CAD/CAM III B.

TECH II SEM (AR20)

UNIT-2
GEOMETRIC MODELING

INTRODUCTION

Geometric modeling is a branch of applied mathematical and computational geometry

that studies methods and algorithms for mathematical description of shapes
The shapes studied in Geometric modeling are mostly 2-Dimensional or 3- Dimensional
although many of its tools and principles can be applied to sets of any finite dimension. Most
Geometric modeling is done with computer and computer based applications. 2-Dimensions
models are important in computer typography (The art and technique of arranging type in order
to make language visible) and technical drawings. 3- Dimensional models are central to CAD
and CAD many applied technical fields. Such as civil, mechanical, architecture, geology,
medical image processing.

NEED OF GEOMETRIC MODELING

For manufacturing automobile engine it require around 10,000 drawings models in

various departments with different styles. Once models are prepared using any CAD software,
these models can be used in almost all departments of the organization which includes-

1. Designing the parts and assemblies and then performing tolerance analysis of the
assemblies
2. Preparation of production drawings of individual parts, subassemblies, assemblies,
tooling and jig-fixtures
3. Making structural, thermal and kinetic analysis
4. Considering volume of parts and after extracting material properties from material library,
cost estimation can be easily done
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5. Process plans are also prepared for all the components

6. Using CAM software’s, we can model as input for CNC programming
7. Programming the movement of the components from one station to another is possible
using various material devices such as robots, conveyors, automated guided vehicles
8. Using coordinate measuring machine (CMM) dimensional and geometric accuracies are
checked by extracting various dimensions and parametric from the models only
9. Other supporting activities such as material requirement and procurement, preparation of
bill of materials, manufacturing resource requirement, planning and scheduling, analysis
With competitions products etc are also possible once geometric models are available
thus for all these activities, geometric models becomes the central that will be manipulate at all
these storages. While modeling, geometric models are prepared in such a way that the other
modules such as CAM, CAE, Mechanism systems are able to use this information in the most
optimal and efficient way.

REQUIREMENTS OF GEOMETRIC MODELING

The requirement of geometric modeling is manifold. The conceptual design is the basis
of the generation of geometric model. The choice of the geometric model depends on the
mechanical functions to be performed by it. A valid geometric model is created by CAD system
and its model database is stored. The database of geometric modeling is used for engineering
analysis and for design optimization. Design testing and evaluation may necessitate changing
the geometric model before finalizing it. When the final design is achieved, it is documented
and used for subsequent manufacturing applications, quality and cost analysis.
Good geometric model is designed based in the following important guidelines-
1. Modeling method must be easy to use
2. Completeness of part representation
3. Representation should be able to represent a useful set of geometric objects
4. Model should not create any ambiguity (The ability to express more than one interpretation)
to users. A given representation should correspond to one and only one solid
5. To represent the solid normally there should only unique way. With this one can compare
two identical solid representations
6. A geometric model must be very accurate. There should not be any approximation
7. Geometric modeling should not create any invalid or impossible models
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8. The various transformations such as move, rotation, scale etc and manipulations such as
union, intersect, subtract etc should able to be performed on geometric model
9. A good representation should be compact enough for saving space and allow for efficient
algorithms to determine desired physical characteristics
10. Geometric model should have shading and rendering (Generation an image for a model
by means of a computer program) capability to give realistic effect to the model

GEOMETRIC MODELS

The geometric models are broadly classified on the basis of geometric construction into
the following categories

1. Two Dimensional (2D)

2. Three Dimensional (3D)

Two Dimensional (2D)

The 2D modeling includes the construction of geometrical faces, plane drawings, 2D

views (Top, Front, Right, and Light views) of objects. Presently, the application of 2D model
is limited to drafting, sheet metal manufacturing, Spot welding, Laser cutting etc.

Three dimensional (3D)

The 3D modeling is widely used for engineering applications. It provides all the
information required for animation, design analysis and manufacturing. The 3D objects are
shown in below figure.
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The 3D models are further sub-divided into three groups:

1. Wireframe modeling

Wireframe modeling is the oldest and simplest methods of geometric modeling which
can be used to store model mathematically in the computer memory. It contains information
about the locations of all the points (vertices) and edges in space coordinates. Various
wireframe entities are points, lines, planer arcs, circle, curves etc. Each vertex is defined by x,
y, z coordinates. Edges are defined by a pair of vertices and faces are defined as three or more
edges. Thus wireframe is a collection of edges, there is no skin defining the area between the
edges. This is the lowest level of modeling and has serious limitations. But it some applications
such as tool path simulation it is very convenient to use wireframe models.
Advantages of wireframe models:
1. It is simple methods and requires less memory space
2. It forms the basis for surface and solid modeling
3. Manipulations in the model can be done easily and quickly
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Disadvantages:
1. One of the serious limitation in the ambiguity of orientation and viewing plane
2. Cannot model complex curve surfaces
3. Does not represent an actual solid (no surface and volume)
4. Physical properties such as mass, surface area, volume, centre of gravity etc are not possible
to calculate
5. Wireframe models has no knowledge of surface faces, therefore it will not detect interface
between two matting components and this is serious drawback especially in component
assembly, kinematic analysis, NC tool and robot arm simulation
2. Surface modeling

Surface modeling is the next stage of wireframe modeling. In wireframe modeling

models are unable to represent complex surfaces of objects like car, ship, aeroplane, wings,
castings etc. only a surface profile of these objects. A surface model represents the skin of an
object. These skins have no thickness or material type. Surface models define the surface
properties, as well as the edges of objects. These are often capable of clearly representing the
solid from the manufacturing. However, no information regarding the interior of the solid
model would be available which could be relevant for generating the NC cutter data. Further
the calculation of properties such as mass and inertia etc would be difficult. Surface modeling
facilities would be available as part of the modeling technique and would be used when such
surface is present in the product for design. For example this method is used mode for specific
non-analytical surfaces, called sculptures surfaces such as those used for modeling the car
bodies and ship-hulls. There are a number of mathematical techniques available for handling
these surfaces such as Bezier and B-splines.
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Advantage:
1. Eliminates much ambiguity and non-uniqueness present in wireframe models by hiding
lines not seen
2. Renders the model for better visualization and presentation, objects appear more realistic
3. Provides the surface geometry for CAM, NC machine
4. Provides the geometry needed by the manufacturing engineer for mould and die design
5. This can be used to design and analysis complex free-formed surfaces of ship hulls,
aeroplane fuselages and bodies
6. Surface properties such as roughness, color and reflectivity can be assigned and
demonstrated
Disadvantages:
1. Provides no information about the inside of an object
2. Curved surfaces need a fine mesh to be accurate
3. Provides wrong results if mesh is too coarse
4. Complicated computation, depending on the number of surfaces
3. Solid modeling
Solid modeling is the most powerful of 3D modeling technique. This includes vertices
(nodes), edges, surfaces, weight and volume. This model consisting of the complete description
of the solid in a certain form is the most ideal representation, as all the information requires at
every stage of product cycle can be obtained with technique. Defining an object with a solid
model is the easiest of the available three modeling techniques. The model is a complete and
unambiguous representation of a precisely enclosed and filled volume. Solid model contain
bath geometric and available to represent the solid, but geometry two techniques are very
famous, these are constructive solid geometry (CSG) and boundary representation (B-rep)
Advantages:
1. Mass properties such as area, volume, weight, centre of gravity and moment of inertia can
be determined quickly
2. It allows the design engineer to develop and evaluate alternative concepts for parts and
assemblies while the design is still a theoretical model.
3. Solid models are non-ambiguous
4. Easily exported to different FEM programs for analysis
5. It can be used in newly manufacturing techniques; CIM, CAM, design for manufacturing
(DFM)
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6. 2D standard drawings, assembly drawings and exploded drawings are generated from the
model
Disadvantage:
1. More intensive computation than wireframe and surface modeling
2. Requires more powerful computers (faster with the more memory)

DIFFERENCE AMONG WIREFRAME, SURFACE AND SOLID MODELING

Parameter Wireframe model Surface model Solid model

1. Computer memory Less Moderate Large
Points, line, circle,
arc, ellipse, synthetic Plane, revolve, Solid primitives as
2. Entities used curves, such as ruled, tabulated, cone, cube, wedge,
Bezier, hermite, B- free form surfaces cylinder, sphere etc
spline etc.
3. Input data required More Moderate Less
4. Automatic orthographic,
perspective, isometric Impossible Impossible Easily possible
view generation
5. NC code generation Not possible Automatic possible Automatic possible
6. Interference between
Not possible to detect Can detect Can detect
matting parts
7. Rendering and shadow
Not possible possible possible
effect
Not possible done Possible done
8. Cross sectioning Not possible
manually automatically
9. Elimination of hidden
Done manually May be possible Possible
lines
10. Calculation of physical
properties such as Possible to calculate all
Possible to calculate
volume, surface area, Not possible properties required for
some properties
center of gravity, M.I analysis
etc
11. Design parameters
Not possible Not possible Possible
optimization
12. Generation of assembly
and detail drawings
Not possible Not possible Possible
from model and vice
versa
Drafting, design,
manufacturing,
13. CAD/CAM/CAE
Drafting Drafting, design analysis, assembly,
modules
mechanism,
optimization
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MODELING FACILITIES

The total modeling facilities that one would look for in any system can be broadly
categorized as follows:
 The geometric modeling features
 The editing or manipulation features
 The display control facilities
 The drafting facility
 The programming facility
 The analysis features
 The connecting features

Geometric Modeling Features

The various geometric modeling and construction facilities that one should
expect to have in any good system are as follows:
1. Various features to aid geometric construction methods, such as Cartesian and polar
coordinates, absolute and incremental dimensions, various types of units, grip, snap,
object snap, layer etc
2. All 2D analytical features, such as points, lines, arcs, circles, coins, splines, fillets,
chamfers etc. In each of these features, various constructional features including
interactive and dynamic dragging facilities
3. Majority of the 3D wireframe modeling facilities includes 3D lines, 3D faces, ruled
surfaces, linear sweep from 2D topology with any sweep direction, rotational sweep
and tapered sweep. General sweep with twist. Rotational about an axis or radial offset
for generating helical or spiral shapes
4. Solid modeling with various basic primitives such as block, cylinder, sphere, cone,
prism, torus, pyramid, quadrilateral, along with the ability to apply the Boolean
operation on any solid that can be constructed using the other techniques available in
the modeler
5. Skinning around regular and arbitrary surface. Profiles (cross-sections), both analytical
and arbitrary places across any 3D curve
6. Sculptured surfaces of the various types like Bezier, Coons and other free form surfaces
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7. Comprehensive range of transformation facilities for interactively assembling the

various solid models generated by the modeler with features such as surfaces filling and
trimming

Editing or Manipulation Features

These set of facilities refer to the way the geometric data, once created, would be used
to advantage for further modeling. Using these facilities, it would be possible to use the
geometry created earlier to complete the modeling, thus improving the productivity of the
designer. The facilities designed in this category are:
1. Transformation such as move, copy, rotate, scale, elongate or compress, mirror or to
any arbitrary coordinate frame
2. The editing features used to alter the already drawn geometric entities, such as
stretching, trimming or trimming to any intersection, delete or erase, undo or redo
3. Symbols in drawing refer to often-repeated together set in number of drawings, which
may consist of a number of geometric entities that are grouped together and stored as a
symbol. This symbol can be recalled at any scale, at any angle or exploded if necessary
to treat all of them as separate entities. Symbols can also be of parametric type so that
a large variation in symbols can be done without much effort
4. Some of editing facilities are : resizing, relocating and duplicating, filleting and
chamfering, windowing, clipping and zooming, exploding, mirroring, lengthening and
shortening, renaming named objects, editing solid

Display Control Facilities

In this range of features are all the facilities needed for interacting with the modeling
system so as to obtain the necessary feedback at the right time during the modeling stage. The
facilities required are:
Window – to identify a set of entities for any possible display or editing function
Zoom – to change the scale of display of the image selected in the screen
Pan – to move the image on screen without changing the scale at which the drawing is
displayed on the screen
Hidden – to remove hidden lines or hidden surfaces for viewing the geometry in
proper form
Shading – to show the 3D view of the image on screen complete with the light source
location and the resulting light and shade as it appears on the image
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Animation – is the display of a number of images in sequence to imitate the actual

motion of the part
Clipping – helps in discarding the part of the geometry outside the viewing window,
such that all the transformations that are to be carries out for zooming and panning of
the image on the screen are applied only on the necessary geometry. This improves
the response of the system.
Some other facilities that are required are: isometric views, sectioning, orthographic
views, perspective views

Drafting Features

These facilities refer to the way the model developed can be utilized for purpose of
transmitting the information in hard copy form for other applications, such as par prints onto
the shop floor or maintenance manuals for the equipment. A really large range of facilities are
required in this particular category and it is sometimes treated as a separate module in the
modeling system
The ability to get various types of lines drawn and provide ample notes in the form of
text addition at various locations in the drawing. The text handling capability in terms of font
changing and different methods of text presentation should be available.
A large number of types of views should be obtained from the solid model of the
geometry stored in the database. The types of views required may be as for display functions,
such as perspective views, orthographic views (Shown in below figure), isolated views and
axonometric views.

It is necessary that the views being shown should be sectioned to get a better
appreciation of the model. For this purpose, the section planes may be simple or complex
orientations. After sectioning the system should have the automatic ability to show the
sectioning details (Shown in below figure) in the form of typical crosshatching depending
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upon the standard practice.

Programming Facility

Programming ability (MACRO programming) within a CAD system is going to be a

very useful feature. It is well known that not all kinds of facilities would be available in any
general-purpose CAD system. Therefore, it is necessary that the CAD system would have to
be customized for a given range of application process specific to the company. For this
purpose, if a programming facility exists in a CAD system, it is possible to program specifically
for an application, making use of all the features available in the system for either modeling or
for any specific application based on the information generated during the modeling. Some
such examples are the GRIP in unigraphics and GLUE in CAM-X. The availability of such a
program helps the user to input the least amount of information for any required design, if the
application programs are written well using the programming language.
Analysis And Optimization Features

In this range, the kind of analysis facilities that are require to e carried on the product
models being generated should be considered. The simplest kind to the most sophisticated
features may be available under this category. The simplest facilities may be calculated
perimeter, area, volume, mass, centre of gravity, moment of inertia, radius of gyration etc.
Besides these simple features of analysis, a general-purpose analysis that is normally
carried is the Finite Element Analysis (FEA). The geometric model created as above could be
conveniently passed onto the FEA through an intermediate processor called a Finite Element
Methods (FEM), which converts the geometric data into the finite element mesh and calculates
all the data required for the analysis and then transmits it to the FEA program. Examples are
the SUPERTAB for GEOMOD and the GFEM for the unigraphics.
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Another important feature essential in the modeling system used by the mechanical
engineering industries is the assembly facility with the associated interference checking. By
this, products individually modeled can be assembly joints are analyzed. This would be further
used along with animation facility, if present, to see the performance of the assembly in service.
Along with the assembly facility, the other facility needed is the ability to explode an assembly
(Show in above figure) for the creation of technical illustrations for the user and maintenance
manual preparation.

Connecting Features

Modeling is only the start of the complete process of a product evolution and as such
the data generated is used directly by the other systems. It is therefore, necessary that the
internal data format in which the data is stores by the modeling system should be well
documented and should also have very good connectivity (data interfacing) with other allied
modules. Identically, an integrated data base structure would be useful where in all the various
modules share the common database. This would only be possible if all the modules are
developed at a single developer as in the case of ProEngineer or Unigrapchis for CAD/CAM
integration.

GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION METHODS

The three-dimensional construction methods are:

 Wireframe modeling
 Surface modeling
 Solid modeling
 Extrusion
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 Sweeping
 Feature modeling
 Lofting
 Tweaking

Wireframe Modeling

Wireframe modeling uses geometric primitives for the construction of models. The
geometric primitives are points, lines, arcs and circles, conies, cubic curve, Bezier curve and
B-spline curve.

Surface Modeling

Surface models are generated by using surface primitives such as plane surface, ruled
surface, surface of revolution, tabulated cylinder, fillet surface, offset surface, Bezier surface,
B-spline surface and coons patch.
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Solid Modeling

Solid models are constructed by the boundary representation (B-rep) method or by

constructive solid geometry (CSG). The solid entities of CSG modeling are box, cone, sphere,
cylinder, prism, wedge and torus. CSG modeling constructs solid models through Boolean
operations (union, subtraction and intersection) on solid entities.

Extrusion

In extrusion, a three-dimensional solid is created by extruding the face in a direction

perpendicular to it as shown in below figure.

Sweeping

Sweeping is based on the notation of moving a point, curve, or a surface along a given
path. A sweep may be linear or non-linear. The linear sweep may involve extrusion or
revolving.
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Feature Modeling

This creates solid models from a shape by an operation. The shape is a two- dimensional
sketch for example, ribs, bosses, cuts and holes. The operation may involve extrusion,
sweeping, revolving etc. Feature modeling is shown in below Figure.

Filleting

Filleting implies the rounding of a corner to eliminate its sharpness. The fillet radius is
the radius of the arc that connects filleted objects. Changing the fillet radius affects subsequent
fillets. If you set the fillet radius to 0, filleted objects are trimmed or extended until they
intersect, but no arc is created. Filleting is shown in below Figure.
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Tweaking

Tweaking uses several features to deform or alter (tweak) the surface of the part.
Tweaking is not applicable to CSG solid models, splitting sketch drafts is shown in below
Figure. This is because the CSG models retain the geometry and topology modeled from the
primitives. The tweak menu lists the following options:

Lofting

Lofting is used to create a model with a variant cross-section along a linear/non-linear

axis. The lofting procedure is illustrated in below figure.
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CURVATURE CONTINUITY

Mathematically, synthetic curves represented the problem of constructing a smooth

curve that passes through given data points. Therefore the typical form of these curves is a
polynomial. Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data points to impose
various degrees of smoothness upon the resulting curve. The order of continuity becomes
important when a complex curve is modeled by several curve segments pieced together end-
to-end.

Two boundary curve segments shown in above figure are meeting at a vertex X. let
these two curves be described as f(u) and g(v). Where u and v are values in intervals [a, b] and
[m, n] respectively. The problem is: how these curves join together in a ‘smooth’ way.
Consider the ‘endpoint’ of curve f(u) and the ‘start point’ of curve g(m). If f(b) and
g(m) are equal as shown in above figure a, say curves f() and g() are C0 continuity at f(b) =
g(m).
If for all i<=k, the i-th derivatives at f(b) and g(m) are equal, say that the curves are
Ck continuity at point f(b) = g(m). Intuitively,
 C0 continuity (point/ position continuity) – Continuity of end point only (or) continuity of
position
 C1 continuity (tangent continuity) – Tangent continuity or first derivate if position
 C2 continuity (curvature continuity) – Hydrodynamic character, light reflection curvature
continuity (or) second derivative of position
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Bezier Curve
A Bezier curve is defined by a set of data points. The curve may interpolate or
extrapolate the data points. Some CAD systems offer both options; others offer the
interpolation version only. In both cases, the data points are used to control the shape of the
resulting curves.
Bezier curves and surfaces are credited to P. Bezier of the French car firm Regie
Renault, who developed (about 1962) and used them in his software system called UNISURF,
which designers used to define the outer panels of several Renault cars. These curves, known
as Bezier curves, were also independently developed by P. DeCasteljau of the French car
company Citroen (about 1959), which used them as part of its CAD system. The Bezier
UNISURF system was soon published in the literature; this is the reason that the curves now
bear Beziers name.
As its mathematics show, the major characteristics of the Bezier curve are:
1. The shape of the Bezier curve is controlled by its defining points. Tangent vectors are not
used in the curve development as is the case with the cubic spline. This allows the designer
a much better feel for the relationship between input (points) and output (curve).
2. The order or the degree of Bezier curve is variable and is related to the number of points
defining it. n + 1 points define an nth degree curve, which permits higher-order continuity.
This is not the case for cubic splines, where the degree is always cubic for a spline segment.
The data points of a Bezier curve are called control points. They form the vertices of
what is called the control or characteristic polygon, which uniquely defines the curve shape as
shown in Figure 6.30. Only the first and the last control points or vertices of the polygon
actually lie on the curve. The other vertices define the order, derivatives, and shape of the curve.
The curve is also always tangent to the first and last polygon segments. In addition, the curve
shape tends to follow the polygon shape.
These three observations should enable the user to sketch or predict the curve shape once
its control points are given as illustrated in below Figure. The figure shows that the order of
defining the control points changes the polygon definition, which changes the resulting curve
shape. The arrow shown on each curve shows its parameterization direction.
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Mathematically, for n + 1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by the following
polynomial of degree n:

Where P(u) is a point on the curve and Pj is a control point. Bi, n is the Bernstein
polynomials. Thus, the Bezier curve has a Bernstein basis. The Bernstein polynomial serves as
the blending or basis function for the Bezier curve and is given by

Where C(n, i) is the binomial coefficient

Utilizing above two Equations 2 and 3 and observing that C(n, 0) = C(n, n) = 1, Equation 1
can be expanded to give:

Following are the important characteristics of a Bezier curve:

1. The degree of a Bezier curve defined by n + 1 control points is n: In each basis function,
the exponent of U is i + (n - i) ~ n. Therefore, the degree of the curve is n.
2. P (u) passes through P0 and Pn: The curve passes though the first and the last control
points.
3. Non-negativity: All basis functions are non-negative.
4. Bezier curves are tangent to their first and last legs
5. Partition of unity: The sum of the basic functions at a fixed u is 1. It is not difficult to verify
that the basic functions are the coefficients in the binomial expansion of the expression
1 = [u + (1 - u)] n. Hence, their sum is one. Moreover, since they are
non-negative, we conclude that the value of any basis function is in the range of 0 and 1.
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Since all basis functions are in the range of 0 and 1 and add to one, they can be considered
as weights in the computation of a weighted average. More precisely, we could say "to
compute P(u), one takes the weight B n , i (u) for control point Pi and sum them together."
6. Convex hull property: This means that the Bezier curve defined by the given n + 1 control
points lays completely in the convex hull of the given control points. The convex hull of a
set of points is the smallest convex set that contains all points. In below Figure, the convex
hull of the 11 control points is shown. Note that not all control points are on the boundary
of the convex hull. For example, control points 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9 are in the interior. The curve,
except for the first two end points, lies completely in the convex hull. This property is
important because we are guaranteed that the generated curve will be in an understood and
computable region and will not go outside of it.

7. Variation diminishing property: If the curve is in a plane, this means that no straight line
intersects a Bezier curve more times than it intersects the characteristics polygon. Line 1
intersects the curve three times and the polyline seven times; line 2 intersects the curve and
its polyline twice; the line 3-intersects the curve four times and the polyline seven times.
You can draw other straight lines to verify this property. So, what is the meaning of this
characteristic? It tells us that the complexity (i.e., turning and twisting) of the curve is no
more complex than the characteristic polygon. In other words, the characteristic polygon
twists and turns more frequently than the Bezier curve does, because an arbitrary line hits
the control polyline more often than it hits the curve.
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8. Affine invariance: If an affine transformation is applied to a Bezier curve, the result can be
constructed from the affine images of its control points. This is a nice property. When we
want to apply a geometric or even affine transformation to a Bezier curve, this property
states that we can apply the transformation to control points, which is quite easy, and once
the transformed control points are obtained the transformed Bezier curve is the one defined
by these new points. Therefore, we do not have to transform the curve.
9. Moving control points: Changing the position of a control point will change the shape of
the defined Bezier curve. Suppose a control point Pk is moved to a new position P k + v,
where vector v gives both the direction and length of this move.
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B-SPLINE : Given n + 1 control points P0, P1, ..., Pn and a knot vector U = { u0, u1, ..., um }, the B-spline
curve of degree p defined by these control points and knot vector U is

where Ni,p(u)'s are B-spline basis functions of degree p. The form of a B-spline curve is very similar to that
of a Bézier curve. Unlike a Bézier curve, a B-spline curve involves more information, namely: a set of n+1
control points, a knot vector of m+1 knots, and a degree p. Note that n, m and p must satisfy m = n + p + 1.
More precisely, if we want to define a B-spline curve of degree p with n + 1 control points, we have to
supply n + p + 2 knots u0, u1, ..., un+p+1. On the other hand, if a knot vector of m + 1 knots and n + 1 control
points are given, the degree of the B-spline curve is p = m - n - 1. The point on the curve that corresponds
to a knot ui, C(ui), is referred to as a knot point. Hence, the knot points divide a B-spline curve into curve
segments, each of which is defined on a knot span.

Although Ni,p(u) looks like Bn,i(u), the degree of a B-spline basis function is an input, while the degree of a
Bézier basis function depends on the number of control points. To change the shape of a B-spline curve,
one can modify one or more of these control parameters: the positions of control points, the positions of
knots, and the degree of the curve.

If the knot vector does not have any particular structure, the generated curve will not touch the first and last
legs of the control polyline as shown in the left figure below. This type of B-spline curves is called open B-
spline curves. We may want to clamp the curve so that it is tangent to the first and the last legs at the first
and last control points, respectively, as a Bézier curve does. To do so, the first knot and the last knot must
be of multiplicity p+1. This will generate the so-called clamped B-spline curves. See the middle figure
below. By repeating some knots and control points, the generated curve can be a closed one. In this case,
the start and the end of the generated curve join together forming a closed loop as shown in the right figure
below. In this note, we shall use clamped curve.

The above figures have n+1 control points (n=9) and p = 3. Then, m must be 13 so that the knot vector has
14 knots. To have the clamped effect, the first p+1 = 4 and the last 4 knots must be identical. The remaining
14 - (4 + 4) = 6 knots can be anywhere in the domain. In fact, the curve is generated with knot vector U = {
0, 0, 0, 0, 0.14, 0.28, 0.42, 0.57, 0.71, 0.85, 1, 1, 1, 1 }. Note that except for the first four and last four
knots, the middle ones are almost uniformly spaced. The figures also show the corresponding curve
segment on each knot span. In fact, the little triangles are the knot points.

HERMITE CUBIC SPLINE

 A cubic spline is a curve that smoothly connects data points.

 The parametric equation for a cubic spline segment is given in vector form and matrix
form.
 In vector form: P(u) = C0 + C1u + C2u^2 + C3*u^3
 In matrix form: P(u) = [C3 C2 C1 C0] [u^3 u^2 u 1]
 Ci represents polynomial coefficients.
 A cubic polynomial guarantees the generation of C0, C1, or C2 curves.
  Cubic splines use four data points, while Hermite cubic splines use two data points at the
ends and two tangent vectors at those points.

Aspect Hermite Cubic Spline Bézier Curve B-Spline

Defined by two
control points and Defined by four Piecewise-defined
two tangents, used control points, curve formed by
for smooth providing precise blending segments,
Definition interpolation. position control. allowing flexibility.

Interpolation Varies (not limited

Order Cubic (degree 3) Cubic (degree 3) to cubic).

Requires two control Requires multiple

points and two Requires four control points
Control Points tangents. control points. (more than four).

Typically C² (twice C¹ (once

continuously continuously
Continuity differentiable). C⁰ (continuous). differentiable).
 Global control Local control
Global control due through through
to tangent vectors manipulation of manipulation of
control points control points
Local Control

Flexible shape due

Smooth, influenced Determined by to varying control
Curve Shape by tangents. control points. points.

Tangents affect curve Direct

behavior during manipulation of Adjust control
Curve Editing editing. control points. points for editing.

Efficient evaluation Efficient, especially

Evaluation due to cubic Also efficient for for higher-degree
Efficiency polynomials. cubic curves. curves.
 Surface Modeling:
Analytical Surfaces
Plane surfaces play a crucial role in computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM).
They are fundamental building blocks for creating more complex shapes.
Application:
Modeling: Plane surfaces are used to create basic shapes and define boundaries for more
complex solids.
Data Representation: They help represent data surfaces such as stress contours and isothermal
planes.
Mass Property Calculations: Plane surfaces simplify mass property calculations.
Constructive Solid Geometry

Constructive Solid Geometry, or CSG for short, is yet another way of representing solids. A CSG solid is
constructed from a few primitives with Boolean operators (i.e., set union, intersection and difference).
Thus, a CSG solid can be written as a set equations and can also be considered a design methodology.

CSG Primitives

The standard CSG primitives consist of the block (i.e., cube), triangular prism, sphere, cylinder, cone and
torus. These six primitives are in some normal or generic form and must be instantiated by the user to be
used in his/her design. Moreover, the instantiated primitive may require transformations such as scaling,
translation and rotation to be positioned at the desired place.

Suppose the block primitive is defined by its "lower left" corner < -1, -1, -1 > and "upper right" corner < 1,
1, 1 >. To produce a rectangular box with center at < 3, 2, 3 > and height and width 3 and length 5, a user
may first scale the block primitive 1.5 times in the y- and z-direction and 2.5 times in the x-direction, and
then translate the result to < 3, 2, 3 >. If the block primitive is called Block in a CSG system, the result may
be obtained as follows:

translate(scale(Block, < 2.5, 1.5, 1.5 >), < 3, 2, 3 >)

In the above, the object to be transformed and the transformation data are the first and second arguments,
respectively.

Boolean Operators

We can combined two instantiated and perhaps transformed primitives into one with set union, set
intersection and set difference operators. However, simple set operators may create problems as will be
discussed in regularized Boolean operators, modifications are required. Let us just use set operations on this
page.

Given two sets, A and B, its union consists of all points from either A or B; its intersection consists of all
points in both sets; and its difference, written as A - B (resp., B - A), consists of all points in A but not in B
(resp., in B but not in A). In the following, A is the vertical cylinder and B is the horizontal cylinder. From
left to right, the four solids are the union and intersection of A and B, A - B and B - A.

Therefore, a solid can be considered as the result of applying Boolean operators to a set of instantiated and
transformed CSG primitives.

Let us take a look at a simple example. We want to design a bracket-like shape with a hole shown on the
right-most figure below. We start with two instantiations of blocks and one instantiation of a cylinder (the
left-most figure). Then, the two blocks are scaled and one of them is rotated to a vertical position. The
cylinder is also scaled so that its radius matches that of the hole. These three instantiations are than
transformed to their desired positions. The final product is obtained by computing the union of the two
blocks and then subtracting from it the cylinder.

Please note that the design of the above solid is not unique. For example, the L shape can be constructed
from subtracting a cube from another one.

CSG Expressions

The design procedure of the above bracket can be written as an expression:

diff(union(trans(Block1), trans(Block2)), trans(Cylinder))
where union(A,B) and diff(A,B) are the union and difference of A and B, and trans() indicates appropriate
transformations. Or, if we use +, ^ and - for set union, intersection and difference, the above function calls
can be rewritten as a set expression as follows:
(trans(Block1) + trans(Block2)) - trans(Cylinder)
This expression can be converted to an expression tree, the CSG Expression, of the design:
In fact, every solid constructed using the CSG technique has a corresponding CSG expression which in turn
has an associated CSG tree. The expression of the CSG tree is a representation of the final design. Recall
that the same solid may have different CSG expressions/trees. For example, one might punch a hole from
Block1 first and then compute the union of this result with Block2. As a result, CSG representations are
not unique.

Boundary Representations

Boundary Representation, or B-rep for short, can be considered as an extension to the wireframe model.
The merit of a B-rep is that a solid is bounded by its surface and has its interior and exterior. The surface of
a solid consists of a set of well-organized faces, each of which is a piece of some surface (.e.g., a surface
patch). Faces may share vertices and edges that are curve segments. Therefore, a B-rep is an extension to
the wireframe model by adding face information to the latter.

There are two types of information in a B-rep: topological and geometric. Topological information provide
the relationships among vertices, edges and faces similar to that used in a wireframe model. In addition to
connectivity, topological information also include orientation of edges and faces. Geometric information
are usually equations of the edges and faces.

The orientation of each face is important. Normally, a face is surrounded by a set of vertices. Using the
right-handed rule, the ordering of these vertices for describing a particular face must guarantee that the
normal vector of that face is pointing to the exterior of the solid. Normally, the order is counter clockwise.
If that face is given by an equation, the equation must be rewritten so that the normal vector at every point
on the part that is being used as a face points to the exterior of the solid. Therefore, by inspecting normal
vectors one can immediately tell the inside and outside of a solid under B-rep. This orientation must be
done for all faces. The following shows three faces and their outward pointing normal vectors. To describe
the top surface, the vertices should be 6, 7, 2, 1 or 7, 2, 1, 6 or 2, 1, 6, 7 or 1, 6, 7, 2. To describe the left
face, the order should be 1, 2, 3, 4 or 2, 3, 4, 1 or 3, 4, 1, 2 or 4, 1, 2, 3.
Unfortunately, not all surfaces can be oriented this way. If the surface of a solid can be oriented this way, it
is called orientable; otherwise, it is non-orientable. The following shows the well-known Mobius band
which is one-sided and non-orientable.
 MODELLING FACILITIES DESIRED
The total modelling facilities that one would look for in any system can be broadly
categorized as follows:
The geometric modelling features.
 The editing or manipulation features.
 The display control facilities.
 The drafting features.
 The programming facility.
 The analysis features.
 The connecting features

A. Geometric Modelling Features

The various geometric modelling and construction facilities that one should expect to
have in any good system are as follows:
1. Various features to aid geometric construction methods, such as Cartesian and polar
coordinates, absolute and incremental dimensions, various types of units, grid, snap,
object snap, layer, etc.
2. All 2D analytical features, such as points, lines, arcs, circles, conics, splines, fillets,
chamfers, etc. In each of these features, various constructional features including
interactive and dynamic dragging facilities.
3. Majority of the 3D wireframe modelling facilities including 3D lines, 3D faces, ruled
surfaces, linear sweep from 2D topology with any sweep direction, rotational sweep,
and tapered sweep. General sweep with twist. Revolving about an axis with axis or
radial offset for generating helical or spiral shapes.
4. Solid modelling with various basic primitives such as block, cylinder, sphere, cone,
prism, torus, pyramid, quadrilateral, along with the ability to apply the boolean
operators on any solid that can be constructed using the other techniques available in
the modeler.
5. Skinning around regular and arbitrary surfaces. Profiles (cross-sections),both analytical
and arbitrary placed across any 3D curve.
6. Sculptured surfaces of the various types like Bezier, Coons and other free form
surfaces.
7. Comprehensive range of transformation facilities for interactively assembling the
various solid models generated by the modeler with features such as surface filleting
and trimming.
CAD/CAM III [Link] II SEM (AR20)

B. Editing or Manipulation Features

1. Transformations such as move, copy, rotate, scale, elongate or compress, b mirror or to
any arbitrary coordinate frame.
2. The editing features used to alter the already drawn geometric entities, such as
stretching, trimming or trimming to any intersection, delete or erase, undo or redo.
3. Symbols in drawing refer to often-repeated set in a number of drawings, which may
consist of a number of geometric entities that are grouped together and stored as a
symbol. This symbol can be recalled at any scale, at any angle or exploded if necessary
to treat all of them as separate entities.

C. Display Control Facilities

In this range of features are all the facilities needed for interacting with the modelling system so as to
obtain the necessary feedback at the right time during the niodelling stage. The facilities required are:
1. Window - to identify a set of entities for any possible display or editing
function.
2. Zoom - to change the scale of display of the image selected on the screen.
3. Pan - to move the image on screen without changing the scale at which the
drawing is displayed on the screen.
4. Hidden - to remove hidden lines or hidden surfaces for viewing the geometry in
proper form
5. Shading - to show the 3D view of the image on screen complete with the light
source location and the resultant light and shade as it appears on the image.

D. Drafting Features
These facilities refer to the way the model developed can be utilized for the purpose of transmitting the
information in hard copy form for other applications, such as part prints onto the shop floor, or
maintenance manuals for the equipment. A really large range of facilities are required in this particular
category, and it is sometimes treated as a separate module in the modeling system.
CAD/CAM III [Link] II SEM (AR20)

A large number of types of views should be obtained from the solid model of the geometry stored in
the data base. The types of views required may be , as for display functions, such as perspective views,
orthographic views (Fig.), isometric views, and axonometric views.

E. Programming Facility
Programming ability (MACRO programming) within a CAD system is going to be a very useful feature.
It is well-known that not all kinds of facilities would be available in any general purpose CAD system.
Therefore, it is necessary that the CAD system would have to be customised for a given range of
application processes specific to the company. For this purpose, if a programming facility exists in a
CAD system, it is possible to program specifically for an application, making use of all the features
available in the system for either modelling or for any specific application based on the information
generated during the modelling. Some such examples are, the GRIP in Unigraphics and GLUE in CAM-
X. The availability of such a program helps the user to input the least amount of information for any
required design, if the application programs are written well using the programming language.
CAD/CAM III [Link] II
SEM (AR20)

F. Analysis Features
In this range, the kind of analysis facilities that are required to be carried on the product
models being generated should be considered. The simplest kind to the most
sophisticated features may be available under this category. The simplest facilities may
be calculating perimeter, area, volume, mass, centre gravity, moment of inertia, radius
of gyration, etc.

G. Connecting Features
Modelling is only the start of the complete process of a product evolution, and as such
the data generated is used directly by the other systems. It is, therefore, necessary that
the internal data format in which the data is stored by the modelling system should be
well documented and should also have very good connectivity (data interfacing) with
other allied modules. Ideally, an integrated data base structure would be useful wherein
all the various modules share the common data base. However, this would only be
possible if all the modules are developed at a single developer as in the case of Computer
vision or Unigraphics for CAD/CAM integration.
 Layers:
 In Auto CAD, we make individual layers…
 For things like
 Hidden lines
 Center lines
 Section lines
 Break lines
 Layers are a way of managing, tidying and also controlling the visual layout of a drawing.
 A whole section of a drawing can be turned
on or off, or simply one aspect can be controlled - text for example
 This is all done by using layers within Autocad.
 Layers are controlled by the layer properties
manager button which is located on the object properties toolbar:

 Each new layer is created by you, the user. Normally, it is

acceptable to have a layer for each different part of a drawing.
 Add a New Layer - Press the New button to create a new layer.
 Delete a Layer - Press the delete button to delete the selected layer.
 Set Current layer - Press the current button to set the selected layer current. All objects drawn
will then be drawn on this current layer.
 Show Details - Press the show details button to see more detailed information about the
selected layer.
 Each layer also has the following options against it:

Name - Displays the layer name.

On - Controls if the layer is on or off. Select the light bulb to turn the layer off on the drawing.
Freeze in all VP - Pressing this will freeze the layer in all viewports as well as the current model view
(see lesson 10 to learn about viewports)
Lock - This handy feature locks a layer preventing any content of the layer from being modified.
Colour - Change this to whichever colour you like. All objects drawn on the layer will display the
chosen colour provided that the objects colour setting in the object properties toolbar (shown above)
is set to 'By Layer'.
Linetype - Set the default linetype for all objects drawn on the layer. i.e continuous, dashed, dotted
etc.
Lineweight - Set the thickness a line appears .Default is no thickness. This option can be toggled
on/off on the display by the LWT button above the command console.
Plot - Select if the layer will be shown when the drawing is plotted (printed).
The current layer, layer colour, linetype and lineweight can all be controlled outside of the layer
properties manager via the object properties toolbar.