence.
• The war ended in 1902 with the suppression of the First Republic, but it
revealed strong Filipino desires for independence and self-governance.

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 II. Early American Justifications for Retaining the Philippines
• Strategic military base in Asia, especially with Japan rising as a power.
• Economic access to Asian markets.
• Belief in Filipino "unpreparedness" for self-rule.
• American public opinion was divided: imperialists favored retention, while
anti-imperialists like Mark Twain and the Anti-Imperialist League
opposed colonization.

III. Gradual Filipinization and the Promise of Independence (1902–1934)

A. Philippine Organic Act of 1902
• The first U.S. law to organize the Philippine government.
• Promised that Filipinos would eventually be given more self-governance
once a "stable government" was established.
• Created the Philippine Commission (American-led) and later a
Philippine Assembly with elected Filipino representatives.
B. Jones Law (Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916)
• A landmark in the shift of American policy:
o Replaced the Philippine Commission with a fully Filipino-
elected legislature (Senate and House of Representatives).
o Contained the first official promise of eventual independence:
“It is… the purpose of the people of the United States to withdraw
their sovereignty over the Philippine Islands and to recognize their
independence as soon as a stable government can be established.”
• Encouraged more Filipinos to participate in governance (Filipinization)
and nurtured aspirations for complete independence.

IV. Push for Independence by Filipino Leaders

• Filipino leaders like Manuel L. Quezon, Sergio Osmeña, and Manuel
Roxas lobbied the U.S. Congress to pass a law granting independence.
• These delegations emphasized Filipino readiness, democratic institutions,
and loyalty to American ideals.

V. The Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934: The Road to Independence

A. Key Provisions
• Officially called the Philippine Independence Act.
• Sponsored by U.S. Senator Millard Tydings and Representative John
McDuffie.
• Promised full independence after a 10-year transition period under
a Commonwealth Government.
• Authorized the drafting of a Philippine constitution and creation of a
Commonwealth of the Philippines (est. 1935).
• Imposed economic and trade restrictions, including quotas and tariffs,
that would affect Philippine industries and U.S. business interests.

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 B. Significance
• For the first time, the U.S. set a clear and binding timetable for
independence.
• The Commonwealth period was meant to:
o Train Filipinos for national governance.
o Allow the U.S. to prepare for a geopolitical shift in the Pacific.
• Independence was set for July 4, 1946.

VI. Challenges and Delays: The Japanese Occupation (1942–1945)

• During World War II, Japan invaded the Philippines and established a
puppet government.
• The Second Republic (1943) under Jose P. Laurel was declared, but
lacked international legitimacy.
• The U.S. reaffirmed its promise of independence despite the war, with
President Roosevelt reiterating it in speeches and declarations.

VII. Fulfillment of the Promise: Philippine Independence (1946)

A. Treaty of Manila (July 4, 1946)
• Marked the formal recognition of the Republic of the Philippines as
an independent nation.
• Signed by U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Philippine President
Manuel Roxas.
B. Post-Independence Limitations
• Despite independence, the Philippines:
o Signed the Bell Trade Act, which included:
▪ Parity rights for Americans to exploit natural resources.
▪ Trade preferences benefiting the U.S.
o Hosted U.S. military bases through subsequent agreements.
• Critics argue that while independence was achieved politically,
economic and military sovereignty remained compromised.

VIII. Assessment of the American Policy on Philippine Independence

A. Positive Aspects
• Established foundations for democracy (Constitution, legislature, elections).
• Promoted public education and civil service.
• Transitioned power gradually, allowing political maturity.
B. Criticisms
• The delay in granting independence was often seen as self-serving.
• Economic conditions tied to independence reinforced dependency.
• The U.S. used the “readiness” argument to maintain control far longer than
necessary.
• Independence was granted under terms favorable to U.S. economic
and strategic interests, not purely out of respect for Filipino self-
determination.

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 The American policy on Philippine independence evolved from outright colonial control
to reluctant accommodation of Filipino nationalism. While independence was eventually
granted, it came after decades of struggle, war, diplomacy, and compromise. The legacy
of this policy is complex: it helped institutionalize democracy but also shaped a
postcolonial relationship defined by economic and military dependency.
Understanding this policy is essential in comprehending the continuing dynamics of
Philippine-American relations and the formation of the modern Filipino nation-
state.

B. The Commonwealth Government

The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines was a transitional

administrative body established under the auspices of the United States as a
preparation for full Philippine independence. Created through the Tydings-
McDuffie Act of 1934, the Commonwealth served as a ten-year training period for
Filipinos in self-governance, though interrupted by World War II and Japanese
occupation.

This period is vital in Philippine history as it laid the foundation for the country’s
political institutions, economic policies, foreign relations, and national identity.

The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on November 15, 1935, witnessed

by a crowd of more or less 300,000 Filipinos. President-elect Manuel L. Quezon
delivered his inaugural address stressing his historic statement which goes, “I would
rather have a government run like hell by Filipinos rather than a government run like
heaven by the Americans.”

I. Legal Basis: The Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934

• Also known as the Philippine Independence Act, passed by the U.S.
Congress.
• Provided for a 10-year transition period leading to independence.
• Authorized the drafting of a Philippine Constitution.
• Guaranteed that the U.S. would recognize Philippine independence by July
4, 1946.
• Allowed the United States to retain military bases and influence over
foreign policy during the transition.

II. The 1935 Constitution

• Ratified in a plebiscite on May 14, 1935.
• Modeled after the U.S. Constitution, it established a presidential
system with three branches of government:
o Executive (President)
o Legislative (National Assembly, later bicameral)

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 o Judiciary
• Emphasized:
o Civil liberties
o Social justice
o National defense
• Provided a Bill of Rights and provisions for education, taxation, and the
economy.

III. Structure and Features of the Commonwealth Government

A. Executive Branch
• President: Manuel L. Quezon (1935–1944), succeeded by Sergio Osmeña.
• Held broad powers: control of departments, military command, and foreign
affairs (under U.S. oversight).
• Vice President: Sergio Osmeña.
B. Legislative Branch
• Initially a unicameral National Assembly (1935–1940), later became
bicameral in 1940:
o Senate and House of Representatives
• Responsible for passing laws and appropriations.
C. Judiciary
• Independent judiciary headed by the Supreme Court.
• Guaranteed protection of civil rights and liberties.

IV. Key Programs and Achievements

A. Filipinization of the Government
• Increased Filipino participation in governance.
• Replaced American officials in key positions.
• Trained Filipino leaders in administration, diplomacy, and defense.
B. Economic Reforms
• Focus on agricultural modernization and public infrastructure (roads,
bridges, irrigation).
• Development of industries, but still largely dependent on the U.S.
economy.
• Encouraged rural development and cooperatives.
C. Social and Educational Programs
• Promoted public education in English and Filipino.
• Initiated land reform programs, though limited in scope.
• Emphasized national language development (Filipino/Tagalog).
• Addressed health and welfare services for the population.
D. National Defense Act (1935)
• Created the Philippine Army under the supervision of U.S. General
Douglas MacArthur, appointed as Military Advisor.
• Prepared for external defense and national security.
• Military training became compulsory for male students.

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 V. Challenges During the Commonwealth Period
A. Economic Dependence
• Continued reliance on the U.S. market for sugar, coconut oil, and other
exports.
• The Bell Trade Act and other economic agreements heavily favored the
U.S.
B. Social Inequality
• Despite land reform promises, land tenancy and landlordism remained
widespread.
• Widespread poverty and rural unrest persisted.
C. Japanese Invasion and Occupation (1941–1945)
• The Commonwealth government was forced into exile in the United
States after Japan invaded in December 1941.
• President Quezon continued to lead from Washington, D.C., until his
death in 1944.
• Sergio Osmeña took over and helped coordinate the liberation
campaign with American and Filipino forces.
• After the war, the Commonwealth was restored in Manila in 1945, and
preparations for full independence resumed.

VI. Restoration and Final Transition (1945–1946)

A. Post-War Challenges
• The Philippines suffered massive destruction: infrastructure, agriculture,
and urban areas were devastated.
• The Commonwealth prioritized reconstruction, relief, and
rehabilitation.
• Osmeña served as caretaker president during this difficult transition.
B. Election of Manuel Roxas
• In April 1946, Manuel Roxas was elected as the last President of the
Commonwealth and would become the first President of the
independent Republic.

VII. End of the Commonwealth and Philippine Independence

• On July 4, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines was officially
inaugurated.
• The Treaty of Manila formally ended U.S. sovereignty over the islands.
• The Commonwealth Government was dissolved, having fulfilled its
purpose as a transitional administration.

VIII. Legacy and Significance

• Foundation of the modern Philippine state: institutions, civil service,
military, and judiciary all trace their roots to this period.

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 • The Commonwealth prepared Filipino leaders for governance and
diplomacy.
• It marked the evolution from colonial subjugation to national
independence, though with lingering economic and political ties to
the United States.
• The period fostered a sense of nationalism and democratic ideals that
continue to shape Philippine society.

The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines, which became the

realization of the real desire of Filipinos for independence, was able to accomplish the
following achievement:
1. Reorganization of the government by creating new offices, including the
Department of National Defense, the Institute of National Language, the National
Council of Education, the Filipinization of the Judiciary from the supreme Court
down to the municipal courts, the Court of Appeals, and the Court of Industrial
Relations.
2. Granting of women suffrage, after a special national plebiscite in which 447,
725 women voted in favor of women suffrage and 44,397 against it.
3. Creation of new chartered cities, namely: Cebu, Iloilo, Bacolod, Davao,
Zamboanga, San Pablo, Quezon City, Cavite, and Tagaytay.
4. The adoption of Tagalog as the national language.
5. Promotion of social justice (Eight-hour Labor Act) and the appointment of
public defenders to defend the rights of the poor laborers in the courts.
6. Compulsory military training of able-bodied Filipino youths, under the supervision
of General Douglas MacArthur.
7. Taking of the 1939 official census of the Philippines.
8. Improvement of the Philippine economy as revealed by the growth of agriculture,
commerce, and industries.
9. Creation of the Joint Preparatory Committee Philippine Affairs (JPCPA), which
recommend the following, (1) granting of Philippine Independence on July 4,
1946 and (2) extension of Philippine-American Preferential trade to December
31, 1960.
10. Passage of three amendments to the 1935 Philippine Constitution which were
ratified by the national plebiscite on June 18, 1940. These amendments were as
follows:
a. Tenure of office of the President and Vice-President to was four years with
re-election for another term.
b. Establishment of a bicameral Congress of the Philippines, with the Senate
as Upper House and the House of Representatives as Lower House.
c. Creation of an Independent Commission on Election composed of three
members to supervise all elections.

The Commonwealth Government stands as a pivotal period in Philippine

history. It was a bridge between colonial rule and full sovereignty. While marred by war

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and social issues, it also saw the rise of Filipino leadership, national institutions,
and political identity. Understanding this phase helps us appreciate the long and
complex journey of the Filipino people toward self-determination, independence,
and nation-building.

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 Lesson 2.2: Development and Progress Under American
Rule

The period of American rule in the Philippines (1898–1946) brought sweeping changes
to the archipelago’s political, economic, educational, and socio-cultural landscapes. While
it was still a colonial occupation, the United States framed its governance as a
"benevolent assimilation", aiming to prepare the Philippines for self-governance. The
progress achieved under American rule was a blend of genuine modernization, ideological
Americanization, and exploitative colonial interests.

A. Political Reorganization and Institutional Development

1. Establishment of Civil Government
• In 1901, the American civil government officially replaced military rule with the
creation of the Philippine Commission under Governor-General William
Howard Taft.
• This body was later complemented by the Philippine Assembly (1907), the
first elected legislative body, giving limited representation to Filipinos.
• The Jones Act of 1916 promised eventual independence and established a
bicameral legislature composed of a Senate and House of Representatives—an
early form of democratic self-rule.
2. Filipinization of Government
• Over time, Filipinos gradually filled roles in public administration.
• The appointment of Sergio Osmeña and Manuel L. Quezon as heads of
the legislature marked the beginning of Filipino political leadership under
colonial rule.
• This process culminated in the Commonwealth Government (1935), which
was a transitional government preparing the Philippines for full independence.

B. Economic Reforms and Infrastructure Development

1. Public Works and Infrastructure
• The Americans initiated large-scale infrastructure programs, including the
construction of:
o Roads and bridges
o Railroads (e.g., the Manila-Dagupan line)
o Seaports and lighthouses
o Urban planning in Manila (including Burnham’s design for Baguio and
Manila)
2. Agricultural Modernization
• The Bureau of Agriculture was established to improve crop yields and
introduce scientific farming methods.
• Crop diversification and export-oriented agriculture were promoted (e.g.,
sugar, abaca, coconut).
3. Trade and Industry
• The U.S. implemented a free trade policy with the Philippines:

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 o Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act (1909) and the Underwood Tariff Act
(1913) allowed the Philippines to export to the U.S. without tariffs.
o This increased production but created dependency on American
markets and stifled industrialization.
• American businesses and corporations invested in agriculture (e.g., sugar
plantations), mining, and utilities, but often reaped the bulk of profits.

C. Educational Advancements
1. Free Public Education
• The Americans established a secular, free, and universal public school
system—a first in Philippine history.
• In 1901, they brought in over 500 Thomasites, American teachers who
taught English and trained Filipino educators.
2. English as Medium of Instruction
• English was used in schools, courts, and official documents, which increased
literacy but also contributed to the erosion of native languages and literature.
3. Higher Education and Scholarship
• The University of the Philippines (1908) was founded to produce a
professional class of Filipinos.
• The Pensionado Program sent promising Filipino students to study in U.S.
universities, many of whom later became leaders in government, law,
medicine, and engineering.

D. Public Health and Sanitation

1. Modern Health System
• The Americans prioritized public health by establishing the Bureau of
Health.
• Introduced programs to combat diseases such as:
o Cholera, smallpox, tuberculosis, and malaria
o Vaccination campaigns and quarantine procedures
2. Clean Water and Sanitation
• Waterworks and sewage systems were installed in urban areas.
• Health education and sanitation were introduced in schools and rural
communities.

E. Social and Cultural Changes

1. Americanization of Filipino Society
• Cultural institutions, values, and practices were influenced by American norms:
o Celebrating American holidays (e.g., Fourth of July)
o Adoption of Western-style fashion, sports (e.g., basketball, baseball),
and consumer products
o Promotion of democratic ideals and liberalism

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 2. Press and Civil Liberties
• Freedom of the press and civil association were generally allowed, resulting in
a flourishing of Filipino journalism and political discourse.
• Newspapers in English and Filipino languages gained wide readership.

F. Limitations and Criticisms of “Progress”

While American rule introduced significant reforms, these developments were not
without contradictions and criticisms:
• Economic exploitation: U.S. corporations controlled key industries and
lands; wealth remained in the hands of a few elites.
• Education as indoctrination: While it spread literacy, the American
education system also served as a tool for colonial ideology.
• Delayed independence: The promise of self-rule was used to justify
continued colonization.
• Social inequalities: Many reforms benefitted only the urban middle class
and the elite, leaving rural areas underdeveloped and poor.

G. Toward Independence
The American colonial period formally ended with the recognition of Philippine
independence on July 4, 1946, following the devastation of World War II.
Nonetheless, the foundations laid in governance, education, public health, and civil
institutions continued to shape the postcolonial Philippine Republic.

H. Timeline of development and progress under American rule in the

Philippines:

Year Event
1898 Treaty of Paris - U.S. acquires the Philippines
1901 Civil Government established; Taft becomes Governor-General
1907 Philippine Assembly convened
1909 Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act
1913 Underwood Tariff Act
1916 Jones Law - Promise of eventual independence
1921–1927 Filipino resistance to Gov. Leonard Wood
1935 Commonwealth Government inaugurated
1941–1945 Japanese Occupation
1946 Philippine Independence (July 4)

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 Given an era of cooperation and good relations between American authorities
and Filipino leaders, development in the Philippines took great leaps and bounds.
Rapid development in agriculture, commerce, ang trade soared high. Transportation
and communications were modernized. Banking systems were established and
manufacturing industries grew in big proportions. All of these were generated as a
result of the favorable political and socio-cultural climate in the Philippines. American
businessmen, capitalists, and industrialists flocked to Philippine soil to establish
their enterprises using local talents and labors. The economic progress under
America did not pass without a great price on the part of the Filipinos. Local production
and business gave way to accommodate American Products and industries. In terms of
who benefited most in terms of economic progress, the Filipinos got the least, while
American capitalists got the most profit using Filipino skills and labor.

Agricultural Progress in the Philippines during the American regime was

remarkable for it changed the deplorable state of Philippine agriculture into a
scientifically advanced and modernized one. The introduction of experimental model
farms and livestock production technology introduced by Americans gradually
empowered Filipino farmers with scientific methods of cultivation. New breeds of livestock
increased production outputs. Modern post-harvest facilities like warehouses and farm
machineries like thresher and rice hullers were introduced. Irrigation systems and
dams were built. Sugar plantations were established and packaging of farm products
was taught. All of these and other introductions and innovations spurred the growth of
agricultural production in the Philippines. Unfortunately, majority of Filipino farmers
were not favored much by agricultural developments for reasons that they remained
tillers of the lands of landlords and capitalists.

The free trade relations between the US and the Philippines fostered a giant
leap for trade and commerce in the Philippines. Import and export trade which
became a full free trade in 1913 by virtue of the Underwood-Simons Tariff Act of the US
Congress facilitated the opening of ports all over the country. However, the trade
agreement seemed not to favor the Filipino much because of the fact that Philippine
export products were free to enter American ports within quota limits while American
products could enter Philippine ports without paying duty taxes to the Philippines
and without quota limits. The crux of inequality was the fact that there were more
imports from America than the export products of the Filipinos entering the US. THE
American capitalists got greater profits that their Filipino counterparts.

The American period facilitated the Industrial Age in the Philippines. Factories
sprang up in towns and cities, producing commodities such as cigars, coconut oil,
sugar, textile, and cordage using local resources. Mining industries boomed into huge
international industries. The Philippines became known as a gold producer and
supplier of other minerals such as chromate, manganese, copper, iron, silver and

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others. Fishing and fish canning became major industries, placing the Philippines in the
limelight of the international market as a rich ground for deep-sea fishing.

The American period affected the modernization of transportation facilities

in the Philippines. Roads and bridges were constructed, which facilitated transport
of products from farms to ports and markets with ease and convenience. By 1935,
there were already 20,826 kilometers of roads and 8,100 bridges built by American
road builders. In 1905, telephone system was introduced in Manila. Radio-telephone
services were installed in 1933. Towns and provincial capitols were inter-connected
by radio, telegraph lines, and telephones. By 1935, more than a thousand mail offices
all over the Philippines were established, facilitating communications though
ordinary mails, telegrams, money orders, packages, and air mail letters. These
material progress in the Philippines that were achieved during the American colonial
period had an impact on the economic condition of the Philippines. However, form the
perception of Filipino nationalists, America’s regime in the Philippines transformed
the Philippines into a market of surplus products of the US and a gold mine of
economic resources at the expense of the greater majority of Filipinos, who gave so
much of the expense of the resources, time, and talents but received the least of benefits.

The impact of American public education I the Philippines was a key factor in the
improvement of peace and order conditions in the country. Democracy as an ideology
was emphasized in all schools. Filipinos became conscious of basic freedoms. Political
writers began to express their views with greater impetus and political consciousness
grew among Filipinos in government. Partisan politics was allowed, enabling Filipinos to
form independent political parties wherein a great majority of Filipino elites agitated
for political independence. Filipino cultural life changed dramatically as the English
language became an official medium, not only in schools, but also in private and public
offices. The influx of ideas from the progressive West acquired through the
knowledge and proficiency in English helped enrich the English language, which
was patronized by Filipinos, proved itself as the potent force which changed
Filipino cultural life and gave importance to a Western-oriented cultural environment.

The development and progress under American rule were both transformative
and paradoxical. While the Philippines gained a modern infrastructure, expanded
education, and exposure to democratic institutions, it also experienced colonial
exploitation, cultural displacement, and economic dependency. Understanding
this era requires a critical evaluation of both achievements and limitations, and
recognizing how these shaped the nation's path to sovereignty and identity.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Quiz #2: Lesson 2

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 LESSON 3: The Philippines Under the Japanese
Rule

I. Context of Japanese Expansionism

During the early 20th century, Japan emerged as Asia’s dominant military power.
Driven by a desire to secure natural resources, expand territories, and challenge
Western colonial powers, Japan initiated the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere—a political and economic bloc intended to unite Asian nations under Japanese
leadership. In reality, it served as a justification for imperial conquest, thinly veiled
in anti-Western rhetoric.

The Philippines, then under the Commonwealth government, became a

strategic target due to its location and ties with the United States. The Japanese aimed
to cut off the Philippines from U.S. influence and integrate it into their empire.

A. The Invasion Begins

• December 8, 1941: Japan bombed Clark Air Base hours after the attack on Pearl
Harbor.
• December 1941 – May 1942: A series of battles culminated in the Fall of
Bataan (April 9, 1942) and the Fall of Corregidor (May 6, 1942).
• The infamous Bataan Death March followed, where 76,000 Filipino and
American POWs were forced to walk over 100 kilometers under inhumane
conditions.

II. Establishment of the Japanese Military Administration

On January 02, 1942, after the relatively bloodless occupation of Manila, General
Homma, Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Imperial Forces in the Philippines,
declared the establishment of the Japanese military administration with the intention of
putting under complete control political, economic, and socio-cultural affairs in Manila
and consequently the whole Philippines. He further declared the end of American
occupation and Placed the country under martial law, and ordered the confiscation of
firearms, ammunitions, and other war materials. He declared punishment by death for
anyone who did not hostile act against the Japanese army. He placed under Japanese
control all industries, factories, banks, schools, churches, printing presses, and
centers of recreations. He issues a proclamation prohibiting circulation of American
dollars and introduced Japanese war notes which replaced Philippine currency. He
ordered arrests and punishment to those who caught singing the American National

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anthem and any American song. Books, magazines, and newspaper in English were
confiscated and burned. Only Japanese propaganda newspapers written in Tagalog
were allowed for circulation.

A. The Establishment Begins

• January 2, 1942: Japanese forces occupied Manila with little resistance.
• General Masaharu Homma, Commander of the Japanese Imperial Army,
declared:
o End of American sovereignty
o Imposition of martial law
o Establishment of military rule across political, economic, and
cultural sectors

B. Martial Law Policies

• All arms, radios, and war materials were confiscated.
• Death penalties were issued for acts of resistance.
• All major industries, schools, religious institutions, banks, and media were placed
under Japanese supervision.
• Circulation of American currency was prohibited; replaced by Japanese-issued
money, often called “Mickey Mouse Money” due to its eventual worthlessness.
• Public expression of American loyalty or Western culture (e.g., singing
American songs or using English) was banned.
• English-language publications were seized; only Tagalog-language, pro-
Japanese propaganda materials were allowed.

III. The Socio-Cultural Situation under Japanese Occupation

Although there was a Japanese-sponsored republic in existence, the Filipinos had

to contend with five mortal dangers: the guerillas, hunger, Japanese-paid Filipino spies,
lack of medicine, and diseases.

The Japanese military police or “KEMPETAI” had wanton disregard for human
lives. They sowed fear and terror in communities by raiding houses of occupants with
unregistered radios. All those arrested suspects were severely tortured or executed
publicly by hanging or by firing squad. Oftentimes, torture by water cure, punching
bad or “red-hot iron” or “electric wire” were made public to warn people not to
collaborate in any way or by any means with Japanese enemies. Worst were public
executions by beheading with samurai. Such did not effectively sow fear but sowed
instead hatred for Japanese soldiers. Spies were also a menace in the social life of
Filipinos. Many Filipino spies who were paid by the Japanese just pointed to anyone
whom they falsely suspected to be pro-American and anti-Japanese. More often than not,
the victims of Japanese-paid spies were unjustly accused, tortured, and eventually
executed.

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 Guerillas, on the other hand, were also a threat for they quickly liquidated Filipinos
who were suspected to be Japanese collaborators without due process.

Social evils such as poverty and pretty crimes were rampantly prevalent. Crimes
against property increased for the sake of survival. Stealing was a usual crime as it was
a desperate means to survive attributed to scarcity of food and hopelessness due to the
acute state of poverty. Scavengers roamed the streets and the public markets
scrounging for food in garbage drums. Some women grave in desperation had to
sustain their family by employing themselves as comfort women for Japanese soldiers
and sex attendants to the bourgeoisie and plutocrats.

In the cultural context, the Filipinos were forcibly induced for educational re-
orientation. Military Order no.2, the Japanese policy on education, was issued on
February 2, 1942 to inculcate Japanese culture; promote the dissemination of the
principle of Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, spiritual rejuvenation. And the
teaching of Nippongo language; further vocational and elementary education; and
promote the love of labor. The main goal of this Japanese educational policy was to
erase Western cultural influences and to create an atmosphere of friendship to push
through Japanese intentions and war aims. Schools were re-opened and were forced
to strictly observe Japanese educational policies.

In the field of arts expression, strict prohibitions were enforced by Japanese

authorities. Performers in theatres were not allowed to present entertainment that were
Western-oriented and injurious to Japanese sensibilities. Writers did not enjoy freedom
to expression. Only a few print media were allowed for circulation with strict
censorship. While encouraging Filipino culture, the Japanese imposed restrictions so as
to ensure that they do not impair Japanese aims of war.

A. The Atmosphere of Fear

• The Kempetai (Japanese military police) enforced absolute control:
o Public torture, water cure, electrocution, beatings, and beheadings were
routine punishments for suspected resistance.
o Homes were raided for unregistered radios or pro-American symbols.
o Spies and collaborators often pointed to innocent civilians who were
arrested or executed without trial.
• Filipino informants, paid or coerced, further intensified distrust within
communities.

B. Resistance and Repression

• The guerilla movement was widespread and one of the most successful in
occupied Southeast Asia.
• Guerillas often executed suspected collaborators without due process, creating a
dual fear—of both the Japanese and guerillas.

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 • Resistance fighters like Luis Taruc, Ruperto Kangleon, and Wendell Fertig
led various factions from Luzon to Mindanao.

C. Social Conditions
• Food shortages led to massive hunger, petty crimes, and theft.
• Women, out of desperation, were forced into prostitution or became “comfort
women”—sex slaves for Japanese troops.
• Access to medicine and healthcare was scarce, exacerbating disease outbreaks.

D. Japanese Propaganda and Indoctrination

• The Japanese educational policy, under Military Order No. 2 (Feb 2,
1942), aimed to:
o Erase Western values and languages.
o Instill loyalty to the Japanese empire and the ideals of the Greater East
Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
o Teach Nippongo (Japanese language) and vocational skills.
• Schools reopened under these conditions, and students were taught to:
o Sing Japanese songs.
o Celebrate Japanese holidays.
o Read government-approved materials only.

E. Arts and Media

• Western-oriented films, plays, and music were banned.
• Theatres and literature had to promote Japanese ideals or neutral Filipino
values.
• Writers and artists lost their freedom of expression.
• Propaganda films and radio broadcasts reinforced loyalty to Japan and painted
America as the enemy.

IV. The Economic Situation in the Philippine under the Japanese

Occupation

Economic activities in the Philippines during the Japanese occupation were

limited since most of the economic resources were under Japanese control. Production
practically stopped due to the war and fear of Japanese atrocities. Agriculture
production was at its lowest ebb. This predicament prevailed because work animals
decreased and farms and plantations had been abandoned. The Japanese military
confiscated trucks, cars, rice harvests, and even required farmers and laborers to
serve for the soldiers. Philippine currency was not in circulation for the banks were
controlled by the Japanese. During the Period of Japanese Rule, Japanese money, called
“Micky Mouse Money” by the Americans and “Yap-yap” by the Filipinos, was the
currency which became a worthless legal tender towards the end of the Second World
War.

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A. Collapse of Agricultural and Industrial Productivity
• War disrupted trade, destroyed infrastructure, and stopped production.
• Farms were abandoned due to conflict, Japanese control, or fear.
• Food, vehicles, and livestock were confiscated by Japanese troops.
• Farmers were forced into labor battalions to support Japanese logistics.

B. Currency Crisis
• The Philippine peso was pulled from circulation.
• The Japanese issued “war notes”, which rapidly depreciated.
• Known as “Mickey Mouse Money”, this currency led to:
o Hyperinflation
o A black market economy
o Barter systems replacing formal commerce

V. The Liberation Period in the Philippines (1944-1946)

The Liberation period was one of the most thrilling episodes of the struggles of
Filipinos to restore and preserve their sovereignty. War historians claim that the
two years from 1944-1946 were the most dramatic part in Philippine history. It
was the period when Filipinos showed their determination to take back their
independence which had they lost, by sheer gallantry and courage through the
guerilla warfare that they waged.

The final phase of the war in the Philippines during World War 2 involved a series
of events in which leaders and personalities who were Either Filipinos or Americans
had put their lives at stake or had somehow perished, all for the sake of a noble cause –
freedom from the clutches of the Japanese hawks of military expansionism.

A. Allied Counter-Offensive
• In October 1944, General Douglas MacArthur returned to the Philippines via
Leyte Gulf, fulfilling his famous vow: “I shall return.”
• Fierce battles ensued:
o Battle of Leyte Gulf (one of the largest naval battles in history)
o Battle of Manila (1945): led to massive destruction of the city and civilian
casualties

B. Guerilla Support and Filipino Valor

• Filipino guerillas coordinated with American forces, providing intelligence and
assisting in attacks.
• Their efforts were crucial in defeating the Japanese in remote areas.
• Many ordinary civilians became heroes, sacrificing lives to defend liberty.

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C. Final Days and Aftermath
• Japan formally surrendered on September 2, 1945.
• The Philippine Commonwealth was restored, setting the stage for full
independence on July 4, 1946.
• The country was left devastated, physically and economically.
• Manila was the second-most destroyed Allied capital after Warsaw, due
to brutal urban combat.

The Japanese occupation of the Philippines was a harrowing chapter in the nation’s
history. It was marked by:
• Severe human rights abuses
• Cultural repression
• Economic hardship
• The unwavering spirit of resistance among Filipinos

Despite the horrors, this period also demonstrated the resilience and courage of
the Filipino people in the face of brutality. The occupation became a defining moment
of national identity, proving that even under foreign domination, the quest for freedom
would never be extinguished.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Quiz #3: Lesson 3

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SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. ACTIVITY: Roleplay Theater - Colonial Conversations

Focus Subtopic: Spanish, American, and Japanese Occupation
• Divide the class into three groups. Each group will create a short skit or
roleplay showing how people lived during one specific period of foreign
occupation (Spanish, American, or Japanese).
• Emphasize historical changes in governance, education, economy, or daily life.
• Present skits in chronological order, followed by a class discussion.
Learning Goal: To understand how colonization affected Filipino lives, values, and
institutions.

2. ACTIVITY: Time-Travel Newspaper Writing

Focus Subtopic: Daily Life under Foreign Rule
• Students will write a 1-page newspaper or newsletter article as if they were a
journalist during either the Spanish, American, or Japanese occupation.
• Articles must include fictional interviews, government announcements, or reports
on current events from the time period chosen.
Learning Goal: To creatively synthesize historical facts and demonstrate
awareness of life and politics under foreign powers.

3. ACTIVITY: Comparative Analysis Map – Influence and Resistance

Focus Subtopic: Comparing Occupations and Filipino Responses
• In groups, students will create a comparison chart or mind map of the three
colonizers’ impact on key sectors: governance, education, economy, and Filipino
resistance.
• Each group presents findings, including how Filipinos responded or resisted each
form of colonization.
Learning Goal: To analyze similarities and differences between colonial regimes
and how they shaped Philippine identity and resistance.

SUGGESTED OUTPUTS AND ASSESSMENT TOOLS:

Output 1: Reflective Essay – “If I Lived Then...”

Connected Activity: Roleplay Theater
• Students write a 500-word reflective essay imagining themselves living under
one colonial power.
• They must describe their experiences and express their feelings about the
government, culture, or education system.

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 Assessment Rubric:
Criteria Weight
Historical accuracy and detail 30%
Personal insight and empathy 25%
Creativity and engagement 20%
Coherence and organization 15%
Grammar and mechanics 10%

Output 2: Historical Newspaper Page

Connected Activity: Time-Travel Newspaper Writing
• Submit a newspaper page including headlines, short articles, a fictional interview,
and at least one image or illustration related to the chosen period.
Assessment Rubric:
Criteria Weight
Content accuracy and relevance 30%
Creativity and historical voice 25%
Format and layout 20%
Writing clarity and grammar 15%
Visual elements and effort 10%

Output 3: Comparative Map or Chart with Oral Presentation

Connected Activity: Comparative Analysis Map
• Submit a mind map, poster, or digital infographic comparing the three
colonial periods.
• Present findings orally, highlighting differences in governance and Filipino
resistance.
Assessment Rubric:
Criteria Weight
Depth of historical comparison 30%
Organization and clarity 20%
Accuracy of content 20%
Visual presentation and creativity 15%
Delivery during presentation 15%

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 MODULE 4
Issues in Philippine History

Lesson 1: Social History

Lesson 2: Political History
Lesson 3: Economic History
Lesson 4: Cultural History
Lesson 5: Environmental History
Lesson 6: The Philippine Modern Issues

GE11
Readings
in Philippine History
Asst. Prof. Jayson C. Peñaflor, MAED

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Module 4
Issues in Philippine History

Overview
This module is dedicated to enduring issues in Philippine society, which history
could lend a hand in understanding and hopefully proposing solutions. These topics
include the mandated discussion on the Philippine Constitution and Policies on Agrarian
Reform. It is hoped that these discussions will help us propose recommendations or
solutions to present-day problem based on our understanding of root causes and
how we anticipate future scenarios in the Philippine setting.

Learning Objectives

On successful completion of this topic, you should be able to:

i. To analyze social, political, economic, and cultural issues in the Philippines using
the lens of history;
j. To recognize that the problems of today are consequences of decisions and
events that happened in the past;
k. To understand several enduring issues in Philippine society through history
l. To propose recommendations or solutions to present-day problems based
on the understanding of the past and anticipation of the future through the
study of history.

Required Readings:

➢ Smith, Robert Aura, “The Philippine Bill of Rights”. The Far Eastern
Quarterly. Vol. 4 No. 2(Feb 1945), pp. 170-181(12 pages). Association
of Asian Studies. [Link]
[Link]

LEARNING MODULE IN GE11 READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY (SY 2025-2026) Page 135
 ➢ Chan Robles Virtual Law Library, “Constitution of the Republic of the
Philippines: Past and Present”.
[Link]

➢ Das, Manoshi Mitra, “Agrarian Reform: Lessons from the Philippines”.,

Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. 43, No. 26/27 (Jun. 28 - Jul. 11, 2008),
pp. 32-34 (3 pages). Economic and Political Weekly.
[Link]

➢ The Editors, “Working Through the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Reading List”.,

Harvard Business Review. August 13, 2020.,
[Link]
list

References:

➢ Candelaria, J. L., & Alphora, V. C. (2018). Readings in Philippine History.

Quezon City: Rex Printing Company, inc.

➢ Torres, J. V. (2018). BATIS Sources in Philippine History. Quezon City: C &

E Publishing, Inc.

➢ Christopher F. B., Raymond E. B, Julie C. L., Fatima F. R., Tecah C. S.

(2006) Philippine History Coursebook, Trinitas Publishing. INC.

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 LESSON 1: Social History: Historical Themes and
Approaches

This lesson introduces students to the study of history “from below” by focusing on
ordinary people, marginalized groups, and social structures, rather than only
elites and political leaders. It emphasizes context, critical perspectives, and
historiographical insights.

A. WHAT IS SOCIAL HISTORY?

Social History is a historiographical approach that examines the lives, struggles,
institutions, and practices of ordinary people rather than focusing solely on political
elites or monumental events. It emerged as a response to the traditional "top-down"
approach of history that privileged kings, presidents, and wars.
Key Concepts:
1. History from Below
o Social history centers on marginalized voices: farmers, laborers,
women, minorities, indigenous groups, and the urban/rural poor.
o It gives importance to the "silent majority"—those whose experiences
are rarely preserved in official documents.
2. Shift in Historical Lens
o Moves away from "great man theory" (history shaped by few powerful
individuals).
o Focuses instead on social forces, institutions, daily life, and
collective action.
3. Interdisciplinary Nature
o Draws insights from sociology, anthropology, economics,
demography, and gender studies.
o Uses a wide variety of sources: oral history, folklore, personal letters,
photographs, census data, and material culture.
4. Themes Explored in Social History:
o Class conflict and labor history
o Gender and family dynamics
o Ethnic and racial relations
o Migration, urbanization, and education
o Cultural practices and everyday resistance
Significance:
• Social history democratizes the past, allowing scholars and students to
explore plural histories.

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 • It helps uncover how broader historical processes—like colonization,
industrialization, or revolutions—affected ordinary people.
• Essential for inclusive education and nation-building in a diverse society
like the Philippines.

B. WOMEN’S HISTORY IN THE PHILIPPINES

Women’s roles in Philippine society have undergone dramatic shifts across different
periods. Women’s history is both a corrective and a challenge to male-dominated
historical narratives.
1. Precolonial Period:
• Women enjoyed relative equality with men:
o Could own property, inherit land, lead communities.
o Played crucial roles as babaylan—priestesses, healers, and spiritual
guides.
• Society was bilateral (tracing descent through both mother and father),
ensuring balanced gender roles.
2. Spanish Colonial Period:
• The colonial regime introduced European patriarchy and Catholic
morality:
o Women were confined to domestic roles: faithful wives, mothers,
caregivers.
o Education, if available, focused on religious obedience and
homemaking.
• However, some women defied these roles by participating in:
o Revolts and revolutionary movements (as informants, nurses, and
financiers).
o Literary expression, like Leona Florentino’s poetry that subtly
criticized gender norms.
3. American and Post-Colonial Period:
• American colonization promoted universal education, which opened
academic and professional spaces for women.
• Women’s movements emerged, advocating for:
o Suffrage (won in 1937)
o Access to education and employment
o Legal equality and reproductive rights
4. Key Figures in Philippine Women’s History:
• Gabriela Silang – Took up arms against Spanish colonizers; symbol of
revolutionary womanhood.
• Tandang Sora (Melchora Aquino) – “Mother of the Katipunan” for
sheltering and aiding revolutionaries.
• Leona Florentino – Poet who wrote about women’s experiences; recognized
internationally.
• Josefa Llanes Escoda – Advocate for women's rights and civic welfare;
martyred during WWII.

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 • Corazon Aquino – First female president in Asia; symbol of democracy after
Marcos dictatorship.
5. Contemporary Feminist Movements:
• Women’s groups like GABRIELA fight for:
o Equal pay and labor rights
o Protection from gender-based violence
o Reproductive health and political participation

C. THE CHINESE IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Chinese community has long been part of Philippine society, contributing to its
economic and cultural life while facing exclusion and assimilation.
1. Precolonial Trade and Settlement:
• Chinese traders (especially from Fujian province) engaged in barter with local
coastal communities.
• Established small settlements even before the Spanish arrived.
2. Spanish Colonial Era:
• The Spanish labeled them sangleys (derogatory term for Chinese merchants).
• Treated with suspicion:
o Confined to parians (designated ghettos).
o Required to wear identification and pay special taxes.
o Periodically massacred or expelled due to fears of rebellion.
• Many Chinese men intermarried with Filipinas, forming the Chinese
mestizo class—socially mobile and often economically powerful.
3. 19th to 20th Century: Rise of Filipino-Chinese Elite:
• Mestizo-Chinese families became influential in:
o Business and commerce (e.g., Binondo entrepreneurs)
o Nationalist movements (e.g., Jose Rizal, Mariano Ponce had Chinese
ancestry)
• During American rule and beyond, Chinese-Filipinos gained more rights but still
faced legal discrimination and racial prejudice.
4. Modern Contributions and Challenges:
• The Filipino-Chinese remain influential in:
o Retail, banking, real estate, and manufacturing.
o Institutions such as Chinese schools and civic associations.
• However, they also face:
o Stereotypes of being "foreigners" despite generations of
assimilation.
o Political scapegoating during territorial disputes with China (e.g.,
South China Sea tensions).

D. INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND ETHNIC MINORITIES

Indigenous peoples (IPs) in the Philippines represent rich cultural diversity but also
centuries of marginalization.
1. Who Are They?

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 • Over 110 indigenous ethnolinguistic groups, including:
o Lumad, Manobo, T’boli, Subanen, Aeta, Mangyan, Kalinga,
Ifugao, B'laan, and others.
• Live mostly in ancestral domains in upland, forest, and coastal areas.
2. Historical and Ongoing Struggles:
• Land Dispossession:
o Large-scale mining, logging, agribusiness, and infrastructure projects
encroach on ancestral lands.
o Example: Chico River Dam protests by Kalinga and Bontoc peoples.
• Militarization:
o IP areas are often conflict zones between the state and insurgents.
o Leads to forced displacement, human rights violations, and community
trauma.
• Cultural Erasure:
o Government policies historically aimed at assimilating IPs (e.g.,
“civilizing missions”).
o Indigenous languages and rituals are endangered.
3. Resistance and Legal Victories:
• Indigenous groups resist through:
o Community organizing, ancestral domain claims, and cultural
revitalization.
• Landmark law: Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997:
o Recognizes ancestral domain ownership, cultural integrity, and
self-governance.
o Creates the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP).
• IPs have also led environmental conservation efforts, defending
biodiversity through their traditional knowledge systems.
4. Preserving Indigenous Knowledge:
• IPs possess rich traditions of:
o Herbal medicine, rituals, oral epics, agricultural practices, and
governance systems.
o Example: Hudhud chants of the Ifugao—declared a UNESCO
Intangible Cultural Heritage.
• Indigenous knowledge is critical to climate resilience, sustainable
development, and cultural diversity.

Social History teaches us that History is not only made in palaces and
battlefields—it is also created in fields, kitchens, churches, barrios, and marketplaces.
Understanding how ordinary people lived, struggled, and dreamed gives a richer,
more inclusive narrative of the past. By recovering the stories of women, Chinese
Filipinos, and indigenous peoples, we decolonize history and build a more just and
accurate understanding of nationhood.

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 LESSON 2: Political History: Historical Themes and
Approaches

This lesson covers the evolution of political institutions, practices, and power relations
in the Philippines, with particular attention to the Constitution, elections, political parties,
and peace-building processes.

I. EVOLUTION OF THE PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION

The constitution is defined as a set of fundamental principles or established

precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed, thus, the
word itself means to be a part of a whole, the coming together of distinct entities into
one group, with the same principles and ideals. These principles define the nature and
extent of government.

The Constitution of the Philippines, the supreme law of the Republic of the
Philippines, shaping the country’s political structure, rights of citizens, and balance of
power among branches of government, has been in effect since 1987 . There were only
three other constitutions that have effectively governed the country: the 1935
Commonwealth Constitution, the 1973 Constitution, and the 1986 Freedom
Constitution. However, there were earlier constitutions attempted by Filipinos in
the struggle to break free from the colonial yoke. The history of Philippine constitutions
reflects the nation’s struggles for sovereignty, democracy, and good governance.

A. 1897: Constitution of Biak-na-Bato

The Constitution of Biak-na-Bato, crafted in 1897—not 1987—was a pivotal legal
document during the Philippine Revolution against Spain, representing the first
formal attempt by Filipinos to establish a republican form of government and legal
structure independent of colonial rule. It was ratified by the revolutionary government
led by Emilio Aguinaldo at Biak-na-Bato, a mountain stronghold in San Miguel,
Bulacan.

I. Historical Context
o By 1896, the Katipunan, founded by Andres Bonifacio, had launched a
full-scale revolution against over 300 years of Spanish colonial rule. After
Bonifacio’s execution in early 1897 due to leadership disputes, Emilio
Aguinaldo assumed command of the revolutionary movement. Pressured
by increasing Spanish military campaigns, Aguinaldo and his forces
retreated to Biak-na-Bato, where they established a revolutionary

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 republic and sought to formalize the struggle for independence through a
constitutional framework.

II. The Drafting of the Constitution

• The Constitution of Biak-na-Bato was primarily drafted by Isabelo
Artacho and Felix Ferrer.
• It was modeled after the Cuban Constitution, which itself was inspired
by liberal democratic ideals prevalent in Europe and the Americas during
the 19th century.
• It was ratified on November 1, 1897 by the members of the provisional
revolutionary government at Biak-na-Bato.

III. Key Features of the Constitution

1. Declaration of Purpose
• The primary goal stated in the constitution was the separation of the
Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and the formation of an
independent Philippine republic.
2. Structure of Government
• It provided for a Supreme Council or Consejo Supremo composed
of:
o A President
o A Vice President
o Four secretaries (War, Foreign Affairs, Interior, and Treasury)
• These officers were to be elected by a majority vote and would hold
office for a term of two years.
3. Rights and Duties of Citizens
• The constitution included provisions affirming the civil liberties of
citizens, such as:
o The right to free speech and expression
o The right to property
o Protection against arbitrary arrest or punishment
4. Official Language
• Spanish was declared the official language of the Republic, reflective
of the linguistic realities and elite education of the time.
5. Provisional Nature
• The Constitution was considered provisional, meant to guide the
government only until the achievement of full independence.

IV. The Republic of Biak-na-Bato

o The Constitution laid the legal foundation for the Republic of Biak-na-
Bato, a short-lived revolutionary government established by Aguinaldo.
• The republic functioned more as a symbolic declaration of
independence than a fully operational state.
• It aimed to unify revolutionary forces under a legal and political framework.

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 • It issued decrees, created revolutionary symbols (like the early Philippine
flag), and communicated its aspirations to foreign nations.

V. The Pact of Biak-na-Bato and the End of the Republic

1. Peace Negotiations with Spain
• Spanish Governor-General Fernando Primo de Rivera entered
into peace negotiations with the revolutionary leaders, hoping to
suppress the revolution through diplomacy.
• The resulting agreement, known as the Pact of Biak-na-Bato
(December 14–15, 1897), included:
o A voluntary exile of Aguinaldo and other leaders to Hong
Kong
o A monetary indemnity of ₱800,000 from Spain to the
revolutionaries
o A promise of reforms by the Spanish government
2. Suspension of Hostilities
• In exchange, Aguinaldo agreed to dissolve the Biak-na-Bato Republic
and cease revolutionary activities.
• However, the Spanish failed to fully implement promised reforms,
leading to the renewal of the revolution in 1898 and the
eventual declaration of independence on June 12, 1898.

VI. Significance and Legacy

1. First Constitutional Framework for a Filipino Republic
• Although short-lived, the Biak-na-Bato Constitution was the first
attempt to codify a Filipino-led government through a
formal constitution.
2. Symbol of National Unity and Sovereignty
• It symbolized the Filipinos’ desire for self-determination,
justice, and rule of law, departing from monarchical Spanish
control.
3. Legal and Ideological Precursor
• It laid the groundwork for later constitutional documents such as:
o The Malolos Constitution (1899)
o The 1935 Commonwealth Constitution
o The 1973 and 1987 Constitutions of the Republic of
the Philippines
4. Educational Value
• Today, the Constitution of Biak-na-Bato is studied as an
important milestone in Philippine constitutional and revolutionary
history. It reflects the evolution of Filipino political thought and
aspirations for nationhood.

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 The Constitution of Biak-na-Bato was the provisionary Constitution of the
Philippine Republic during the Philippine Revolution, and was promulgated by the
Philippine Revolutionary Government on 1 November,1897. The constitution, borrowed
from Cuba, was written by Isabelo Artacho and Félix Ferrer in Spanish, and later on,
translated into Tagalog.

The organs of the government under the Constitution were: (1) the Supreme Council,
which was vested with the power of the Republic, headed by the president and four
department secretaries: the interior, foreign affairs, treasury, and war; (2) the
Consejo Supremo de Gracia Y Justicia (Supreme Council of Grace and Justice), which
was given the authority to make decisions and affirm or disprove the sentences
rendered by other courts and to dictate rules for the administration of justice; and
(3) the Asamblea de Representantes (Assembly of Representatives), which was to
be convened after the revolution to create a new Constitution and to elect a new Council
of Government and Representatives of the people.

The Constitution of Biak-na-Bato was never fully implemented, since a truce, the
Pact of Biak-na-Bato, was signed between the Spanish and the Philippine
Revolutionary Army.

The Constitution of Biak-na-Bato (1897) represents a foundational moment in

the Philippine struggle for independence. While its practical application was brief and
ended with the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, it was a profound statement of Filipino unity,
governance, and aspiration for liberty. As the first written constitution in Philippine
history, it stands as a testament to the revolutionary spirit of Filipinos and their early
commitment to republican ideals.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Preamble of the Biak-na-Bato Constitution

Source: Artacho, Isabelo, and Ferrer, Felix. Constitución Provisional de la República

Filipina (Biak-na-Bato), 1897. Reprinted in:
Blair, Emma Helen, and Robertson, James Alexander, The Philippine Islands,
1493–1898, Vol. 52. Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1907.

“The separation of the Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and their formation into
an independent state with its own government is the aim of the revolution. To this end,
the Philippine revolutionaries, represented by the undersigned, have agreed upon the
following articles, which shall be provisionally observed until the achievement of
independence.”

The separation of the Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and their formation
into an independent state with its own government called the Philippine Republic has
been the end sought by the Revolution in the existing war, begun on the 24th of August,
1896; and, therefore, in its name and by the power delegated by the Filipino people,

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interpreting faithfully their desires and ambitions, we the representatives of the
Revolution, in a meeting at Biak-na-bato, November 1, 1897, unanimously adopted
the following articles for the constitution of the State.

B. 1899: Malolos Constitution

• Drafted and ratified during the First Philippine Republic, under President
Emilio Aguinaldo.

Significance:
• First democratic republican constitution in Asia.
• A bold assertion of independence from Spanish and American colonialism.
Features:
• Separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
• Recognized civil liberties and national sovereignty.
• Enshrined popular sovereignty and the notion of a representative
democracy.
Limitation:
• The republic was short-lived due to the outbreak of the Philippine-American
War (1899–1902).

After the signing of the truce, the Filipino revolutionary leaders accepted a payment
from Spain and went to exile in Hong Kong. Upon the defeat of the Spanish to the
Americans in the Battle of Manila Bay on 1 May 1898, the United States Navy transported
Aguinaldo back to the Philippines. The newly reformed Philippine revolutionary forces
reverted to the control of Aguinaldo, and the Philippine Declaration of Independence was
issued on 12 June 1898, together with several decrees that formed the First
Philippine Republic. The Malolos Congress was elected, which selected a commission
to draw up a draft constitution on 17 September 1898, which was composed of wealthy
and educated men.

The document they came up with, approved by the Congress on 29 November 1898,
and promulgated by Aguinaldo on 21 January 1899, was titled "The Political
Constitution of 1899 and written in Spanish. The constitution has 39 articles divided
into 14 titles, with eight articles of transitory provisions, and a final additional article. The
document was patterned after the Spanish Constitution of 1812, with influences from
the charters of Belgium, Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala,
and the French Constitution of 1793. According to Felipe Calderon, main author of the
constitution, these countries were studied because they shared Similar social, political,
ethnological, and governance conditions with the Philippines. Prior constitutional
projects in the Philippines also influenced the Malolos Constitution, namely, the
Kartilya and the Sanggunian Hukuman, the charter of laws and morals of the Katipunan
written by Emilio Jacinto in 1896; the Biak-na-Bato Constitution of 1897 planned by
Isabelo Artacho; Mabini's Constitutional Program of the Philippine Republic of 1898; the

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provisional constitution of Mariano Ponce in 1898 that followed the Spanish
constitutions; and the autonomy projects of Paterno in 1898.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Preamble of the Political Constitution of 1899

Source: "Political Constitution of 1899 (Malolos Constitution)"

Ratified: January 21, 1899, Malolos, Bulacan. Archived by:
Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines
[Link]

We, the Representatives of the Pilipino People, lawfully convened, in order to

establish justice, provide for common defense, promote the general welfare and insure
the benefits of liberty, imploring the aid of the Sovereign Legislator of the Universe for
the attainment of these ends, have voted, decreed, and sanctioned the following political
constitution.

As a direct challenge to colonial authorities of the Spanish empire, the

sovereignty was retroverted to the people, a legal principle underlying the Philippine
Revolution. The people delegated governmental functions to civil servants while they
retained actual sovereignty. The 27 articles of Title IV detail the natural rights and
popular sovereignty of Filipinos, the enumeration of which does not imply the prohibition
of any other rights not expressly stated. Title III, Article V also declares that the State
recognizes the freedom and equality of all beliefs, as well as the separation of Church
and State. These are direct reactions to features of the Spanish government in the
Philippines, where the friars were dominant agents of the state.

The form of government, according to Title II, Article 4 is to be popular,

representative, alternative, and responsible, and shall exercise three distinct powers-
legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative power was vested in a unicameral
body called the Assembly of Representatives, members of which are elected for terms
of four years. Secretaries of the government were given seats in the assembly, which
meet annually for a period of at least three months. Bills could be introduced either by
the president or by a member of the assembly. Some powers not legislative in nature
were also given to the body, such as the right to select its own officers, right of censure
and interpellation, and the right of impeaching the president, cabinet members, the chief
justice of the Supreme Court, and the solicitor-general. A permanent commission of
seven, elected by the assembly, and granted specific powers by the constitution, was to
sit during the intervals between sessions of the assembly.

Executive power was vested in the president, and elected by a constituent assembly
of the Assembly of Representatives and special representatives. The president will serve
a term of four years without re-election. There was no vice president, and in case of a
vacancy, a president was to be selected by the constituent assembly.

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 The 1899 Malolos Constitution was never enforced due to the ongoing war. The
Philippines was effectively a territory of the United States upon the signing of the Treaty
of Paris between Spain and the United States, transferring sovereignty of the
Philippines on 10 December 1898.

C. 1935: The Commonwealth Constitution

• Promulgated under the Commonwealth of the Philippines, during American
colonial rule. Crafted in line with the Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) and
influenced by the U.S. Constitution.

Features:
• Presidential form of government with a strong executive.
• Bicameral legislature (Senate and House of Representatives).
• Bill of Rights to protect civil liberties.
Amendments:
• In 1940, amended to allow a two-term presidency and creation of an
independent electoral commission.
Significance:
• Served as the constitutional framework until 1973, including the post-
independence era (1946).

It is worth mentioning that after the Treaty of Paris, the Philippines was
subject to the power of the United States of America, effectively the new colonizers of
the country. From 1898 to 1901, the Philippines would be placed under a military
government until a civil government would be put into place.

Two acts of the United States Congress were passed that may be considered to
have qualities of constitutionality. First was the Philippine Organic Act of 1902, the
first organic law for the Philippine Islands that provided for the creation of a popularly
elected Philippine Assembly. The act specified that legislative power would be vested in
a bicameral legislature composed of the Philippine Commission as the upper house and
the Philippine Assembly as lower house. Key provisions of the act included a bill
of rights for Filipinos and the appointment of two non-voting Filipino President
Commissioners of the Philippines as representative to the United States House of
Representatives. The second act that functioned as a constitution was the Philippine
Autonomy Act of 1916, commonly referred to as "Jones Law," which modified the
structure of the Philippine government through the removal of the Philippine
Commission, replacing it with a Senate that served as the upper house and its members
elected by the Filipino voters, the first truly elected national legislature. It was also this
Act that explicitly declared the purpose of the United States to end their sovereignty over
the Philippines and recognize Philippine independence as soon as a stable government
can be established.

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 In 1932, with the efforts of the Filipino independence mission led by Sergio
Osmeña and Manuel Roxas, the United States Congress passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting
Act with the promise of granting Filipinos independence. The bill was opposed by then
Senate President Manuel L. Quezon and consequently, rejected by the Philippine Senate.

By 1934, another law, the Tydings-McDuffie Act, also known as the Philippine
Independence Act, was passed by the United States Congress that provided
authority and defined mechanisms for the establishment of a formal constitution by a
constitutional convention. The members of the convention were elected and held
their first meeting on 30 July 1934, with Claro M. Kecto unanimously elected as president.

The constitution was crafted to meet the approval of the United States
government, and to ensure that the United States would live up to its promise to grant
independence to the Philippines.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Preamble of the 1935 Commonwealth

Source: Preamble of the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines

Adopted: February 8, 1935 | Ratified: May 14, 1935 | Effective: November 15, 1935.
Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. “The 1935 Constitution.”
[Link]

The Filipino people, imploring the aid of Divine Providence, in order to establish
a government that shall embody their ideals, conserve and develop the patrimony
of the nation, promote the general welfare, and secure to themselves and their
posterity the blessings of independence under a regime of justice, liberty, and
democracy, do ordain and promulgate this constitution.

The constitution created the Commonwealth of the Philippines, an administrative

body that governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946. It is a transitional
administration to prepare the country toward its full achievement of independence. It
originally provided for a unicameral National Assembly with a president and vice
president elected to a six year term without re-election. It was amended in 1940 to have
a bicameral Congress composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives, as well as
the creation of an independent electoral commission, and limited the term or office of the
president and vice president to four years, with one re-election. Rights to suffrage were
originally afforded to male citizens of the Philippines who are twenty-one years of age or
over and are able to read and write; this was later on extended to women within two
years after the adoption of the constitution.

While the dominant influence in the constitution was American, it also bears traces
of the Malolos Constitution, the German, Spanish, and Mexican constitutions,
constitutions of several South American countries, and the unwritten English
Constitution.

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 The draft of the constitution was approved by the constitutional convention on 8
February 1935, and ratified by then U.S. President Franklin B. Roosevelt on 25 March
1985. Elections were held in September 1935 and Manuel L. Quezon was elected
President of the Commonwealth.

The Commonwealth was briefly interrupted by the events of the World War II,
with the Japanese occupying the Philippines. Afterward, upon liberation, the Philippines
was declared an independent republic on 4 July 1946.

D. 1973: Constitutional Authoritarian

• Ratified during the Marcos regime and reflected his authoritarian ambitions.

Features:
• Parliamentary system: Prime Minister as head of government,
weakening the presidency in theory.
• Allowed President Marcos to extend power through transitory
provisions.
• Declared Martial Law, curtailing civil liberties and centralizing authority.
Criticized for:
• Lack of genuine public participation in ratification.
• Legalizing dictatorial rule.
• Undermining checks and balances.

In 1965, Ferdinand E. Marcos was elected president, and in 1967 Philippine

Congress passed a resolution calling for a constitutional convention to change the
1985 Constitution. Marcos won the re-election " 1969, in a bid boosted by
campaign overspending and use of government funds. Elections of the delegates to the
constitutional convention were held on 20 November 1970, and the convention began
formally on l June 1971, with former President Carlos P. Garcia being elected as
convention president. Unfortunately, he died, and was succeeded by another former
president, Diosdado Macapagal.

Before the convention finished its work, Martial Law was declared. Marcos
cited a growing communist insurgency as reason for the Martial Law, which was
provided for in the 1935 Constitution. Some delegates of the ongoing constitutional
convention were placed behind bars and others went into hiding or were voluntary exiled.
With Marcos as dictator, the direction of the convention turned, with accounts that
the president himself dictated some provisions of the constitution, manipulating the
document to be able to hold on to power for as long as he could. On 29 November
1972, the convention approved its proposed constitution.

The constitution was supposed to introduce a parliamentary-style government,

where legislative power was vested in a unicameral National Assembly, with members

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being elected to a six-year term. The president was to be elected as the symbolic and
ceremonial head of state chosen from the members of the National Assembly. The
president would serve a six-year term and could be re-elected to an unlimited number of
terms. Executive power was relegated to the Prime Minister, who was also the head of
government and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces who was also to be elected
from the National Assembly.

President Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 73 setting the date of the
plebiscite to ratify or reject the proposed constitution on 30 November 1973. This
plebiscite was postponed later on since Marcos feared that the public might vote
to reject the constitution. Instead of a plebiscite, Citizen Assemblies were held,
from 10-15 January 1973, where the citizens coming together and voting by hand,
decided on whether to ratify the constitution, suspend the convening of the Interim
National Assembly, continue Martial Law, or place a moratorium on elections for a
period of at least several years. The President, on 17 January 1973, issued a
proclamation announcing that the proposed constitution had been ratified by an
overwhelming vote of the members of the highly irregular Citizen Assemblies.

The constitution was amended several times. In 1976, Citizen Assemblies, once
again, decided to allow the continuation of Martial Law, well as approved the
amendments: an lnterim Batasang Pambansa to substitute for the Interim National
Assembly, the president to also become the Prime Minister and continue to exercise
legislative powers until Martial Law was lifted and authorized the President to
legislate on his own on an emergency basis. An overwhelming majority would
ratify further amendments succeeding. In 1980, the retirement age of members of the
judiciary was extended to 70 years. In 1981, the parliamentary system was formally
modified to a French-style, semi-presidential system where executive power was restored
to the president, who was, once again, to be directly elected; an Executive Committee
was to be created, composed of the Prime Minister and 14 others, that served
as the president's Cabinet; and some electoral reforms were instituted. In 1984, the
Executive Committee was abolished and the position of the vice president was restored.

After all the amendments introduced, the 1973 Constitution was merely a way for
the President to keep executive powers, abolish the Senate, and by any means, never
acted as a parliamentary system, instead functioned as an authoritarian presidential
system, with all the real power concentrated in the hands of the president, with
the backing of the constitution.

The situation in the 1980s had been very turbulent. As Marcos amassed power,
discontent has also been burgeoning. The tide turned swiftly when in August 1983,
Benigno Aquino Jr., opposition leader and regarded as the most credible alternative
to President Marcos, was assassinated while under military escort immediately after
his return from exile in the United States. There was widespread suspicion that the orders
to assassinate Aquino came from the top levels of the government and the military. This

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event caused the coming together of the non-violent opposition against the Marcos
authoritarian regime. Marcos was then forced to hold "snap' elections a year early, and
said elections were marred by widespread fraud Marcos declared himself winner despite
international condemnation and nationwide protests. A small group of military rebels
attempted to stage a coup, but failed; however, this triggered what came to be known
as the EDSA People Power Revolution of 1986, as people from all walks of life spilled onto
the streets. Under pressure from the United States of America, who used to support
Marcos and his Martial Law, the Marcos family fled into exile His opponent in the snap
elections, Benigno Aquino Jr’s widow, Corazon Aquino, was installed as president on
25 February 1986.

E. 1987: Constitution After Martial Law

• Drafted after the People Power Revolution (1986) and the ouster of Ferdinand
Marcos. Signed into law under President Corazon Aquino.

Objectives:
• Restore democracy, prevent future authoritarianism.
• Ensure human rights, decentralization, accountability, and people
participation.
Features:
• Reinstated the presidential system.
• Strengthened Bill of Rights, civil society engagement, and judicial
independence.
• Introduced term limits, safeguards against Martial Law abuse, and
institutionalized constitutional commissions (COMELEC, COA, CSC).
Significance:
• Still in effect today, seen as a symbol of democratic restoration and vigilance.

President Corazon Aquino's government had three options regarding the

constitution: revert to the 1935 Constitution, retain the 1973 Constitution and be granted
the power to make reforms, or start anew and break from the "vestiges of a disgraced
dictatorship." They decided to make a new constitution that, according to the
president herself, should be "truly reflective of the aspirations and ideals of the Filipino
people.

In March 1986, President Aquino proclaimed a transitional constitution to

last for a year while a Constitutional Commission drafted a permanent constitution.
This transitional constitution, called the Freedom Constitution, maintained many
provisions of the old one, including in rewritten form the presidential right to rule by
decree. In 1986, a constitutional convention was created, composed of 48 members
appointed by President Aquino from varied backgrounds and representations. The
convention drew up a permanent constitution, largely restoring the setup abolished by
Marcos in 1972, but with new ways to keep the president in check, a reaction to the

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experience of Marcos's rule. The new constitution was officially adopted on 2
February 1987.

The Constitution begins with a preamble and eighteen self-contained articles.

It established the Philippines as a "democratic republican State" where "sovereignty
resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them. It allocates
governmental powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the
government.

The Executive branch is headed by the president and his he appoints. The
president is the head of the state and the chief executive, but his power 1s limited
by significant checks from the two other co-equal branches of government, especially
during times of emergency. This is put in place to safeguard the country from
the experience of martial law despotism during the presidency of Marcos. In cases of
national emergency, the president may still declare martial law, but not longer than a
period of sixty days. Congress, through a majority vote, can revoke this decision, or
extend it for a period that they determine. The Supreme Court may also review the
declaration of martial law and decide if there were sufficient justifying facts for the act.
The president and the vice president are elected at large by a direct vote, serving a single
six-year term.

The legislative power resides in a Congress divided into two Houses: the
Senate and the House of Representatives. The 24 senators are elected at large by
popular vote, and can serve no more than two consecutive six year terms. The House is
composed of district representatives representing a particular geographic area and makes
up around 80% of the total number representatives. There are 234 legislative districts in
the Philippines that elect their representatives to serve three-year terms, The 1987
Constitution created a party-list system to provide spaces for the participation of under-
represented community sectors or groups. Party-list Representatives may fil up not more
than 20% of the seats in the House.

Aside from the exclusive power of legislation, Congress may also declare war,
through a two-thirds vote in both upper and lower houses, the power of legislation,
however, is also subject to an executive check, as the president retains the power to
veto or stop a bill from becoming a law. Congress may only override this power with a
two-thirds vote in both houses.

The Philippine Court system is vested with the power of the judiciary, and
is composed of a Supreme Court and lower courts as created by law. The Supreme Court
1s a 15-member court appointed by the president w1thout the need to be confirmed by
Congress. The appointment the president makes, however, is limited to a list of
nominees provided by a constitutionally specified Judicial and Bar Council. The
Supreme Court Justices may hear, on appeal, any cases dealing with the constitutionality
of any law, treaty, or decree of the government, cases where questions of jurisdiction or

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judicial error are concerned, or cases where the penalty is sufficiently grave. It may
also exercise original jurisdiction over cases involving government or international
officials. The Supreme court is also in charge of overseeing the functioning and
administration of the lower courts and their personnel.

The Constitution also established three independent Constitutional

Commissions, namely, the Civil Service Commission, a central agency in charge of
government personnel; the Commission on Elections, mandated to enforce and
administer all election laws and regulations; and the Commission on Audit, which
examines all funds, transactions, and property accounts of the government and its
agencies.

To further promote the ethical and lawful conduct of the government, the
Office of the Ombudsman was created to investigate complaints that pertain to public
corruption, unlawful behavior of public officials, and other public misconduct. The
Ombudsman can charge public officials before the Sandiganbayan, a special court
created for this purpose.

Changing the Constitution is a perennial issue that drops up, and terms such as "Cha-
Cha," "Con-Ass," and "Con-Con'" are regularly thrown around. Article XVII of the 1987
Constitution provides for three ways by which the Constitution can be changed. Congress
(House of Representatives and the Senate) may convene as a Constituent Assembly (or
Con-Ass) to propose amendments to the Constitution. It is not clear, however, if Congress is
to vote as a single body or separately. How the Congress convenes as a Con-Ass is also no
provided for in the Constitution.
Another method is through the Constitutional Convention (or Con-Con), where
Congress, upon a vote of two-thirds of all its members, calls for a constitutional convention.
They may also submit to the electorate the question of calling a convention through a
majority vote of all its members. In a Con-Con, delegates will propose amendments or
revisions to the constitution, not Congress. The 1987 Constitution does not provide for a
method by which delegates to the Con-Con are chosen.

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 The third method is called the "People's Initiative" (or P). In this method, amendments to
the Constitution may be proposed by the people upon a petition of at least 12% of the total
number of registered voters. All legislative districts must be represented by at least
12% of the registered votes therein. No amendment is allowed more than once every five
years since a successful PL. The 1987 Constitution directs the Congress to enact a law
to implement provisions of the PI, which has not yet materialized. Amendments or
revision to the constitution shall be valid only when ratified by a majority of the votes
cast in a national referendum.

Only the House of Representatives can initiate the impeachment of the president,
members of the Supreme Court, and other constitutionally protected public officials
such as the Ombudsman. The Senate will then try the impeachment case. This
is another safeguard to promote moral and ethical conduct in the government.

Attempts to Amend or Change the 1987 Constitution

The 1987 Constitution provided for three methods by which the Constitution can
be amended, all requiring ratification by a majority vote in a national referendum.
These methods were Constituent Assembly, Constitutional Convention, and People's
Initiative. Using these modes, there were efforts to amend or change the 1987
Constitution, starting with the presidency of Fidel V. Ramos who succeeded Corazon
Aquino. The first attempt was in 1995, when then Secretary of National Security Council
Jose Almonte drafted a constitution, but it was exposed to the media and it never
prospered. The second effort happened in 1997, when a group called PIRMA hoped
to gather signatures from voters to change the constitution through people's
initiative. Many were against this, including then Senator Miriam Defensor-Santiago,
who brought the issue to court and won-with the Supreme Court judging that a
people's initiative cannot push through without an enabling law.

The succeeding president, Joseph Ejercito Estrada, formed a study

Commission to investigate the issues surrounding charter change focusing on the
economic and judiciary provisions of the constitution. This effort was also blocked by
different entities. After President Estrada was replaced by another People Power
and succeeded by his Vice President, Gloria Macapagal- Arroyo, then House Speaker
Jose de Venecia endorsed constitutional change through a Constituent Assembly,
which entails a two-thirds vote of the House to propose amendments or revision to the
Constitution. This initiative was also not successful since the term of President Arroyo

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was mired in controversy and scandal, including the possibility of Arroyo extending
her term as president, which the Constitution does not allow.

The administration of the succeeding President Benigno Aquino Ill had no marked
interest in charter change, except those emanating from different members of
Congress, including the speaker of the House, Feliciano Belmonte Jr., who
attempted to produce amendments to the Constitution that concern economic
provisions that aim toward liberalization. This effort did not see the light of day.

Federalism in the Philippines was supported by President Duterte in the 2016 presidential
elections, saying that it will evenly distribute wealth in the Philippines instead of
concentrating it in Manila, the capital of the country. As a form of government, a
central governing authority and constituent political units constitutionally share sovereignty.
Applied to the Philippines, the country will be broken into autonomous regions. Each
region will be further divided into local government units. The regions will have the primary
responsibility of industry development, public safety and instruction, education, healthcare,
transportation, and many more. Each region will also take charge of their own finances, plans
for development, and laws exclusive to their area. The national government, on the other
hand, will only handle matters of national interest such as foreign policy and defense, among
others. In this system, it is possible for the central government and the regions to share certain
powers.
Our current system is that of a unitary form, where administrative powers and resources are
concentrated in the national government. Mayors and governors would have to rely on
allocations provided to them through a proposed budget that is also approved by the nation
government, a system prone to abuse.
There are many pros to a federal form of government. Each region may custom fit solutions
to problems brought about by their distinct geographic, cultural, social, and economic
contexts. Regions also have more power over their finances, since they handle majority of
their income and only contributes to a small portion to the national government.

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 They can choose to directly fund their own development projects without asking for the
national government's go signal. A federal system could also promote specialization, since
the national government could focus on nationwide concerns while regional governments can
take care of administrative issues.
A federal form of government could also solve a lot of decade-old problems of the country. It
may be a solution to the conflict in Mindanao, Since a separate Bangsamoro region could be
established for Muslim Mindanao. It could address the inequality in wealth distribution and
lessen the dependence to Metro Manila, since regions can proceed with what they have to
do without needing to consider the situation in the capital.
There are also cons to federalism. While it creates competition among regions, it could
also be a challenge to achieving unity in the country. There might be regions which are not
ready to govern themselves, or have lesser resources, which could mire them deeper in
poverty and make development uneven in the country.

There could be issues regarding overlaps in jurisdiction, since ambiguities may arise where
national ends and regional begins, or vice versa. As a proposed solution to the conflict in
Mindanao, we must also remember that the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao
(ARMM) has already been created, and the conflict still continues. Federalism may not be
enough for those who clamor separation.

Any effort to shift the system of government also entails costs, and it would not be cheap. It
would cost billions to dismantle the current system and would take a long time before the
system normalizes and irons out its kinks.

In an upsurge of populism, President Rodrigo Duterte won the 2016 presidential

elections in a campaign centering on law and order, proposing to reduce crime by killing
tens of thousands of criminals. He is also a known advocate of federalism, a
compound mode of government combining a central or federal government with
regional governments in a single political system. This advocacy is in part an influence of
his background, being a local leader in Mindanao that has been mired in poverty and
violence for decades. On 7 December 2016, President Duterte signed an executive order
creating a consultative committee to review the 1987 Constitution.

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II. PHILIPPINE ELECTIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

Democratic elections are meant to reflect the will of the people, but in the
Philippines, electoral politics are often plagued by systemic issues that undermine
democratic ideals.

1. Nature of Philippine Elections

• Held every three years (local and midterm); presidential elections every six years.
• Constitutionally guaranteed as a right of the people.
• Serve as a mechanism for leadership transition and political accountability.
2. Problems in the Electoral System:
1. Vote-buying and electoral fraud:
o Common in local elections; votes are bought in cash, goods, or services.
o Undermines the principle of free and fair elections.
2. Political violence and coercion:
o Particularly rampant in local and remote areas.
o Includes harassment, assassinations, and warlordism.
o Example: The Maguindanao Massacre (2009), a politically motivated
mass killing during an election campaign.
3. Weak political party system:
o Philippine political parties lack ideological platforms.
o Party-switching (known as “balimbing” politics) is common after every
election.
o Most parties are personality-based, centered around political families
rather than principles.
4. Political dynasties:
o More than 70% of elected officials come from political families.
o Dynasties control local economies, access to public funds, and voter loyalty.
o Entrench inequality, corruption, and patronage politics.
5. Celebrity and populist politics:
o Rise of candidates from showbiz or media backgrounds.
o Popularity often outweighs qualifications and public service
experience.
3. Proposed Reforms:
1. Anti-Dynasty Law:
o The 1987 Constitution prohibits political dynasties “as may be defined by
law,” but no enabling law has been passed.
o Would limit the number of family members in elected office.
2. Strengthening political parties:
o Promote party-list education, funding regulations, and program-
based platforms.
3. Voter education and political literacy:
o Encourage informed voting by integrating civic education in schools and
media.

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 o Empower citizens to demand transparency and accountability.
4. Campaign finance reform:
o Set limits on spending and require full disclosure of donors and expenses.

III. GOVERNMENT PEACE TREATIES WITH MUSLIM FILIPINOS

The Moro conflict in Mindanao stems from centuries of resistance against

colonization, land dispossession, and cultural marginalization. Peace
agreements aim to resolve long-standing grievances and create autonomous governance
structures that reflect the identity and aspirations of Muslim Filipinos.

1. Historical Grievances:
• Land dispossession during American and post-war government land settlement
programs.
• Loss of ancestral domain due to migration of Christian settlers.
• Cultural and religious marginalization, including forced assimilation and
neglect of Islamic practices and education.
• Violent clashes between Muslim rebel groups and the Philippine military since the
1970s.
2. Key Peace Agreements:
1. Tripoli Agreement (1976) – between the Marcos government and the Moro
National Liberation Front (MNLF).
o First formal recognition of Muslim Filipino autonomy aspirations.
o Proposed the creation of autonomous regions, but failed due to
disagreement over implementation.
2. Final Peace Agreement (1996) – between the government and MNLF under
President Fidel Ramos.
o Established the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM).
o Integrated some MNLF members into the military and government.
o Criticized for its limited powers and resources, and for failing to gain
support of newer rebel groups like the MILF.
3. Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro (2012) – with the Moro
Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) under President Aquino III.
o Created the Bangsamoro Transition Commission to draft a new law.
o Recognized the need for a stronger, more meaningful autonomy.
4. Bangsamoro Organic Law (BOL, 2018) – signed under President Duterte.
o Replaced ARMM with the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim
Mindanao (BARMM).
o Features:
▪ Greater fiscal autonomy.
▪ A parliamentary regional government.
▪ Control over natural resources and ancestral domains.
o Ratified in a 2019 plebiscite.

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3. Importance of Peace Agreements:
• Recognize historical injustices and build institutional frameworks for
autonomy.
• Emphasize inclusivity, shared governance, and cultural identity.
• Help stabilize the region, reduce armed conflict, and open opportunities for
development.
• BARMM is seen as a model of decentralized governance and peace-
building, but challenges remain in implementation, decommissioning of weapons,
and political normalization.

The political history of the Philippines reflects a constant tension between

democratic ideals and systemic weaknesses. From constitutional experiments to
electoral struggles and peace-building initiatives, the nation continues to grapple with
issues of power, participation, and justice.

Political history is not just about presidents and revolutions—it is also about how
institutions shape citizens' lives, how laws are made and abused, and how the people
fight for representation and reform.

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 Lesson 3: Economic History: Historical Themes and
Approaches

This topic traces the development of the Philippine economy by examining land
ownership, taxation, and trade policies as reflections of larger power structures and their
effects on ordinary Filipinos.

I. POLICIES ON AGRARIAN REFORM

• Agrarian reform is a recurring theme in Philippine economic history because land
ownership has long been a source of wealth, power, and conflict. The
deep-rooted problem of land inequality dates back to the colonial period and
continues to impact rural development, food security, and social justice.

1. Colonial Roots of Land Inequality:

• Spanish Era:
o The encomienda system granted land to Spanish officials who
collected tribute from indigenous people. Though technically non-
heritable, it paved the way for land monopolization.
o Later, the hacienda system developed, wherein large tracts of land
were owned by religious orders, Spanish settlers, or elite families,
worked by tenant farmers (kasamá) with few rights.
o Indigenous land tenure systems were ignored or overridden, leading to
landlessness and peasant exploitation.
• American Era:
o The Americans promised land reforms but maintained elite land
ownership.
o The Public Land Act of 1903 and Tenancy Act of 1933 offered land
distribution mechanisms but favored those with capital and connections.
o American rule reinforced private property regimes over communal
systems.
2. Key Agrarian Reform Programs in the Post-Colonial Period:
1. President Ramon Magsaysay’s Land Reform Act of 1955 (RA
1400):
o Created the Land Tenure Administration (LTA).
o Aimed to resettle landless farmers and provide loans.
o Limited in scope due to elite resistance, bureaucratic
inefficiencies, and corruption.
2. Marcos’ Presidential Decree No. 27 (1972):

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 o Issued during Martial Law, focusing only on rice and corn
lands.
o Introduced the “Land to the Tiller” policy—land should be
owned by those who cultivate it.
o Flaws:
▪ Excluded lands planted with other crops (e.g., sugarcane,
coconut).
▪ Allowed landlords to manipulate classifications and
avoid redistribution.
▪ Co-opted as a political tool to justify dictatorship.
3. Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP, 1988) under
President Corazon Aquino:
o Enacted through RA 6657, aimed to cover all agricultural lands
regardless of crop.
o Introduced land redistribution, support services, and
security of tenure.
o Promised to redistribute 8.1 million hectares over 10 years.
o Obstacles:
▪ Legal loopholes (e.g., Stock Distribution Option in
Hacienda Luisita).
▪ Land reclassification and conversion for commercial
or residential use.
▪ Underfunding, poor support services, and landlord
resistance.
4. CARPER (Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension
with Reforms, 2009):
o Extended CARP with reforms to address inefficiencies and
loopholes.
o Included increased funding, stricter rules on conversion,
and support services.
o Mixed results: Land redistribution increased, but land quality,
support services, and economic upliftment remained
inadequate.
3. Continuing Challenges:
• Land Use Conversion: Agricultural lands are reclassified for real estate and
industrial projects.
• Farmer Displacement: Evictions due to land grabbing, militarization, and
lack of tenure security.
• Slow and Unequal Implementation: Bureaucratic inefficiencies and elite
capture of reforms.
• Peasant Movements: Groups like Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas
(KMP) continue to demand genuine land reform.

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 Agrarian reform is essentially the rectification of the whole system of
agriculture, an important aspect of the Philippine economy because nearly half of the
population is employed in the agricultural sector, and most citizens live in rural areas.
Agrarian reform is centered on the relationship between production and the distribution
of land among farmers. It is also focused on the political and economic class character
of the relations of production and distribution in farming and related enterprises,
and how these connect to the wider class structure. Through genuine and comprehensive
agrarian reform, the Philippines would be able to gain more from its agricultural
potential and uplift the Filipinos in the agricultural sector, who have been, for the longest
time, suffering in poverty and discontent.

In our attempt to understand the development ot agrarian reform in the

Philippines, we turn our attention to Our counuy s history, especially our colonial
past, where we could find the root or the agrarian woes the country has experienced up
to this very day.

Landownership in the Philippines under Spain

When the Spaniards colonized the country, they brought with them a system of
pueblo agriculture, where rural communities, often dispersed and scattered in nature,
were organized into a pueblo and given land to cultivate.

Families were not allowed to own their land-the King of Spain owned the land, and
Filipinos were assigned to these lands to cultivate them, and they paid their colonial
tributes to the Spanish authorities in the form of agricultural products.

Later on, through the Law of the Indies, the Spanish crown awarded tracts
of land to (1) religious orders; 2) repartamientos for Spanish military as reward for
their service; and (3) Spanish encomenderos, those mandated to manage the
encomienda or the lands given to them, where Filipinos worked and paid their tributes
to the encomendero. Filipinos were not given the right to own land, and only worked in
them so that they might have a share of the crops and pay tribute. The encomienda
system was an unfair and abusive system as "compras y vandalas" became the
norm for the Filipino farmers working the land-they were made to sell their
products at very low price or surrender their products to the encomenderos, who resold
this as a profit. Filipinos in the encomienda were also required to render services to
the encomenderos that were unrelated to farming.

From this encomienda system, the hacienda system developed in the beginning or
the nineteenth century as the Spanish government implemented policies that would fast
track the entry of the colony into the capitalist world. The economy was tied to the world
market as the Philippines became an exporter of raw materials and importer of
goods. Agricultural exports were demanded and the hacienda system was developed as
a new form of ownership. In the 1860s, Spain enacted a law ordering landholders
to register their landholdings, and only those who knew benefitted from this. lands

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were claimed and registered in other people's names, and many peasant families who
were "assigned" to the land in the earlier days of colonization were driven out or forced
to come under the power of these people who claimed rights to the land because they
held a title.

This is the primary reason why revolts in the Philippines were often agrarian in
nature. Before the colonization, Filipinos had communal ownership of land. The system
introduced by the Spaniards became a bitter source of hatred and discontent for
the Filipinos. Religious orders, the biggest landowners in the Philippines, also
became a main source of abuse and exploitation for the Filipinos, increasing the
rent paid by the Filipinos on a whim.

Filipinos fought the Philippine Revolution in a confluence of motivations, but

the greatest desire for freedom would be the necessity of owning land. Upon the
end of the Philippine Revolution, the revolutionary government would declare all large
landed estates, especially the confiscated friar lands as government property.
However, the first Philippine republic was short-lived. The entrance of the Americans
would signal a new era of colonialism and imperialism in the Philippines.

Landownership in the Philippines under the Americans

The Americans were aware that the main cause of social unrest in the Philippines
was landlessness, and they attempted to put an end to the deplorable conditions of the
tenant farmers by passing several land policies to increase the small landholders and
distribute ownership to a bigger number of Filipino tenants and farmers. The
Philippine Bill of 1902 provided regulations on the disposal of public lands. A private
individual may own 16 hectares of land while corporate landholders may have 1,024
hectares. Americans were also given rights to own agricultural lands in the country. The
Philippine Commission also enacted Act No. 496 or the Land Registration Act, which
introduced the Torrens system to address the absence of earlier records of issued land
titles and conduct accurate land surveys. In 1903, the homestead program was
introduced, allowing a tenant to enter into an agricultural business by acquiring a term
of at least 16 hectares. This program, however, was limited to areas in Northern
Luzon and Mindanao, where colonial penetration had been difficult for Americans, a
problem they inherited from the Spaniards.

Landownership did not improve during the American period; in fact, it even
worsened, because there was no limit to the size of landholdings people could
possess and the accessibility of possession was limited to those who could afford to buy,
register, and acquire fixed property titles. Not all friar lands acquired by the Americans
were given to landless peasant farmers. Some lands were sold or leased to American and
Filipino business interest. This early land reform program was also implemented
without support mechanisms-if a landless peasant 1armer received land, he only
received land, nothing more. Many were forced to return to tenancy and wealthy
Filipino hacienderos purchased or forcefully took over lands from farmers who

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could not afford to pay their debts. The system introduced by the Americans enabled
more lands to be placed under tenancy, which: widespread peasant uprisings,
,such as the Colorum and Sakdal Uprising in Luzon. Peasants and workers found
refuge from millenarian movements that gave them hope that change could still happen
through militancy.

The Sakdal (or Sakdalista) Uprising was a peasant rebellion in Central Luzon that lasted for
two days, May 2-3, 1935. It was easily crushed by government forces then, but this historical
event tells of the social inequality brought about by issues in land ownership and tenancy in
the country.

The Filipino word Sakdal means "to accuse, which is the title of the newspaper helmed by
Benigno Ramos. He rallied support from Manila and nearby provinces through the
publication, which led to the establishment of the Partido Sakdalista in 1933. They
demanded reforms from the government, such as the abolition of taxes and "equal or common
ownership of land, among others. They also opposed the dominant Nacionalista Party's
acceptance of gradual independence from the United States, and instead demanded
immediate severance of ties with America.

For a new party with a small clout, they did well in the 1934 general elections, scoring three
seats in the House of Representatives and several local posts. This encouraged them to attempt
an uprising in 1936. Upon being crushed, Ramos fled to Tokyo and the Partido Sakdalista
collapsed.

During the years of the Commonwealth government, the situation further

worsened as peasant uprisings increased and landlord-tenant relationship became
more and more disparate. President Quezon laid down a social justice program focused
on the purchase of haciendas, which were to be divided and sold to tenants. His
administration also created the National Rice and Corn Corporation (NARIC) to assign
public defenders to assist peasants in court battles for their rights to the land, and
the Court of Industrial Relations to exercise jurisdiction over disagreements arising
from landowner-tenant relationship. The homestead program also continued through the
National Land Settlement Administration (NLSA). Efforts toward agrarian reform by the
Commonwealth failed because of any problems such as budget allocation tor the
settlement program and widespread peasant uprisings. World War II put a halt to all
interventions to solve these problems as the Japanese occupied the country.

Post-War Interventions Toward Agrarian Reform

Rehabilitation and rebuilding after the war were focused on providing solutions
to the problems of the past. The administration of President Roxas passed Republic

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Act No. 34 to establish a 70-30 sharing arrangement between tenant and landlord,
respectively, which reduced the interest of landowners loans to tenants at six
percent or less. The government also attempted to redistribute hacienda lands,
falling prey to the woes of similar attempts since no support was given to small farmers
who were given lands.

Under the term of President Elpidio Quirino, the Land Settlement Development
Corporation (LASEDECO) was established to accelerate and the resettlement program
for peasants. This agency later on became the National Resettlement and
Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA) under the administration of President Ramon
Magsaysay.

Magsaysay saw the importance of pursuing genuine land reform program and
convinced the Congress, majority of which were landed elites, to pass legislation to
improve the land reform situation. Republic Act No. 1199 or the Agricultural Tenancy
Act was passed to govern the relationship between landholders and tenant farmers,
protecting the tenurial rights of tenants and enforced tenancy practices. Through
this law, the Court of Agricultural Relations was created in 1955 to improve
tenancy security, fix land rentals of tenanted farms, and resolve land disputes filed by
the landowners and peasant organizations. The Agricultural Tenancy Commission was
also established to administer problems created by tenancy. The Agricultural Credit
and Cooperative Financing Administration (ACCFA) was also created mainly to provide
warehouse facilities and assist farmers in marketing their products. The administration
spearheaded the establishment of the Agricultural and Industrial Bank to provide easier
terms in applying for homestead and other farmlands.

NARRA accelerated the government's resettlement program and distribution of

agricultural lands to landless tenants and farmers. It also aimed to convince members of
the Huks, a movement of rebels in Central Luzon, to resettle in areas where they could
restart their lives as peaceful citizens.

Despite a move vigorous effort toward agrarian reform, the situation for the
farmers remained dire since the government lacked funds and provided inadequate
support services for the programs. The landed elite did not fully cooperate and they
criticized the programs.

A major stride in land reform arrived during the term of President Diosdado
Macapagal through the Agricultural Land Reform Code (Republic Act No. 3844)

PRIMARY SOURCE: Declaration of Policy under RA No. 3844 or Agricultural

Land Reform Code

Source: Section 2. Declaration of Policy--It is the policy of the State:

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 1) To establish owner-cultivator ship and the economic family-size farm as the
basis of Philippine agriculture & , as a consequence, divert landlord capital in
agriculture to industrial development;
2) To achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers free from pernicious
institutional restraints and practices;
3) To create a truly viable social and economic structure in agriculture conducive to
greater productivity and higher farm incomes
4) To apply all labor laws equally and without discrimination to both industrial and
agricultural wage earners,
5) To provide more vigorous and systematic land resettlement program and
public land distribution; and
6) To make the small farmers more independent, self-reliant and responsible
citizens, and a source of genuine strength in our democratic society.

This Code abolished share tenancy in the Philippines and prescribed a program
to convert tenant-farmers to lessees and later on owner-cultivators. It also aimed to
free tenants from tenancy and emphasize owner cultivator ship and farmer
independence, equity, productivity improvement, and public land distribution. Despite
being one of the most comprehensive pieces of land reform legislation ever passed in
the Philippines, Congress did not make any effort to come up with a separate bill to
fund its implementation, despite the fact that it proved beneficial in the provinces
where it was pilot tested.

Agrarian Reform Efforts under Marcos

President Marcos declared Martial Law in 1972, enabling him to essentially wipe out
the landlord-dominated Congress. Through his "technocrats," he was able to expand
executive power to start a "fundamental restructuring" of government, including its
efforts in solving the deep structural problems of the countryside. Presidential Decree
No. 27 or the Code of Agrarian Reform of the Philippines became the core of
agrarian reform during Marcos regime.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Presidential Decree No. 27, 21 October 1972

This shall apply to tenant farmers of private agricultural lands primarily devoted to
rice and corn under a system of sharecrop or lease-tenancy, whether classified as
landed estate or not;

The tenant farmer, whether in land classified as landed estate or not, shall be deemed
owner of a portion constituting a family-size farm of (5) hectares it not irrigated and three
(3) hectares if irrigated:

In all cases the landowner may retain an area of not more than seven (7) hectares if
such landowner is cultivating such area or will now cultivate it; For the purpose of
determining the cost of the land to be transferred to the tenant-farmer pursuant to this

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Decree, the value of the land shall be equivalent to two and one-half (2 1/2) times the
average harvest of three normal crop years immediately preceding the promulgation of
this Decree;

The total cost of the land, including interest at the rate of six (6) per centum per
annum, shall be paid by the tenant in fifteen (15) years of fifteen (15) equal annual
amortizations;

In case of default, the amortization due shall be paid by the farmers' cooperative in
which the defaulting tenant-farmer 18 a member, with the cooperative having a right of
recourse against him;

The government shall guaranty such amortizations with shares of stock in

government-owned and government-controlled corporations;

No title to the land owned by the tenant-farmers under this Decree shall be actually
issued to a tenant-farmer unless and until the tenant- farmer has become a full-fledged
member of a duly recognized farmer's cooperative; Title to land acquired pursuant to
this Decree or the Land Reform Program of the Government shall not be transferable
except by hereditary succession or to the government in accordance with the provisions
of this Decree, the code of Agrarian reforms and other existing laws and regulations;

The Department of Agrarian Reform through its Secretary is hereby empowered to

promulgate rules and regulations for the implementation of this Decree.

"Operation Land Transfer" on lands occupied by tenants of. more than seven
hectares on rice and corn lands commenced, and through legal compulsion and an
improved delivery of support services to small farmers, agrarian reform seemed to
be finally achievable. Under the rice self-sufficiency program "Masagana '99, farmers
were able to borrow from banks and purchase three-hectare plots of lands and
agricultural inputs However, the landlord class still found ways to circumvent the law.
Because only rice lands were the focus of agrarian reform, some landlords only needed
to change crops to be exempted from the program, such as coconut and sugar lands.
Lands worked by wage labor were also exempt from the program, so the landed elite
only had to evict their tenants and hired workers instead. Landlessness increased,
which made it all the more difficult for the program to succeed because landless
peasants were excluded from the program. Many other methods were employed by the
elite to find a way to maintain their power and dominance, which were worsened by the
corruption of Marcos and his cronies who were also involved in the agricultural sector.

Post-1986 Agrarian Reform

The overthrow of Marcos and the 1987 Constitution resulted in a renewed interest
and attention to agrarian reform as President Corazon Aquino envisioned agrarian
reform to be the centerpiece of her administration's social legislation, which proved

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difficult because her background betrayed her -she came from a family of a wealthy and
landed clan that owned the Hacienda Luisita.

On 22 July 1987, Aquino issued Presidential Proclamation 131 and Executive Order
229, which outlined her land reform program. In 1988, the Congress passed Republic
Act No. 6657 or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARD), which introduced
the program with the same name (Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program or
(CARP). It enabled the redistribution of agricultural lands to tenant-farmers from
landowners, who were paid in exchange by the government through just
compensation and allowed them to retain not more than have hectares. Corporate
landowners were, however, allowed under law to voluntarily divest a proportion of their
capital stock, equity, or participation in favor of their workers or other qualified
beneficiaries instead of turning over their land to the government.

CARP was limited because it accomplished very little during the administration of
Aquino. It only accomplished 22.5% of land distribution in six years owing to the fact
that Congress, dominated by the landed elite, was unwilling to fund the high
compensation costs of the program. It was also mired in controversy, since Aquino
seemingly bowed down to the pressure of her relatives by allowing the stock
redistribution option. Hacienda Luisita reorganized itself into a corporation and distributed
stocks to farmers.
Under the term of President Ramos, CARP implementation was speeded in order to
meet the ten-year time frame, despite limitations and constraints in funding, logistics,
and participation of involved sectors. By 1996, the Department of Agrarian Reform
(DAR) distributed only 58.25% of the total area target to be covered by the program. To
address the lacking funding and the dwindling time for the implementation of CARP,
Ramos signed Republic Act No. 8532 in 1998 to amend CARL and extend the program to
another ten years.

CARPER and the Future of Agrarian Reform in the Philippines

The new deadline of CARP expired in 2008, leaving 1.2 million farmer beneficiaries
and 1.6 million hectares of agricultural land to be distributed to farmers. In 2009,
President Arroyo signed Republic Act No. 9700 or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program Extension with Reforms (CARPER), the amendatory law that extended the
deadline to five more years. Section 30 of the law also mandates that any case and/or
proceedings involving the implementation of the provisions of CARP, as amended,
which may remain pending on 30 June 2014 shall be allowed to proceed to its finality
and executed even beyond such date.

From 2009 to 2014, CARPER has distributed a total of 1 million hectares of land to
900,000 farmer beneficiaries. After 27 years of land reform and two Aquino
administrations, 500,000 hectares of lands remain undistributed. The DAR and the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) are the government
agencies mandated to fulfill CARP and CARPER, but even the combined effort and

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resources of the two agencies have proved incapable of fully achieving the goal of
agrarian reform in the Philippines. The same problems have plagued its
implementation: the powerful landed elite and the ineffectual bureaucracy of the
Philippine government. Until these two challenges are surmounted, genuine agrarian
reform in the Philippines remains but a dream to Filipino farmers who have been
fighting for their right to landownership for centuries.

II. EVOLUTION OF PHILIPPINE TAXATION

• Taxation is a key instrument for state-building, economic development, and
redistribution of wealth. The Philippine tax system has evolved through colonial
regimes and into the present, reflecting political control and shifting priorities.

1. Spanish Period:
• Taxes were tools of colonial exploitation:
o Tributo: Paid by native males in cash or kind.
o Cedula personal: A form of poll tax and identification.
o Forced labor (polo y servicio): Men were conscripted for public works
without pay.
o Tithes: Collected by the Catholic Church from agricultural produce.
• These taxes funded the colonial bureaucracy and religious orders, not local
development.
2. American Period:
• Introduced a modern tax system, modeled after the U.S.:
o Income tax (based on earnings).
o Corporate tax (levied on businesses).
o Customs duties and excise taxes.
• The Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR) was established in 1904.
• Taxes supported public infrastructure, education, and health, but also
sustained colonial control.
3. Contemporary Tax System:
• The Philippine tax system today is managed by the BIR and Bureau of Customs
(BOC).
• Sources include:
o Value-Added Tax (VAT) – a 12% tax on most goods and services.
o Income taxes – on individuals and corporations.
o Excise taxes – on alcohol, tobacco, petroleum.
o Estate and donor’s taxes.
• Sin taxes have been introduced on sugary drinks and harmful products to raise
revenues and promote health.
4. Issues and Challenges:
1. Regressive nature of taxes:
o Poor households bear a heavier burden due to indirect taxes like VAT.
o Wealthy individuals and corporations often enjoy loopholes or incentives.
2. Tax evasion and corruption:

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 oRampant among elites and some large businesses.
oBIR modernization is ongoing, but enforcement remains weak.
3. Need for reforms:
o The TRAIN Law (2017) adjusted income tax brackets but increased fuel
and consumer taxes, affecting the poor.
o Calls for progressive taxation (e.g., wealth tax) to reduce inequality and
raise funds for public services.

III. TRADE POLICIES AND THE PHILIPPINE ECONOMY

• Trade has historically been a double-edged sword for the Philippine economy—
connecting it to global markets while also making it dependent on foreign
powers.

1. Precolonial Trade:
• Filipino communities engaged in vibrant barter trade with:
o China (porcelain, silk),
o Arab merchants (spices, textiles),
o Southeast Asia (gold, beeswax, pearls).
• The balangay and trading ports (e.g., Butuan, Manila) were hubs of economic
activity.
• Trade was integrated with diplomacy, kinship, and cultural exchange.
2. Spanish Colonial Period – Galleon Trade (1565–1815):
• Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade connected the Philippines to Mexico and Europe.
• Commodities included Chinese silk, Mexican silver, and European goods.
• Effects:
o Manila became a global trading center.
o But local industries were stifled—Filipinos became middlemen, not
producers.
o Economic life was centered in Manila, neglecting the rest of the
archipelago.
3. American Period:
• Introduced free trade policies (e.g., Payne-Aldrich Act) favoring American
imports and exports.
• Philippine sugar, tobacco, and coconut oil entered U.S. markets tariff-free.
• Filipino producers became export-oriented but remained dependent on raw
materials.
• Local manufacturing and industrialization were stunted by unfair competition
with U.S. products.
4. Post-Independence Trade and Economic Policies:
1. Protectionism (1950s–1970s):
o State-led industrialization under Import Substitution Industrialization
(ISI).
o Imposed tariffs to protect local industries.

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 o Led to short-term growth but eventually caused inefficiencies and
dependency on imports.
2. Neoliberal Reforms (1980s–1990s):
o Under pressure from the IMF and World Bank, the Philippines embraced:
▪ Trade liberalization
▪ Privatization
▪ Deregulation
o Joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995.
o Resulted in increased foreign investment but harmed local farmers
and industries.
5. Contemporary Trade Issues:
• Trade deficits: The Philippines imports more than it exports, especially food and
industrial goods.
• Foreign dependency: Reliance on remittances and global markets makes the
economy vulnerable to external shocks (e.g., oil prices, pandemics).
• Lack of industrialization: The country remains focused on BPOs, raw
materials, and labor export, rather than building strong manufacturing
sectors.
• Need for inclusive and strategic trade: Support for micro, small, and
medium enterprises (MSMEs) and sustainable production is critical.

The economic history of the Philippines shows a complex interplay between

colonial legacies, elite interests, state policies, and global forces. From unequal
land systems and colonial trade to neoliberal reforms and modern taxation, these patterns
have shaped the economic struggles of ordinary Filipinos.
A truly developmental economic policy must:
• Address land inequality through genuine agrarian reform.
• Build a progressive and fair taxation system.
• Promote strategic trade and self-reliant industrialization.

Understanding this history empowers citizens and policymakers to pursue more

equitable and inclusive economic systems.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Quiz #4: Lesson 1, 2, 3

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 Lesson 4: Cultural History: Historical Themes and
Approaches

This discussion delves deeply into the richness of Philippine cultural heritage,
focusing on epic poetry and efforts to preserve intangible cultural practices.

I. PHILIPPINE EPIC POETRY

• Epic poetry forms a crucial part of the precolonial literary and cultural
heritage of the Philippines. These epics are lengthy oral narratives,
traditionally chanted or sung, that recount the heroic deeds of legendary
figures, often intertwined with supernatural elements and moral teachings.

1. Nature and Characteristics of Philippine Epics:

• Passed down orally by tribal chanters, known as mambabatok,
manunurat, or tawid depending on the region.
• Delivered during rituals, festivals, or communal gatherings.
• Composed in native languages and rich in indigenous imagery,
symbols, and metaphors.
• Often involve:
o A hero with extraordinary abilities or divine parentage.
o Conflict and quest (rescuing a loved one, defeating monsters,
proving bravery).
o Cultural and moral lessons encoded in the story.
2. Significance of Epic Poetry:
• Oral memory systems: Before widespread literacy, epics helped preserve
collective history and customs.
• Moral and social codes: Epics convey values of bravery, honor,
loyalty, family solidarity, and respect for elders and spirits.
• Cultural identity: Each epic is unique to a community, serving as a
marker of ethnic and regional identity.
• Spiritual connection: Often linked to cosmology and indigenous
belief systems (e.g., anito spirits, ancestral worship).
3. Notable Examples of Philippine Epic Poetry:
1. Biag ni Lam-ang (Life of Lam-ang) – Ilocano
o Hero: Lam-ang, born with supernatural powers and the ability to
speak at birth.
o Themes: Revenge for his father's death, love for Ines Kannoyan,
battles with monsters.
o Reflects: Patriarchal heroism, honor, family values, and
native Ilocano traditions.

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 2. Hinilawod (Tales from the Halawod River) – Panay/Binukot culture
o One of the longest known epics in Southeast Asia (over 29,000
lines).
o Heroes: Labaw Donggon, Humadapnon, and Dumalapdap.
o Themes: Heroic conquests, love, war, and divine ancestry.
o Reflects: Kinaray-a worldview, matriarchal roles, and
spiritual dualities.
3. Darangen – Maranao
o Declared a UNESCO Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity (2005).
o Composed of multiple cycles focusing on the hero Bantugan
and the kingdom of Bumbaran.
o Themes: Honor, loyalty, royal lineage, and Islamic influence.
o Emphasizes: Pre-Islamic and Islamic syncretism, Maranao
social values, and aesthetics.
4. Challenges in Preservation:
• Many epics are endangered due to loss of native speakers,
urbanization, and generational shifts.
• Traditional epics risk being romanticized, commercialized, or
misinterpreted in modern adaptations.
• Some epics remain unpublished or undocumented, relying solely on
oral transmission from elderly practitioners.

II. PRESERVATION OF INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE

o Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) refers to practices, expressions,
knowledge, and skills passed through generations that communities
recognize as part of their cultural identity. Unlike physical artifacts, ICH is
performative, living, and dynamic.

1. Examples of Intangible Cultural Heritage:

• Oral traditions: Proverbs (salawikain), riddles (bugtong), folktales.
• Languages and scripts: Baybayin, Tagbanwa, Hanunuo, and other
indigenous scripts.
• Rituals and beliefs: Kanyaw (Cordillera), Pintakasi, Alay (devotional
offerings).
• Performing arts: Kulintang music (Mindanao), Tinikling, Pangalay,
Hudhud chants (Ifugao).
• Traditional craftsmanship: Hablon weaving, banig mat making, okir
carving.
2. Threats to Intangible Cultural Heritage:
1. Globalization:
o Western media and consumer culture overshadow local practices.
o Pressure to “modernize” or “urbanize” often leads to cultural
homogenization.

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 2. Urban migration:
o Younger generations relocate for work, leaving behind traditional
roles and knowledge.
o Indigenous knowledge becomes fragmented or lost.
3. Educational neglect:
o School curricula often prioritize colonial languages and foreign
literature over ethnic diversity and local wisdom.
4. Commercialization:
o Cultural expressions are sometimes commodified for tourism
without proper context or community benefit.
3. Institutions Involved in Cultural Preservation:
1. National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA):
o Lead agency for policy, funding, and documentation of Philippine
cultural heritage.
o Maintains the Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan (GAMABA),
recognizing National Living Treasures.
2. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization):
o Protects global intangible heritage through its conventions.
o Declared the Hudhud chants, Darangen, and Punnuk (Ifugao) as
intangible treasures of humanity.
3. Local Cultural Councils and NGOs:
o Promote community-based heritage programs.
o Organize festivals, workshops, and cultural mapping
initiatives.
4. Preservation Strategies:
1. Documentation:
o Record oral traditions, rituals, and skills through audio-visual
media and publications.
o Establish archives and repositories for community access.
2. Community-Based Transmission:
o Engage elders and tradition bearers in training younger
generations.
o Create intergenerational spaces for storytelling, ritual re-
enactments, and apprenticeship.
3. Integration into Education:
o Include local histories, dances, and languages in the K–12
curriculum.
o Promote Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education
(MTB-MLE) for language preservation.
4. Cultural Mapping:
o Systematic documentation of tangible and intangible assets
of a community.

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 Helps in heritage planning, tourism, and disaster risk
o
management.
5. Cultural Festivals and Showcases:
o Encourage pride and visibility of local traditions (e.g., Pahiyas,
Kadayawan, Panagbenga).
o Must be context-sensitive, not exploitative.
5. Why Preservation Matters:
• Sustains National and Ethnic Identity:
o Cultural expressions affirm who we are as a people, especially
in times of crisis or migration.
• Strengthens Social Cohesion:
o Shared rituals, songs, and language bind communities,
transmitting values and belonging.
• Promotes Cultural Diversity and Peace:
o Embracing multiple identities counters cultural erasure,
discrimination, and historical exclusion.
• Supports Cultural Tourism and Livelihoods:
o Responsible cultural tourism generates income and pride when
communities retain ownership of their traditions.

Cultural history goes beyond monuments and museums—it lives in the songs,
stories, gestures, and rituals that shape how people think, express, and connect. In
the Philippine context, epic poetry and intangible cultural heritage illuminate the
resilience, diversity, and creative spirit of the Filipino people.

In the face of globalization and modernization, preserving and honoring these

cultural practices is both a right and a responsibility. Cultural heritage is not just
about the past; it is the soul of the nation’s present and future.

PRIMARY SOURCE: Biography of Macli-ing Dulag (in the context of history and
culture of the Cordillera)

Source: Doyo, Ma. Ceres P. (2015). Macli-ing Dulag: Kalinga Chief, Defender of the
Cordillera. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. A detailed biographical and
ethnographic study, based heavily on field interviews and archival research
Wikipedia+[Link]+15Goodreads+15.

Macli-ing Dulag’s biography is an intersection of both Political and Cultural History.

• If the focus is on his resistance against the state, it fits under Political History.
• If the focus is on his role as a cultural leader defending indigenous lifeways, it
aligns with Cultural History.
For a holistic understanding, his life is best studied through a multidisciplinary lens
combining both perspectives.

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 Macliing Dulag also spelt Macli-ing, Macli'ing; c. 1930 – 24 April 1980) was a Kalinga
leader of the Butbut tribe in the Cordillera Administrative Region on the island of
Luzon in the Philippines, who was assassinated for his opposition to the Chico River Dam
Project.

Dulag was a chieftain in the highland village of Bugnay, Tinglayan, Kalinga-

Apayao. A farmer by profession, Dulag was also a road maintenance worker for the
Department of Public Works and Highways. He staunchly opposed construction of
the Chico Dam, a hydroelectric project along the Chico River proposed by President
Ferdinand E. Marcos' government and was to be funded by the World Bank.

Indigenous peoples in the area, including the Kalinga and the Bontoc, resisted the
project for three decades as the proposed dam's reservoir threatened to drown 1,400
square-kilometers of traditional highland villages and ancestral domains in the
modern-day provinces of Mountain Province, Kalinga and Apayao.

On 24 April 1980, elements from 4th Infantry Division of the Philippine Army
opened fire on Dulag at his home, killing him and wounding a companion. His
murder unified the various peoples of the Cordillera Mountains against the proposed
dam, causing both the World Bank and the Marcos regime to eventually abandon
the project a few years after.

Commemoration
The date of Dulag's death is unofficially observed as "Cordillera Day" annually
by indigenous communities along the Chico River. Dulag's name is also inscribed in
the Bantayog ng mga Bayani (Monument of the Heroes) in Quezon City, Metro
Manila, which is dedicated to victims of extrajudicial killings since the Martial Law era.

Macli-ing as the Cordilleran Defender

To the Marcos dictatorship, the indigenous communities of the Cordillera mountain
range in the north of Luzon could easily be dealt with as it proceeded with its plan to
build a huge dam on the Chico River. But the Kalinga and Bontok peoples knew that
the project would flood their rice fields and their homes, communal forests and
sacred burial grounds. It would destroy their lives by changing their environment forever.

Macli-ing Dulag was a respected elder of the Butbut tribe in the tiny mountain village
of Bugnay in the 1960s. He was a pangat, one of those listened to by the community
because of their wisdom and courage. He was also the elected barrio captain of Bugnay,
serving out three terms since 1966. Ordinarily, he tended his rice fields and worked as a
laborer on road maintenance projects (earning P405 a month).

In 1974, the regime tried to implement a 1,000-megawatt hydroelectric power

project, to be funded by the World Bank, along the Chico River. The plan called for the
construction of four dams that would have put many villages under water, covering an

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area of around 1,400 square kilometers of rice terraces (payew), orchards, and
graveyards. As many as 100,000 people living along the river, including Macli-ing’s
Bugnay village, would have lost their homes. Macli-ing became a strong and articulate
figure in this struggle which pitted small nearly powerless communities in the Cordilleras
against the full powers of the martial law regime. Kalinga and Bontok leaders were
offered bribes, harassed by soldiers and government mercenaries, even imprisoned.
But the anti-dam leaders, including Macli-ing, stayed firm in their opposition to the
project. They argued that development should not be achieved at such extreme sacrifice.

“If you destroy life in your search for what you say is the good life, we question it,”
Macli-ing said”. Those who need electric lights are not thinking of us who are bound to
be destroyed. Should the need for electric power be a reason for our death?”

Macli-ing expressed the people’s reverence for the land, affirming their right to stay:
“Such arrogance to say that you own the land, when you are owned by it! How can
you own that which outlives you? Only the people own the land because only the people
live forever. To claim a place is the birthright of everyone. Even the lowly animals
have their own place…how much more when we talk of human beings?”

Resistance to the dam project unified the Cordillera region. Macli-ing and other
Cordillera leaders initiated a series of tribal pacts (bodong or vochong), which helped
cement this unity and create a very broad alliance of the communities and their
supporters. They recognized the leader of the Butbut as their spokesperson, for
although Macli-ing had had no formal education, he always found the right words for
what they needed to say.

Macli-ing was murdered by government soldiers on April 24, 1980. They

surrounded his house one night and sprayed it with bullets. His assassination merely
solidified opposition to the dam and won it sympathizers from all over the country and
even abroad. Even the World Bank, which would have funded the dam construction,
withdrew from the project, finally forcing the martial law government to cancel its plans.

Four of Macli-ing’s killers were charged and in 1983 tried before a military tribunal.
An army lieutenant and a sergeant were subsequently found guilty of murder and
frustrated murder. The lieutenant was later reinstated in the army, rose to become a
major, and then himself was killed in 2000 by the New People’s Army.

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 Lesson 5: Environmental History: Historical Themes and
Approaches

Environmental History, a vital part of understanding how human activity,

government policy, and natural forces have interacted over time in the Philippines. This
lesson highlights how environmental challenges have shaped Filipino lives historically and
continue to impact society today.

I. DISASTERS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

• The Philippines' geographical location—in the Pacific Ring of Fire and the
typhoon belt—makes it highly prone to natural disasters such as typhoons,
earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. These events have consistently influenced
historical developments, social structures, and government accountability.

1. Typhoons:
• The country experiences an average of 20 typhoons annually, with
several being destructive.
• Historical Example – Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan), 2013:
o Among the strongest tropical cyclones ever recorded globally.
o Devastated parts of Eastern Visayas, especially Tacloban City.
o Death toll: Over 6,000; millions displaced.
o Impact:
▪ Exposed government unpreparedness, poor evacuation
planning, and delays in relief.
▪ Brought international humanitarian support and spurred
policy reviews on disaster response (e.g., DRRM Act
implementation).
2. Earthquakes:
• The country is situated on the Philippine Fault Zone, making seismic
activity frequent.
• Historical Example – 1990 Luzon Earthquake:
o Magnitude 7.8, struck Central and Northern Luzon.
o Major cities affected: Baguio City, Cabanatuan, Dagupan.
o Death toll: Over 1,600; infrastructure collapse, landslides, and
aftershocks.
o Lessons:
▪ Need for earthquake-resilient infrastructure.

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 ▪ Enhanced building codes and urban planning reforms
followed.
3. Volcanic Eruptions:
• The Philippines has 24 active volcanoes.
• Historical Example – Mt. Pinatubo Eruption, 1991:
o One of the largest eruptions of the 20th century.
o Effects:
▪ Ashfall spread across Luzon; global cooling due to sulfur
aerosols.
▪ Lahars destroyed villages years after eruption.
▪ Displaced over 1 million people, including Aeta
communities.
o Highlighted:
▪ Importance of scientific monitoring and early warning
systems.
▪ Showcased successful collaboration between
PHIVOLCS and USGS, saving many lives.
4. Broader Impact of Disasters:
• Loss of life and property, economic disruption, displacement of
communities.
• Affect agriculture, education, health, and infrastructure.
• Reveal social vulnerabilities—the poor often live in high-risk areas (e.g.,
coastal zones, slopes).
• Reflect state capacity and public trust in institutions during crisis.

II. DISEASES AND EPIDEMICS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

• Diseases have played a major role in shaping the country’s public health
policies, medical systems, and social divisions. They have been catalysts for
reforms and social tensions, especially when health crises expose systemic
inequalities.

1. Colonial Period Epidemics:

• Smallpox:
o Brought by Spanish colonizers.
o Epidemics in the 18th and 19th centuries killed thousands.
o Led to early attempts at mass vaccination, often resisted due
to fear and mistrust.
• Cholera:
o Caused widespread death in the 1800s; worsened by poor
sanitation and crowded urban areas.
o Often blamed on poor communities, leading to stigmatization
and segregation.
• Spanish Flu (1918–1919):

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 o Arrived during the American period, affecting hundreds of
thousands.
o Occurred alongside World War I, stressing health and relief
systems.
o Marked the emergence of modern public health
infrastructure (e.g., Bureau of Health).
2. Postcolonial and Contemporary Outbreaks:
• Dengue Fever:
o A recurring mosquito-borne illness, particularly among urban
poor.
o Government introduced Dengvaxia vaccine in 2016, but
controversy over side effects led to public distrust in vaccination
programs.
• SARS (2003):
o Limited cases in the Philippines but triggered airport and
hospital reforms in infection control.
• COVID-19 Pandemic (2020–2022):
o Global health crisis that disrupted economy, education, and
mobility.
o Exposed:
▪ Weaknesses in healthcare system (e.g., lack of ICU
beds, PPEs, testing).
▪ Economic vulnerabilities of daily wage earners, OFWs,
and small businesses.
▪ Social inequalities in vaccine access, digital learning,
and mental health.
3. Themes and Insights:
• Public health has evolved from colonial disease control to modern
preventive medicine.
• Epidemics often lead to social panic, discrimination, and restructuring
of public services.
• Health crises underscore inequalities in access to care, sanitation, and
housing.
• The state’s response reflects its governance capacity and priorities
(e.g., military-led pandemic management vs. community health systems).

III. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

• Environmental degradation refers to the deterioration of the environment
through human activities. In the Philippines, degradation is both a historical
and current issue, deeply tied to land use, economic policy, and corruption.

1. Major Environmental Problems:

1. Deforestation:

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 oOnce 70% forested in the early 1900s; now down to less than
24%.
o Causes:
▪ Legal and illegal logging
▪ Kaingin (slash-and-burn) farming
▪ Infrastructure projects
o Impacts:
▪ Biodiversity loss
▪ Flooding and landslides (e.g., Ormoc flood, 1991)
2. Mining and Quarrying:
o Often located in indigenous and rural areas.
o Open-pit and large-scale mining leads to soil erosion, water
contamination, and community displacement.
o Example: Marcopper Mining Disaster (Marinduque, 1996) – toxic
mine tailings polluted Boac River.
3. Plastic and Marine Pollution:
o PH is among the world’s top plastic polluters.
o Poor waste management and reliance on single-use plastics lead
to river and ocean contamination.
4. Water and Air Pollution:
o Urban waterways (e.g., Pasig River) heavily polluted due to
industrial and household waste.
o Metro Manila regularly suffers from air pollution, linked to
respiratory diseases and poor urban planning.
2. Root Causes of Environmental Degradation:
• Weak enforcement of environmental laws (e.g., Clean Air Act,
Mining Act).
• Corporate greed and corruption, with collusion between
business and government.
• Short-term economic gain prioritized over long-term
sustainability.
• Lack of environmental education and community
empowerment.
3. Environmental Movements and Defenders:
• Grassroots efforts:
o Bantay Gubat forest rangers, Pawikan conservation, Save Sierra
Madre Network.
o Indigenous peoples protecting ancestral lands from mining and
logging.
• Notable defenders:
o Gina Lopez – former DENR Secretary who championed eco-
tourism and opposed large-scale mining.
o Kalikasan PNE, Haribon Foundation, Greenpeace Philippines.
• Threats to activists:

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 o Philippines is one of the most dangerous countries for
environmental defenders.
o Many are red-tagged, harassed, or assassinated.
o Highlights the link between ecology, human rights, and
political power.
4. Sustainability Efforts and Calls for Change:
• Promote community-based resource management.
• Integrate climate change education and disaster preparedness in
schools.
• Strengthen environmental laws and penalties for violators.
• Support green technologies and sustainable agriculture.
• Recognize and empower indigenous ecological knowledge.

The environmental history of the Philippines reveals the interconnectedness of

nature, society, and politics. Disasters, diseases, and degradation are not just
“natural”—they reflect historical decisions, inequalities, and governance failures.
Studying environmental history equips students and citizens to:
• Understand the roots of ecological crises.
• Hold leaders accountable for environmental decisions.
• Advocate for sustainable, just, and inclusive development.

As climate change intensifies and biodiversity declines, preserving ecological balance

is no longer optional—it is a matter of national survival and intergenerational
responsibility.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Written Assessment #1: Lesson 4 & 5

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 Lesson 6: The Philippine Modern Issues: Understanding
Contemporary Challenges in a Historical and Social Context

"The Philippine Modern Issues", exploring the key social, political,

economic, cultural, environmental, and technological challenges that the
country faces today. This discussion aims to provide students, educators, and citizens
with a contextual and critical understanding of contemporary Philippine realities and their
historical roots.

I. POLITICAL ISSUES

1. Corruption and Governance

• Corruption remains one of the most deeply rooted problems in Philippine
politics.
• Manifestations:
o Misuse of public funds (e.g., PDAF scam)
o Ghost projects, overpricing, and bribery
o Bureaucratic inefficiencies
• Implications:
o Worsens poverty and public service delivery
o Erodes public trust in institutions
• Reforms:
o Strengthening transparency laws (e.g., FOI Bill)
o Empowering watchdog agencies (e.g., COA, Ombudsman)
2. Political Dynasties and Electoral Reform
• Around 70% of Philippine politicians belong to political dynasties.
• Effects:
o Concentration of power
o Limited political competition
o Perpetuation of inequality
• Solutions:
o Anti-dynasty legislation (constitutional but unenforced)
o Political party development and voter education
3. Human Rights and Democracy
• Concerns about:
o Red-tagging of activists and journalists
o Extrajudicial killings in drug war and counterinsurgency operations
• Ongoing debates on:

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 o Press freedom and disinformation (e.g., cyber libel cases)
o Security vs. civil liberties (e.g., Anti-Terror Law)
• Need for:
o Strengthening democratic checks and balances
o Supporting independent media and civil society

II. ECONOMIC ISSUES

1. Poverty and Inequality

• Despite GDP growth, millions of Filipinos remain poor.
• Root causes:
o Unequal land ownership
o Low wages, underemployment
o Urban-rural divide
• Effects:
o Hunger, malnutrition, and poor access to education
• Programs:
o Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps)
o Calls for universal social protection and inclusive growth
2. Labor Migration and OFWs
• Around 10 million Filipinos live and work abroad.
• Benefits:
o Remittances boost household income and foreign reserves
• Costs:
o Family separation and emotional toll
o Brain drain and labor exploitation
• Current concerns:
o Contract violations, abuse, lack of reintegration programs
o Push for national employment generation and labor rights
3. Inflation and Cost of Living
• Frequent spikes in prices of fuel, rice, and utilities.
• Factors:
o Global economic trends (e.g., oil prices, war in Ukraine)
o Import dependence
• Government responses:
o Wage hikes, subsidies, price ceilings
o Long-term need for economic diversification and food security

III. SOCIAL ISSUES

1. Education Quality and Access

• Problems:
o Learning poverty: many Filipino students lag in reading and math.
o Lack of school facilities, large class sizes, underpaid teachers

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 o K–12 system under review
• Challenges worsened by:
o COVID-19: disrupted learning, digital divide
• Solutions:
o Curriculum reform, teacher training, better budget allocation
2. Healthcare Inequality
• Issues:
o Uneven access to hospitals and professionals, especially in rural areas
o Expensive medicines, lack of universal coverage
• COVID-19 revealed:
o Weak public health infrastructure
o Heroic but overburdened medical frontliners
• Government measures:
o Universal Health Care Law (2019) – slow in implementation
o Calls for increased health spending and localized healthcare
3. Gender and LGBTQ+ Rights
• Persistent discrimination against women, LGBTQ+, and gender-nonconforming
individuals.
• Issues:
o Gender-based violence
o Unequal representation in leadership and workplaces
o Lack of legal protection for LGBTQ+ (e.g., no SOGIE Equality Law)
• Progress:
o Women’s participation in politics (e.g., VP Leni Robredo)
o Active LGBTQ+ advocacy and pride movements

IV. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

1. Climate Change Vulnerability

• Philippines ranks among the most climate-vulnerable countries.
• Frequent typhoons, floods, and droughts affect agriculture and communities.
• Rising sea levels threaten coastal and island regions.
• Government initiatives:
o Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act
o Climate Change Commission
• Urgency of:
o Community-based adaptation
o Renewable energy investment
o Climate justice and global cooperation
2. Environmental Degradation
• Massive deforestation, mining disasters, water and air pollution.
• Biodiversity loss due to habitat destruction
• Environmental defenders are targeted and killed.
• Need for:

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 o Stronger enforcement of environmental laws
o Indigenous peoples' role in environmental stewardship

V. TECHNOLOGICAL AND DIGITAL ISSUES

1. Digital Divide
• COVID-19 highlighted disparities in internet access and digital tools.
• Affects:
o Education, remote work, and e-governance
• Marginalized sectors (e.g., IPs, farmers, poor households) are left behind.
• Need to:
o Expand broadband infrastructure
o Provide digital literacy and access in public schools
2. Cybercrime and Online Safety
• Growing cases of:
o Scams, identity theft, child pornography, online sexual abuse
o Misinformation and fake news
• Government responses:
o Cybercrime Prevention Act
o Digital media literacy campaigns
• Calls for balance:
o Combatting abuse without curbing free expression
3. Artificial Intelligence and Job Displacement
• Automation threatens low-skill jobs (e.g., in BPOs, manufacturing).
• Risk of technological unemployment
• Opportunities:
o Upskilling and STEM education
o Innovation ecosystems and tech entrepreneurship

VI. CULTURAL AND NATIONAL IDENTITY ISSUES

1. Colonial Mentality and Cultural Erosion

• Preference for foreign products and standards over local heritage.
• Effects:
o Loss of indigenous traditions, languages, and pride
• Cultural revival:
o Promotion of Philippine languages, weaving, cuisine, and music
o Integration of indigenous history into education
2. Historical Distortion and Disinformation
• Increasing attempts to revise or sanitize history, especially martial law.
• Use of social media and influencers to spread historical lies.
• Solutions:
o Critical media and historical literacy
o Support for scholars, museums, and archives

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WHY STUDYING MODERN ISSUES MATTERS?

Understanding the modern issues of the Philippines allows us to:

• Connect history with contemporary life
• Recognize the intersections of politics, economics, society, and
environment
• Empower citizens to act through informed decision-making and community
involvement
• Uphold the values of justice, equity, democracy, and cultural integrity

The challenges are complex and intertwined—but they also offer opportunities for
innovation, reform, and national transformation.

OUTPUT/ASSESSMENT:

a. Written Assessment #2: Lesson 6

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SUGGESTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

1. ACTIVITY: History in Focus – Thematic Group Research and Roundtable

Subtopics Covered: Social, Political, Economic, Cultural History
• Assign student groups one theme (e.g., Political Dynasties, Labor and
Migration, Indigenous Cultural Preservation, Colonial Economic Legacy).
• Each group conducts guided research using articles, videos, and
primary/secondary sources.
• Host a roundtable discussion, with each group sharing insights and fielding
questions.
Goal: Develop students’ skills in analyzing thematic issues in Philippine history using
historical perspectives.

2. ACTIVITY: Cultural Lens – Multimedia Storytelling Project

Subtopics Covered: Cultural and Social History
• Students choose a cultural or social issue (e.g., women in history, LGBT+
narratives, local traditions, language shift).
• Create a multimedia project (short video, audio story, or digital photo essay)
showing how this issue evolved through history and how it affects society today.
Goal: To promote cultural appreciation and historical consciousness through creative
storytelling.

3. ACTIVITY: Debate Forum – Resolving Modern Historical Issues

Subtopics Covered: Environmental History & Philippine Modern Issues
• Students participate in a debate or mock panel discussion on pressing issues
such as:
o Environmental degradation and mining
o Historical revisionism
o Foreign relations (e.g., West Philippine Sea)
• They must back up their stance with historical data and analysis.
Goal: Strengthen argumentation and historical thinking by connecting the past to
present-day issues.

SUGGESTED OUTPUTS AND ASSESSMENT TOOLS:

Output 1: Thematic Historical Analysis Paper

Connected Activity: History in Focus Roundtable
• Write a 1,000-word analytical essay exploring how one historical issue (social,
political, economic, or cultural) has evolved and continues to impact Filipino
society.
• Use at least two historical sources and apply contextual/historical
interpretation.

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 Assessment Rubric:
Criteria Weight
Depth of historical analysis 30%
Use of evidence and sources 25%
Organization and coherence 20%
Relevance and insight 15%
Grammar, citations, and format 10%

Output 2: Multimedia Project Presentation

Connected Activity: Cultural Lens Storytelling
• Submit a 3–5-minute video, photo essay, or digital story focused on a
cultural or social issue and its historical development.
• Include a short-written explanation or voiceover narration.
Assessment Rubric:
Criteria Weight
Historical relevance and accuracy 30%
Creativity and storytelling 25%
Technical execution and clarity 20%
Engagement and emotional impact 15%
Effort and originality 10%

Output 3: Debate/Panel Reaction Paper

Connected Activity: Debate Forum on Modern Issues
• After participating in or observing the debate/forum, students write a reaction
paper (500–700 words) stating their position on the issue, referencing points from
the discussion and linking it to historical context.
Assessment Rubric:
Criteria Weight
Clarity of position and argument 30%
Historical context and connection 25%
Critical thinking and reflection 20%
Organization and clarity 15%
Mechanics and grammar 10%

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