Exploring data

Data: A collection of numbers or facts that is used as a basis for making

conclusions and taking a serious decision.

Types of data in Statistics:

The data in Statistics is splitted into two different sections,

First Type of data is:

Qualitative data is a categorical measurement expressed not in terms of

numbers, but rather by means of a natural language description. In
statistics, it is often used interchangeably with "categorical" data.

Example:
favourite colour = "blue"
height = "tall"

Note:

Although we may have categories, the categories may have a structure

to them. When there is not a natural ordering of the categories, we call
these nominal categories. Examples might be gender, race, religion, or
sport.

When the categories may be ordered, these are called ordinal variables.
Categorical variables that judge size (small, medium, large, etc.) are
ordinal variables. Attitudes (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree,
strongly agree) are also ordinal variables, however we may not know
which value is the best or worst of these issues. Note that the distance
between these categories is not something we can measure.
The second type of data which is:

Quantitative data is a numerical measurement expressed not by means

of a natural language description, but rather in terms of numbers.
However, not all numbers are continuous and measurable. For example,
the social security number is a number, but not something that one can
add or subtract.

Example:

favourite colour = "450 nm"

height = "1.8 m"

Note:

Quantitative data always are associated with a scale measure.

Probably the most common scale type is the ratio-scale. Observations of

this type are on a scale that has a meaningful zero value but also have an
equidistant measure (i.e., the difference between 10 and 20 is the same
as the difference between 100 and 110). For example, a 10 year-old girl
is twice as old as a 5 year-old girl. Since you can measure zero years,
time is a ratio-scale variable. Money is another common ratio-scale
quantitative measure. Observations that you count are usually ratio-
scale (e.g., number of widgets).

A more general quantitative measure is the interval scale. Interval scales

also have a equidistant measure. However, the doubling principle breaks
down in this scale. A temperature of 50 degrees Celsius is not "half as
hot" as a temperature of 100, but a difference of 10 degrees indicates
the same difference in temperature anywhere along the scale. The
Kelvin temperature scale, however, constitutes a ratio scale because on
the Kelvin scale zero indicates absolute zero in temperature, the
complete absence of heat. So one can say, for example, that 200 degrees
Kelvin is twice as hot as 100 degrees Kelvin.

How to present the Data Types:

There are many ways to present the data, one way; we can present data
on a table or in a graph. And that thing will help the researchers to get
the descriptive statistics for the data set.

Graphical Methods:

There are many Graphical methods can be used to describe the data set
in a simple way to gives it's summery for the data user. So, in this part
we will show only two types of graphical methods:

First Type of Graphical Method "Pie Charts":

(Look pages 15, 16)

Figure 1: Pie chart

Use it to...

• convey approximate proportional relationships (relative amounts)

at a point in time
• compare part of a whole at a given point in time
• Exploded: emphasize a small proportion of parts

Do not Use it...

• For exact comparisons of values, because estimating angles is

difficult for people.
 • For rank data: Use column/bar charts in this case; use multiple
column/bar charts for grouped data
• If proportions vary greatly; do not use multiple pies to compare
corresponding parts.

Caution!

• Pie charts cannot represent values beyond 100%.

• Each pie chart is valid for one point in time only.
• Pie charts are only suited to presenting quite a few percentage
values.
• Angles are harder to estimate for people than distances; perspective
pie charts are even harder to interpret.

Steps to draw a pie chart by hand use:

1- You have to present your categorical data in a table with its

frequencies
2- You have to calculate the pies angles for each category by using
the following function:
Angle for large Tattoos = 360o *

3- Plot the pies in a round circle by using the protractor.

Steps to draw a pie chart using Minitab software:

1. Enter the qualitative data to be graphed in one

column.

2. Click on Graph.

3. Click on Pie Chart.

4. Double click on the column containing the variable

that you want to graph and make sure that it appears in the
Categorical Variables box.
 5. To title your graph, click on Labels.

a. Type in your title and click OK.

6. To add Slice Labels to the graph, Click Labels.

a. Click Slice Labels.

b. Check off the desired options.

c. Click OK.

7. Click OK.

Example: plot the pie chart for the following data set:

The purpose of this worksheet is to help familiarize you with Minitab.

You are given step-by-step instructions on exactly what commands to
give Minitab in order to produce a pie chart and a bar chart based on
data concerning the directors of the films of the Three Stooges. Answer
all questions (which appear in red) in complete sentences – you are
trying to convince me that you understand the material and that you can
communicate your understanding clearly.

The Three Stooges had a number of different directors In the 190 films
that they made with Columbia Pictures between 1934 and 1959. Here is
a table of data which includes several of the directors, along with the
number of films they directed:

Director # of Films Directed

Del Lord 39
Preston Black 7
Charles Chase 5
 Jules White 104
Edward Bernds 25
Other 10

You will create a pie chart and a bar graph which reflects the information
in this table. You will then be asked a few questions about the results.

Start Minitab by clicking on the start button at the lower left of the
screen. From All Programs, choose Statistical Programs and find
Minitab in the list. Once Minitab starts, you will see a mostly clear white
window at the top labeled Session and a lower window labeled
Worksheet 1. You will enter the data in the worksheet window.

Here are the steps to enter the data. In column 1 (C1) enter the
directors’ names in the cells (order does not matter). You can use the
edit keys (the four keys with the arrows on them) to move between
cells. The name of the column will change to C1-T since you have
entered text in that column. Then enter the number of films directed by
each person in column 2 (C2) in the corresponding position. You now
have the data (both categorical and quantitative).

Here are the commands to create the pie chart. Click on the Graph tab
and select Pie Chart from the pull down menu. Select “Chart values
from a table.” Click in the “Categorical variable” box, click on C1 in
the left hand box and then click on the Select button. Click in the
“Summary variables” box, click on C2 in the left hand box and then
click the Select button again. Minitab now has the information it needs
to create a pie chart. However, let’s make it look nice!

To enter labels for the pie slices, click Labels and enter a title in the
appropriate place. While still in the Labels menu, click on the “Slice
Labels” tab and under “Label pie slices with” select “Category
name.” Click OK. Minitab now has the data, the title, and the labels it
needs to create the desired pie chart. Click OK and Minitab will create
the pie chart.

Now you will insert the pie chart into this Word document. Increase the
size of the window containing the pie chart. What happens when you
put the mouse arrow over a region of the pie chart? Insert your answer
here (in complete sentences).

A small window pops up with that region (slice or sector) of the pie as a
percentage of the whole pie, reflecting the percentage of the data which
falls in the corresponding category.

Click on the File tab and select “Save Graph As.” In the “Save As”
menu, change the “Save as type” to a graphics format (such as JPG or
BMP). Change the “Save in” and “File name” information until it is
what you want (be careful to save the file in a place you can find it). Do
not close Minitab, since you will make a bar chart using the same data
you have already entered.
How would you describe the pie chart? Answer in complete sentences.

The chart shows the six categories of directors in such a way that the
area of each sector is proportional to the percentage of Stooges films
which that category of director(s) directed. Each category is represented
by a different color.

What observations do you have about the directors, given the

information in the pie chart?

The chart shows that Jules White directed more than half of all of the
films. Del Lord directed slightly less than a quarter of the films and
Edward Bernds directed a bit less than that. Preston Black, Charles
Chase, and “Other” each directed about the same amount and these are
the smallest categories.
Second Type of Graphical Method "Par chart": (look Pages 16, 17)

Column/Bar Chart

Use it to...

• Present few data over a nominal (e.g. countries, testing conditions,

...) or interval scale (e.g. time); useful for comparisons of data

Do not Use it for...

• Comparisons: Better use one-dimensional scatterplots, because

these are not dominated by bars or columns.
• Larger data sets: Use line charts.

Selecting Bars or Columns

• Use analogy as a selection criterion, if applicable; when in doubt,

use columns
• Use a horizontal bar chart if the labels are too long to fit under the
columns

Variants

• Multiple Column/Bar Chart: Use it to present data rows for

several variables
• Side-by-Side Chart: Use it to (1) show contrasting trends between
levels of an independent variable, (2) if comparisons between
individual pairs of values are most important; do not use for more
than two independent variables

Figure 2: Multiple column chart (left), side-by-side chart (right)

Steps to draw a par chart using Minitab software:

Bar Graph

1. Enter the qualitative data to be graphed in one

column.

2. Click on Graph.

3. Click on Bar Chart.

4. Make sure that ‘Counts of unique variables’ is

highlighted.

5. Make sure that Simple is selected and Click OK.

6. Double click on the column containing the variable

that you want to graph and make sure that it appears in the
Categorical Variables box.

7. To title your graph, click on Labels.

a. Type in your title and click OK.

8. Click OK.

Example: plot the par-chart chart for the following data set:

The purpose of this worksheet is to help familiarize you with Minitab.

You are given step-by-step instructions on exactly what commands to
give Minitab in order to produce a pie chart and a bar chart based on
data concerning the directors of the films of the Three Stooges. Answer
all questions (which appear in red) in complete sentences – you are
trying to convince me that you understand the material and that you can
communicate your understanding clearly.

The Three Stooges had a number of different directors In the 190 films
that they made with Columbia Pictures between 1934 and 1959. Here is
a table of data which includes several of the directors, along with the
number of films they directed:

Director # of Films Directed

Del Lord 39
Preston Black 7
Charles Chase 5
Jules White 104
Edward Bernds 25
Other 10

You will create a pie chart and a bar graph which reflects the information
in this table. You will then be asked a few questions about the results.

Start Minitab by clicking on the start button at the lower left of the
screen. From All Programs, choose Statistical Programs and find
Minitab in the list. Once Minitab starts, you will see a mostly clear white
window at the top labeled Session and a lower window labeled
Worksheet 1. You will enter the data in the worksheet window.

Here are the steps to enter the data. In column 1 (C1) enter the
directors’ names in the cells (order does not matter). You can use the
edit keys (the four keys with the arrows on them) to move between
cells. The name of the column will change to C1-T since you have
entered text in that column. Then enter the number of films directed by
each person in column 2 (C2) in the corresponding position. You now
have the data (both categorical and quantitative).

Now, you will create a bar chart of the same data and insert it into this
Word document. The commands are similar to those used above. Click
on the Graph tab and select Bar Chart from the pull down menu.
Under “Bars represent” select “Values from a table” in the pull down
menu. Choose the categorical variable, the “graph” (or quantitative)
variable, and make the title as with the pie chart. Create the bar chart,
save it as a graphic file, and insert it here:
How would you describe the bar chart?

The categories are given along the horizontal axis and the number of
Stooges films directed by the director(s) in the corresponding categories
is represented by the height of the bars and is calibrated along the
vertical axis.

How would you describe the distribution given by the bar chart?

This is a bad question! Bar charts do not have distributions (though

histograms do). Any alleged distribution would change by simply
rearranging the order in which the directors appear along the horizontal
axis.
How can you tell you have a bar chart and not a histogram?

In a bar chart, there are spaces between the bars and there are no such
spaces in a histogram. Since the horizontal axis is labeled with names, a
quantitative variable is represented along that axis and a histogram
involves two quantitative variables.

Which do you find more informative, the pie chart or the bar chart?

Well, the bar chart presents the actual number of films directed,
whereas the pie chart only contains information about percentages and
not raw numbers (in fact, you cannot tell how many Stooge films there
are simply by looking at the pie chart, but you can by looking at the bar
chart – if you are willing to do some addition). You can tell the relative
sizes of the categorical variable in the pie chart by considering areas of
sectors of the disk, and in the bar chart by considering heights of bars.
Your opinions may vary on the answer to this one..
Histograms and Scatter Plot:

Histogram is a graphical display of tabulated frequencies, shown as bars.

It shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several categories: it is
a form of data binning. The categories are usually specified as non-
overlapping intervals of some variable. The categories (bars) must be
adjacent. The intervals (or bands, or bins) are generally of the same
size,[1] but not necessarily so.

Uses of the Histogram:

A histogram is used when the data are measured on an interval or a ratio

scale.

Frequency Polygon, Histograms

Figure 3: Histogram as frequency distribution

Variants

• Polygon: Connects data points through straight lines or higher

order graphs
• Histogram: Columns/bars touch; useful for larger sets of data
points, typically used for frequency distributions
• Staircase Chart: Displays only the silhouette of the histogram;
useful for even larger sets of data points, typically used for
frequency distributions
• Step chart: Use it to illustrate trends among more than two
members of nominal or ordinal scales; do not use it for two or
more variables or levels of a single variable (hard to read)
• Pyramid histogram: Two mirror histograms; use it for
comparisons
How to draw a histogram using Minitab:

1. Enter the data to be graphed into one column.

2. Click on Graph.

3. Click on Histogram.

4. Make sure that Simple is selected and Click OK.

5. Double click on the column containing the variable

that you want to graph and make sure that it appears in the
Graph Variables box.

6. To title your graph, click on Labels.

a. Type in your title and click OK.

7. Click OK.

8. To fix your own classes, double click on the

horizontal axis.

a. Click on Binning.

b. Click on Cutpoint positions under Interval Type.

c. Click on Midpoint/Cutpoint Positions.

d. In the box, enter the cutpoints of the classes separated

by a space.

e. Click OK.
A scatter plot is a type of mathematical diagram using Cartesian
coordinates to display values for two variables for a set of data.

Figure 4: One-dimensional scatterplot (left), two-dimensional scatterplot

(right)

Variants

1. One-dimensional scatterplot: Data point are drawn above a

baseline (as in column/bar charts). Here the data points are not
connected but remain isolated data points.
2. Two-dimensional scatter plot: Shows correlation between two
data sets. This chart type has two dependent variables: One is
plotted along the X axis, the other along the Y axis; the
independent variable is the intersection of both dependent
variables, realized as a data point in the diagram.

Use it to...

• Show measurements over time (one-dimensional scatterplot)

• Convey an overall impression of the relation between two variables
(Two-dimensional scatterplot)
Do not Use it for...

• Determining and comparing trends, interpolation, extrapolation,

recognition and comparison of change rates
• More than one independent variable: Avoid illustrating more than
one independent variable in a scatter plot

How to draw a scatter plot using Minitab:

1. Select Graph >> Scatterplot...

2. Select the graph type "Simple."
3. Specify your Y variable and your X variable in the boxes
provided.
4. Select OK. A new window containing the scatter plot will appear.
Example:

Entering Data

First, we want to enter two columns of data

C1: 55 25 61 50 60 59 43 47

C2: 28.0 13.0 31.0 25.5 30.5 30.0 22.0 24.0

1. With your mouse (and using the picture below as a guide),

click in the cell in column 1 (below C1) and enter the data,
55,25,61, ...
Make sure you hit the ENTER key after you enter
each data value.

2. Click cell 1 in column 2 (below C2) and enter the data,

28.0,13.0,31.0, ...
Make sure you hit the ENTER key after you enter
each data value.

Naming columns: Click in the cell just below C1 (see the picture
above) and then type in an appropriate name. Similarly C2 and
all other columns can be named.

Calculator:

The calculator can be used to do a variety of things: add

columns together, multiply a column by a constant, calculate
the median of a column, square root of a number, etc.

Suppose we have data in columns C1 and C2

1. Click: Calc → Calculator

2. Store result in variable: type in the column where data
will be displayed, ex.-C3
3. Expression: where equation is displayed, ex- C1+C2
a. In the left hand column, click on C1, hit SELECT
b. Click on “+”
c. Click on C2, click SELECT
d. Click OK
4. Answers will appear in row C3
5. To calculate functions: ex.-mean of C1
-click MEAN under functions, click SELECT

-click C1 and click SELECT

-click OK

Note:

** denotes exponents, i.e.- C1**2 is C1 raised to the second

power

Calculate the Statistics of a Column:

If you want statistics on column C1:

 1. Click: Stat → Basic Statistics → Display Descriptive
Statistics
2. Click on C1, hit SELECT. C1 should appear under
Variables.
Note: Clicking more than one column will result in
statistics for each column

3. Click Statistics…, check the options you would like

displayed
4. Click Graphs…, check the graphs you would like to display
5. Click OK
6. Statistics will appear in the session window and graphs
will appear individually

Example print out:

Variable N N* Mean SE Mean StDev Minimum

Q1 Median Q3 Maximum

Producing Graphs from the Data Entered:

Scatterplot: Used to compare columns, ex: C1 vs. C2

1. Click: Graph → Scatterplot → Click appropriate graph →

Click OK
2. Y variables:
a) Click first cell → Click on C1→ Click SELECT
b) C1 should appear under Y variables
3. X variables:
 a) Click first cell → Click on C2→ Click SELECT
b) C2 should appear under X variables
4. To change heading of the scatter plot, click Labels… →
Title: type in your title→ Click OK
5. Back at scatter plot screen click OK
6. Graph will appear on screen

Scatterplot of C1 vs C2

3
C1

6 7 8 9 10
C2

Histogram Graph:

1. Click: Graph → Histogram → Click appropriate graph →

Click OK
2. Click the column the histogram will display ex.-C4 → Click
SELECT
3. C4 should appear in the box: Graph variables
Note: You can relabel in same manner as scatter plot

4. Click OK
5. Graph will appear on screen
 Histogram of C4

Frequency
3

0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
C4

There will be many options for each graph. For example: for
scatter plots there are several options: simple, with groups,
with regression, etc. Pictures are provided with each one to
help you choose.

After you choose which type of graph you want you will then be
asked to put in what row you want with what variable. To
choose: double click on the row C1 or C2 you want to go into the
X variable and the Y variable. Then click select and your
scatter plot will appear.
A scatterplot is a graphic tool used to display the relationship between two
quantitative variables.

How to Read a Scatterplot

A scatterplot consists of an X axis (the horizontal axis), a Y axis (the vertical axis),
and a series of dots. Each dot on the scatterplot represents one observation from a data
set. The position of the dot on the scatterplot represents its X and Y values.

Let's work through an example. Below, on the left, a table shows the height and the
weight of five starters on a high school basketball team. On the right, the same data is
displayed in a scatterplot.

Height, inches Weight, pounds

67 155

72 220

77 240

74 195

69 175

Each player in the table is represented by a dot on the scatterplot. The first dot, for
example, represents the shortest, lightest player. From the scale on the X axis, you see
that the shortest player is 67 inches tall; and from the scale on the Y axis, you see that
he/she weighs 155 pounds. In a similar way, you can read the height and weight of
every other player represented on the scatterplot.

Patterns of Data in Scatterplots

Scatterplots are used to analyze patterns in bivariate data. These patterns are described
in terms of linearity, slope, and strength.

• Linearity refers to whether a data pattern is linear (straight) or nonlinear (curved).

• Slope refers to the direction of change in variable Y when variable X gets bigger. If
variable Y also gets bigger, the slope is positive; but if variable Y gets smaller, the
slope is negative.
• Strength refers to the degree of "scatter" in the plot. If the dots are widely spread,
the relationship between variables is weak. If the dots are concentrated around a
line, the relationship is strong.

Additionally, scatterplots can reveal unusual features in data sets, such as clusters,
gaps, and outliers. The scatterplots below illustrate some common patterns.
 Linear, positive slope, weak Linear, zero slope, strong Linear, negative slope, strong,

with outlier

Nonlinear, positive slope, weak Nonlinear, negative slope, strong, Nonlinear, zero slope, weak

with gap

The pattern in the last example (nonlinear, zero slope, weak) is the pattern that is
found when two variables are not related.

Test Your Understanding of This Lesson

Problem 1

The scatterplot below shows the relation between two variables.

Which of the following statements are true?

I. The relation is strong.

II. The slope is positive.
III. The slope is negative.

(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) III only
(D) I and II
(E) I and III

Solution

The correct answer is (A). The relation is strong because the dots are tightly clustered
around a line. Note that a line does not have to be straight for a relationship to be
strong. In this case, the line is U-shaped.

Across the entire scatterplot, the slope is zero. In the first half of the scatterplot, the Y
variable gets smaller as the X variable gets bigger; so the slope in the first half of the
scatterplot is negative. But in the second half of the scatterplot, just the opposite
occurs. The Y variable gets bigger as the X variable gets bigger; so the slope in the
second half is positive. When the slope is positive in one half of a scatterplot and
negative in the other half, the slope for the entire scatterplot is zero.

The basic "scatter plot" command creates a simple scatter plot of a response variable y
against a predictor variable x.

Minitab 14 Procedure

1. Select Graph >> Scatterplot...

2. Select the graph type "Simple."
3. Specify your Y variable and your X variable in the boxes provided.
4. Select OK. A new window containing the scatter plot will appear.