NUCLEAR PHYSICS

1. Introduction

Nuclear Physics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of the
nucleus of an atom. The nucleus is the small, dense, positively charged
center of an atom. It contains protons and neutrons, which together
are called nucleons. Almost all the mass of an atom is concentrated in
the nucleus.

The study of nuclear physics helps us understand how atoms produce

huge amounts of energy. It explains how stars shine, how nuclear power
plants work, and how nuclear weapons are made. Nuclear physics also
plays a very important role in medicine, industry, and scientific
research.

Atoms are the building blocks of all matter. But the nucleus inside the
atom is extremely powerful. A very small amount of nuclear matter can
produce a very large amount of energy. This is why nuclear reactions
are much more powerful than chemical reactions.
2. Structure of the Atom

An atom consists of two main parts:

1. Nucleus

2. Electrons

The nucleus contains:

• Protons (positive charge)

• Neutrons (no charge)

Electrons move around the nucleus in shells or energy levels.

The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus.

The mass number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons.

Example:
For Carbon:

• Atomic number = 6

• Mass number = 12
So Carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
3. Discovery of the Nucleus

In 1911, Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus using his famous

gold foil experiment. He fired alpha particles at a thin sheet of gold.
Most particles passed straight through, but some were deflected. This
showed that the atom has a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.

This experiment changed our understanding of the atom completely.

3.1 Discovery of Radioactivity

Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. He was

working with uranium salts and photographic plates. He noticed that
uranium could darken photographic plates even without sunlight. This
showed that some substances naturally emit radiation.

Later, Marie Curie and Pierre Curie studied this phenomenon in

detail. Marie Curie named it radioactivity. They discovered two new
radioactive elements called Polonium and Radium. Their work helped
scientists understand that atoms are not always stable and can break
down by releasing energy.
4. Nuclear Forces
The protons inside the nucleus repel each other because they have the
same positive charge. Still, the nucleus stays together. This is because
of a very strong force called the nuclear force.
Nuclear force:
• Is very strong
• Acts only over a very short distance
• Holds protons and neutrons together
Without this force, the nucleus would fall apart.

5. Artificial Radioactivity

Some substances are not naturally radioactive but can be made

radioactive by human action. This is called artificial radioactivity. It
was discovered by Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie.

When stable atoms are bombarded with fast particles like neutrons,
they become unstable and start emitting radiation. This method is used
to produce radioactive materials for medical and industrial use.

In industry, artificial radioactive materials are used to detect cracks in

metal, measure thickness of sheets, and control quality of products. In
agriculture, they are used to improve crop yield and control harmful
insects.
6. Mass Defect and Binding Energy
When protons and neutrons combine to form a nucleus, some mass is
lost. This lost mass is called mass defect.
This mass is converted into energy according to Einstein’s equation:
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

This energy is called binding energy.

It is the energy that holds the nucleus together.
More binding energy means a more stable nucleus.

7. Isotopes

Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons.

These are called isotopes.

Example:
Hydrogen has three isotopes:

• Protium (no neutron)

• Deuterium (one neutron)

• Tritium (two neutrons)

All isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical
properties. Some isotopes are radioactive.
8. Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the process by which unstable nuclei emit radiation to

become stable.

There are three types of radiation:

1. Alpha (α)

2. Beta (β)

3. Gamma (γ)

Alpha radiation

• Consists of helium nuclei

• Has positive charge

• Low penetrating power

Beta radiation

• Consists of fast electrons

• Medium penetrating power

Gamma radiation

• High energy electromagnetic waves

• Very high penetrating power

8.1 Laws of Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay follows a law called the decay law. It says that the
number of atoms that decay per second is proportional to the number
of radioactive atoms present.

The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time taken for half of the
atoms to decay.

Example:
If a substance has 100 atoms and half-life of 1 hour:

• After 1 hour → 50 atoms

• After 2 hours → 25 atoms

• After 3 hours → 12.5 atoms

9. Carbon Dating

Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope. It is used to find the age of dead

plants and animals. This method is called carbon dating.

When a living organism is alive, it absorbs carbon-14. After death, it

stops absorbing carbon, and the carbon-14 slowly decays. By
measuring how much carbon-14 remains, scientists can calculate the
age of fossils and ancient objects.
10. Nuclear Reactions

A nuclear reaction is a process in which the nucleus of an atom change.

There are two main types:

1. Nuclear fission

2. Nuclear fusion

10.1 Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy nucleus splits into two
smaller nuclei when hit by a neutron.

Example:
Uranium-235 splits into:

• Barium

• Krypton

• Neutrons

• Energy

This is used in nuclear power plants.

10.2 Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light nuclei combine to form
a heavier nucleus.

Example:
Hydrogen nuclei combine to form helium in the Sun.

Fusion produces much more energy than fission and doe8s not produce
much nuclear waste.

11. Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is the energy obtained from nuclear reactions.
Advantages:
• Large amount of energy
• No air pollution
• Small amount of fuel needed
Disadvantages:
• Nuclear accidents
• Radioactive waste
• Expensive plants
12. Uses of Nuclear Physics

12.1 Medicine

• Cancer treatment (radiotherapy)

In radiotherapy, high-energy radiation such as gamma rays from

radioactive materials like cobalt-60 is used to kill cancer cells.
Cancer cells grow faster than normal cells, so radiation damages
them more. This helps to shrink or destroy tumours and save the
patient’s life.

• Medical imaging

Radioactive substances are used to see inside the human body. A

small amount of a radioactive tracer is injected into the patient.
Special cameras detect the radiation and produce images of
organs such as the heart, brain, and bones. This helps doctors find
diseases early.

12.2 Industry

• Detecting cracks

Gamma rays and X-rays can pass through metals. If there is a

crack or defect inside a machine part, the radiation pattern
changes. This helps engineers detect faults inside bridges,
pipelines, aircraft parts, and machines without breaking them.
 • Measuring thickness

In factories, radioactive sources are used to measure the thickness

of paper, plastic sheets, and metal plates. If the material becomes
too thick or too thin, the amount of radiation passing through
changes. This helps industries maintain good product quality.

12.3 Agriculture

• Improving crop quality

Radiation is used to create new varieties of crops that grow faster,

resist diseases, and give more yield. This helps farmers produce
more food.

• Killing pests

Radiation is used to kill harmful insects or make them unable to

reproduce. This reduces the need for chemical pesticides, which
are harmful to the environment.

12.4 Electricity

• Nuclear power plants

Nuclear fission is used to produce electricity. When uranium atoms split

inside a nuclear reactor, they release a huge amount of heat. This heat
is used to boil water and produce steam. The steam turns turbines,
which run generators to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants can
produce large amounts of energy without air pollution.
13. Nuclear Power Plants

A nuclear power plant produces electricity using nuclear fission.

Main parts:

• Reactor

• Control rods

• Coolant

• Turbine

• Generator

14. Nuclear Hazards

Nuclear radiation can damage:

• Cells

• DNA

• Organs

Safety measures are very important.

15. Nuclear Chain Reaction

In nuclear fission, when one uranium atom splits, it releases neutrons.

These neutrons hit other atoms and cause them to split. This is called a
chain reaction.
16. Nuclear Reactor Safety

Nuclear reactors have many safety systems:

• Control rods to absorb extra neutrons

• Coolants to remove heat

• Containment buildings to prevent radiation leakage

These systems protect people and the environment.

17. Difference Between Nuclear and Chemical Energy

Nuclear Energy:

Comes from nucleus, very large, Used in reactors

Chemical Energy:

Comes from electrons, much smaller, Used in fuels like coal

18. Famous Scientists of Nuclear Physics

• Rutherford – Discovered nucleus

• Bohr – Atomic structure

• Marie Curie – Radioactivity

• Einstein – E = mc²

• Fermi – Nuclear reactor

19. Nuclear Accidents

Some major nuclear accidents:

• Chernobyl (1986) – Ukraine

• Fukushima (2011) – Japan

These accidents showed the dangers of radiation and the importance of

safety.

20. Future of Nuclear Energy

Scientists are working on fusion energy, which is safer and cleaner. If

successful, it can solve the world’s energy problems. The future of
nuclear energy mainly depends on nuclear fusion, which is the
process that powers the Sun. In fusion, two light atoms combine to
form a heavier atom and release a very large amount of energy.
Scientists are working to use fusion on Earth because it is much
safer and cleaner than nuclear fission. Fusion does not produce
large amounts of radioactive waste and does not cause dangerous
nuclear accidents. It also uses fuels like hydrogen, which are easily
available in nature. If fusion energy becomes successful, it can provide
almost unlimited electricity without polluting the environment.

Therefore, nuclear fusion has the potential to solve the world’s energy
problems and provide a safe and sustainable energy source for the
future.
Fig 1: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
Fig 2 : types of energy sources used
Fig 3 : nuclear fusion
Fig 4 : nuclear fission
Fig 5 : nuclear chain reaction
Conclusion

Nuclear Physics is one of the most important and powerful branches of

modern science. It helps us understand the deepest structure of matter
by studying the nucleus of the atom. Through nuclear physics, we have
learned how tiny particles like protons and neutrons can release
enormous amounts of energy. This knowledge has changed the world
in many ways, especially in the fields of electricity generation,
medicine, space science, and research.

The discovery of radioactivity showed that atoms are not always stable
and can naturally change into other elements by releasing energy. The
study of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation has helped scientists develop
many useful applications, such as treating cancer, producing medical
images, and detecting faults in machines. Nuclear reactions like fission
and fusion have shown us how energy is produced inside the Sun and
how it can also be produced on Earth in nuclear power plants.

Nuclear power is one of the most efficient sources of energy because a

small amount of nuclear fuel can produce a very large amount of
electricity. At the same time, nuclear physics also reminds us of the
need for responsibility, because nuclear radiation can be dangerous if
not handled properly. Accidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima teach
us the importance of safety, control, and careful use of nuclear
technology.