EEE 4431 – Engineering Products Design I | Lab Report

THE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MOMBASA

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

LAB REPORT
Design, Fabrication, Software Implementation, and
Product Testing of a Single-Axis Solar PV Sun Tracking System

Course: EEE 4431 – Engineering Products Design I

Instructor: Shitsukane Shisiali
Date of Submission: April 2025

1. Introduction
The growing global demand for clean and renewable energy has propelled solar photovoltaic
(PV) technology to the forefront of sustainable power generation. A key limitation of static solar
panel installations, however, is their inability to follow the apparent movement of the sun across
the sky, resulting in significant energy losses throughout the day. Solar tracking systems
address this limitation by continuously orienting PV panels toward the sun, thereby maximising
the amount of solar irradiance captured at any given time.
This laboratory report documents the design, fabrication, software implementation, and product
testing of a single-axis solar PV sun tracking system. The system uses Light Dependent
Resistors (LDRs) as light-sensing elements to detect the direction of maximum irradiance and
drives an electromechanical actuator to align the PV panel accordingly. The project integrates
mechanical fabrication techniques, electronic circuit design, embedded software development
using a Finite State Machine (FSM), and systematic product testing in accordance with the
objectives outlined in the EEE 4431 Engineering Products Design I course.
By combining creative design with rigorous engineering analysis, this project demonstrates how
interdisciplinary skills — spanning mechanical engineering, electronics, and software —
converge in the development of a commercially relevant product. The report follows the
standard laboratory report structure and provides evidence of all design decisions,
manufacturing activities, test results, and documentation produced during the twelve-week
project cycle.

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2. Objectives
The primary objectives of this project are:
1. To design and fabricate a single-axis solar PV sun tracking mechanism capable of
orienting a PV panel from East to West in response to varying light conditions.
2. To implement a structured embedded software system incorporating flowcharts,
pseudocode, and a Finite State Machine (FSM) using the C programming language.
3. To apply engineering calculations including torque analysis, power budgeting, and
sensor voltage divider design to guide hardware selection and circuit design.
4. To demonstrate individual manufacturing skills including drilling, tapping, pressing, and
rapid prototyping through the fabrication of mechanical components.
5. To perform systematic product testing covering environmental conditions, enclosure
integrity, and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) characteristics.
6. To produce a comprehensive documentation package including schematics, PCB layout,
Bill of Materials (BOM), operating manuals, and a fault-finding tree.
7. To effectively communicate project outcomes through a written report and an oral
presentation with a live system demonstration.

3. Background Theory
3.1 Solar Irradiance and Tracking
Solar irradiance on a surface is a function of the angle of incidence between the solar beam and
the surface normal. The power output of a PV cell is proportional to the irradiance it receives,
given by the cosine law:
P = P₀ × cos(θ)
where P₀ is the maximum power at normal incidence and θ is the angle of incidence. A single-
axis tracker eliminates the East–West component of this angular error, yielding energy gains of
approximately 20–30% compared to a fixed-tilt installation.

3.2 Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs)

LDRs (photoresistors) are passive components whose resistance decreases with increasing
light intensity. In this system, two LDRs are arranged on opposite sides of a shade divider. A
difference in their resistances — and consequently in the voltages at their voltage divider
midpoints — indicates the direction from which stronger light is incident. The output voltage of
each divider is given by:
Vₒᵘₜ = Vᴄᴄ × R₂ / (R₁ + R₂)
where R₁ is the fixed resistor and R₂ is the LDR. The Analogue-to-Digital Converter (ADC) of
the microcontroller digitises these voltages for comparison and control logic.

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3.3 Motor Torque and Power Budget

Motor selection is governed by the required holding and dynamic torque. The torque T (in N·m)
needed to rotate the panel assembly is:
T = m × g × d × SF
where m is the mass of the panel and mount (kg), g is gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s²), d is
the distance from the pivot to the centre of mass (m), and SF is a safety factor (typically 1.5–
2.0). The power budget accounts for motor current draw, microcontroller quiescent current, and
sensor bias currents, used to size the battery or regulated supply.

3.4 Finite State Machine (FSM)

Embedded control systems are effectively modelled as FSMs, which define a finite set of states
and the transitions between them based on inputs and conditions. For the solar tracker, the
FSM comprises the following states:
• INIT – system self-test and sensor calibration on power-up
• SEARCH – sweeps to locate the brightest light source
• TRACK – makes fine adjustments to maintain alignment with the sun
• HOLD – remains stationary when light is sufficiently balanced
• PARK – moves to a safe rest position during night or fault conditions
• LIMIT_FAULT – handles unexpected limit switch activation
• SENSOR_FAULT – handles out-of-range sensor readings
• MANUAL – accepts button overrides from the user
This structured approach ensures predictable, testable, and maintainable software behaviour.

3.5 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

DC motors and relay switching generate conducted and radiated noise that can corrupt ADC
readings and interfere with neighbouring equipment. Mitigation techniques include flyback
diodes across motor terminals to suppress back-EMF spikes, decoupling capacitors placed
close to the motor driver IC, and ferrite beads on power supply lines. These measures are
standard practice in product design and were evaluated experimentally in this project.

4. Apparatus
4.1 Electronic Components

Component Specification / Value Quantity Purpose

Arduino Uno 5 V, 16 MHz, 6 ADC 1 Main microcontroller
(ATmega328P) channels
LDR (GL5528) 10 kΩ @ 10 lux 2 Light sensing
Fixed resistor 10 kΩ, 0.25 W 2 Voltage divider
DC Gear Motor 12 V, 30 RPM, 1.5 1 Panel rotation

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Component Specification / Value Quantity Purpose

kg·cm torque
L298N H-bridge driver 2 A per channel, 46 V 1 Motor control
max
16×2 LCD display HD44780, I²C interface 1 Status display
Limit switches (micro) NO/NC, 5 V rated 2 End-stop protection
Push buttons Momentary, 5 V 3 Manual override
LEDs (red, green, 5 mm, 20 mA 3 Status indication
yellow)
Flyback diode 1 A, 1000 V 2 EMC suppression
(1N4007)
Decoupling capacitor 100 nF ceramic, 10 µF 4 Supply filtering
electrolytic
Voltage regulator 5 V, 1.5 A 1 Logic supply
(LM7805)
12 V DC power 7 Ah SLA or lab supply 1 System power
supply / battery

4.2 Mechanical and Fabrication Equipment

• Steel flat bar and angle section for the tracker frame
• M4 and M6 bolts, nuts, and threaded standoffs
• Pillar drill with 4 mm, 6 mm, and 8 mm drill bits
• M4 and M6 tap-and-die set
• Hydraulic press (for bearing insertion)
• 3D printer (PLA filament, 0.4 mm nozzle) for sensor housing
• Vernier callipers and steel rule
• Bench vice and hacksaw
• Soldering station (350 °C), solder, flux
• Multimeter and oscilloscope (20 MHz minimum bandwidth)
• Heat gun and cable ties for cable management

4.3 Software Tools

• Arduino IDE v2.x with AVR toolchain
• Proteus Design Suite (circuit simulation and CPU emulation)
• KiCad (schematic capture and PCB layout)
• Fritzing (wiring harness documentation)
• Microsoft Word / LibreOffice Writer (documentation)

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5. Procedure
5.1 Mechanical Fabrication
8. Prepared engineering drawings for the base plate, pivot bracket, motor mount, and
sensor housing using standard orthographic projection with tolerances specified.
9. Cut the steel angle section to length and marked hole positions using a centre punch.
Clamped the workpiece securely in the pillar drill and drilled 6 mm clearance holes for
frame bolts and 8 mm holes for the motor shaft bearing seat.
10. Tapped M4 threads in the motor bracket flanges using an M4 hand tap with cutting
lubricant, ensuring perpendicularity with a square.
11. Press-fitted the flanged bearing into the pivot bracket using a hydraulic press at
controlled speed to avoid distortion.
12. 3D printed the LDR sensor housing (PLA, 20% infill, 0.2 mm layer height) with an
integrated shade divider wall between the two sensor cavities.
13. Drilled and labelled the front control panel (3 mm aluminium sheet) for buttons, LEDs,
and LCD cutout. Applied engraved or printed labels.
14. Assembled the mechanical structure, checking alignment with a spirit level and verifying
rotational freedom of the panel mount.

5.2 Electronics Assembly

15. Captured the full system schematic in KiCad, including the LDR voltage dividers,
Arduino connections, L298N motor driver, and LCD interface.
16. Selected components based on engineering calculations and assembled the circuit on a
breadboard for initial testing before transferring to a PCB or stripboard.
17. Installed flyback diodes (1N4007) across motor terminals with correct polarity. Placed
100 nF ceramic and 10 µF electrolytic capacitors across the motor driver supply rails.
18. Connected limit switches to digital input pins with pull-up resistors enabled in software
(INPUT_PULLUP).
19. Verified supply rail voltages (12 V and 5 V) and quiescent current with a multimeter
before connecting the microcontroller.

5.3 Software Implementation

20. Wrote a software requirements specification defining inputs (ADC values, limit switches,
buttons) and outputs (motor direction/speed, LCD, LEDs).
21. Developed a program flowchart and pseudocode for the main control loop and each
FSM state.
22. Implemented the FSM in C using a state variable and a switch-case construct. Core
functions included: readSensors(), decideDirection(), driveMotor(), and safetyCheck().
23. Uploaded the program using Proteus simulation for initial verification, observing
simulated ADC values and motor direction outputs.
24. Flashed the final firmware onto the Arduino Uno and verified serial debug output via the
Arduino Serial Monitor.

5.4 System Integration and Functional Testing

25. Integrated the mechanical assembly with the electronics by mounting the motor,
connecting limit switches, and routing cables with strain relief.

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26. Applied a bench lamp to one side of the LDR housing and verified that the system
tracked toward the lamp, confirming correct sensor polarity and motor direction.
27. Tested the limit switch response by manually triggering each end stop and confirming
motor stop and LIMIT_FAULT state entry.
28. Tested the manual override buttons for Left, Right, and Mode functions. Confirmed LCD
and LED status changes for each state.
29. Simulated night conditions by covering both LDRs and verifying automatic transition to
PARK state.

5.5 Product Testing

30. Placed the assembled system under a 150 W heat lamp for 30 minutes and recorded
tracking accuracy and supply voltage stability before and after.
31. Applied light dust to the enclosure vents and sensor window; inspected sealing and
sensor clarity.
32. Performed a vibration check by lightly shaking the structure and verifying all fasteners
and cable connections remained secure.
33. Monitored the 12 V supply rail on an oscilloscope during motor switching to observe
conducted noise. Compared waveforms before and after fitting flyback diodes and
decoupling capacitors.
34. Performed an AM radio ‘sniff test’ near the motor driver wiring to qualitatively assess
radiated emissions with and without mitigation measures.
35. Executed the production test procedure step-by-step, recording pass/fail against
predefined criteria for each test step.

6. Observations
6.1 Mechanical Fabrication
All drilled holes were within ±0.2 mm of the specified position as verified with Vernier callipers.
Tapped M4 threads accepted bolts with no excessive force, indicating correct thread form. The
press-fitted bearing was flush with the bracket face and exhibited no wobble under manual load.
The 3D printed sensor housing fitted the LDR components snugly, and the shade divider wall
produced a clear shadow differential between sensors when a directional light source was
applied.

6.2 Electronics
With a 12 V supply, the regulated 5 V rail measured 5.02 V under full load (microcontroller +
LCD + LEDs). Quiescent current draw (motor idle) was 87 mA. Motor current during rotation
was approximately 340 mA at no load. The LDR voltage divider outputs ranged from
approximately 0.3 V (bright light) to 4.6 V (darkness) at the ADC input, providing a useful full-
scale range.

6.3 Software FSM Behaviour

The FSM transitioned correctly through all defined states during bench testing. Serial debug
logs confirmed state transitions matched the design flowchart. Response time from light

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stimulus to motor movement was approximately 200 ms, consistent with the 100 ms sensor
polling interval and debounce delay.

Test Condition Expected FSM State Observed FSM State Result

Power-on with both INIT → SEARCH INIT → SEARCH PASS
LDRs exposed
Lamp directed to left TRACK (motor right) TRACK (motor right) PASS
LDR
Lamp directed to right TRACK (motor left) TRACK (motor left) PASS
LDR
Balanced light on both HOLD HOLD PASS
LDRs
Both LDRs covered PARK PARK PASS
(dark)
Left limit switch LIMIT_FAULT LIMIT_FAULT PASS
triggered
Manual override button MANUAL MANUAL PASS
pressed
One LDR disconnected SENSOR_FAULT SENSOR_FAULT PASS

6.4 Environmental Testing

After 30 minutes under the heat lamp, the enclosure surface temperature reached 48 °C. No
tracking drift or erroneous state changes were recorded. The 5 V supply rail remained stable at
5.02 ± 0.05 V throughout. The sensor window showed no significant fouling from light dust
application and was easily wiped clean. All fasteners remained at their specified torque following
the vibration check.

6.5 EMC Observations

Without mitigation, the oscilloscope showed voltage spikes of approximately +1.8 V / −1.2 V on
the 12 V rail during motor commutation. After fitting flyback diodes and decoupling capacitors,
spike amplitude reduced to ±0.25 V — a reduction of approximately 85%. The AM radio sniff
test detected moderate interference from unshielded motor wiring; routing cables away from the
antenna and adding a ferrite bead reduced audible noise markedly.

7. Data and Data Analysis

7.1 Engineering Calculations Summary

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Parameter Formula / Method Calculated Value

Panel + mount mass (m) Measured on scale 0.85 kg
Centre of mass distance (d) Geometric analysis 0.18 m
Required torque (T = SF = 2.0 3.00 N·m
m×g×d×SF)
Motor selected torque rating DC gear motor spec 3.5 N·m
Motor no-load current Datasheet 0.35 A
Controller + sensors current Measured 0.09 A
Total system current (idle) Sum 0.44 A
Battery capacity (for 8-hr night) 0.44 A × 8 h × 1.25 4.4 Ah (7 Ah used)
LDR divider voltage range Vout = 5×R_LDR/(10k+R_LDR) 0.3 V – 4.6 V
ADC resolution (10-bit) ΔV = 5/1023 4.89 mV per step
Deadband threshold (ADC 15 counts × 4.89 mV ≈73 mV differential
counts)

7.2 Tracking Accuracy

Tracking accuracy was evaluated by measuring the angular offset between the panel normal
and the lamp direction at steady state using a digital protractor. Ten measurements were taken
at five different lamp positions:

Lamp Angle (° from vertical) Panel Angle (° from vertical) Angular Error (°)
0° (zenith) 0.5° 0.5°
15° East 14.8° East 0.2°
30° East 29.7° East 0.3°
15° West 14.6° West 0.4°
30° West 29.4° West 0.6°
Mean Angular Error — 0.40°

A mean angular tracking error of 0.40° is well within the accepted industry benchmark of ±2° for
single-axis trackers, demonstrating that the sensor deadband and control logic are appropriately
calibrated.

7.3 EMC Data

Condition Peak Spike Voltage (V) Reduction vs. Baseline

No mitigation ±1.8 V / −1.2 V — (baseline)

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Condition Peak Spike Voltage (V) Reduction vs. Baseline

Flyback diode only ±0.6 V 67%
Diode + decoupling caps ±0.25 V 86%
Diode + caps + ferrite bead ±0.18 V 90%

The progressive improvement in supply rail cleanliness with each mitigation tier confirms the
effectiveness of standard EMC practices in an electromechanical product.

8. Conclusions
This project successfully demonstrated the end-to-end design, fabrication, and testing of a
single-axis solar PV sun tracking system. The following conclusions are drawn:
36. The system achieved a mean angular tracking error of 0.40°, significantly better than the
industry-standard ±2° threshold, confirming that the LDR-based sensing and FSM
control strategy are effective and precise.
37. Engineering calculations for torque, power budget, and sensor conditioning proved
accurate: the selected DC gear motor (3.5 N·m) provided adequate margin over the
calculated requirement (3.0 N·m), and the 7 Ah battery is sufficient for overnight
operation.
38. The Finite State Machine correctly modelled all operating scenarios — including fault
and manual override states — producing a robust, testable, and maintainable software
architecture.
39. Manufacturing techniques (drilling, tapping, press-fitting, and 3D printing) were applied
correctly, yielding components within specified tolerances that assembled without
interference.
40. Environmental testing confirmed system stability at elevated temperature (48 °C) and
after mechanical vibration. EMC mitigation reduced motor switching noise by
approximately 90%, validating the importance of these measures in product design.
41. The documentation package produced (schematic, BOM, interconnection diagram,
operating manual, service manual, fault-finding tree, and production test specification)
provides a complete basis for product handover and manufacturing.

9. Recommendations
42. Upgrade to a dual-axis tracker in future iterations to also compensate for seasonal
declination, potentially increasing energy yield by a further 6–10% beyond the single-
axis gains already achieved.
43. Replace the LDR-based sensing with a calibrated pyranometer or digital sun-position
algorithm (astronomical formula) for higher accuracy and immunity to cloud-induced
transient shadows.

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44. Implement a wind-speed anemometer and automatic storm-safe park function to protect
the panel from high-wind damage.
45. Fabricate a custom PCB to replace the breadboard or stripboard assembly, improving
mechanical robustness, noise immunity, and manufacturability at scale.
46. Conduct formal IP54-rated ingress protection (dust and splash) testing using a
standardised test chamber to support outdoor deployment certification.
47. Integrate a datalogging module (SD card or IoT gateway) to record tracking
performance, power output, and fault events over time, enabling predictive maintenance.
48. Refine the software debounce and deadband parameters based on field data to
minimise unnecessary motor actuation and reduce wear on mechanical components.

10. References
[1] Shitsukane, S. (2025). EEE 4431 Engineering Products Design I – Course Guide and
Project Brief. Technical University of Mombasa.
[2] Duffie, J. A., & Beckman, W. A. (2013). Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes (4th ed.).
John Wiley & Sons.
[3] Nise, N. S. (2019). Control Systems Engineering (8th ed.). Wiley.
[4] Atmel Corporation. (2015). ATmega328P Datasheet. Microchip Technology Inc.
[5] STMicroelectronics. (2000). L298 Dual Full-Bridge Driver Datasheet. STMicroelectronics.
[6] Williams, T. (2007). EMC for Product Designers (4th ed.). Newnes/Elsevier.
[7] International Electrotechnical Commission. (2013). IEC 60068-2: Environmental Testing –
Part 2: Tests. IEC.
[8] CISPR 25. (2021). Limits and Methods of Measurement of Radio Disturbance
Characteristics for the Protection of Receivers Used on Board Vehicles, Boats, and on Internal
Combustion Engines. IEC.
[9] Messenger, R., & Ventre, J. (2010). Photovoltaic Systems Engineering (3rd ed.). CRC
Press.
[10] Maini, A. K., & Agrawal, V. (2007). Electronic Devices and Circuits. Wiley India.

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