Electronics

Dr. Khaled Mostafa Reda

Sinai University (SU)
Faculty of Information Technology and Computer Science (FIT)
E-Mail: [Link]@[Link]
Last Day

• Course information. • Direction of current.

• Course Policy. • Voltage.
• Course objectives. • Power.
• Lecture Contents. • Energy.
• Electric Circuit. • Passive Sign Convention
• Systems of Units. “PSC”.
• The SI Prefixes. • Circuit Elements.
• Charge.
• Direct Current “DC” vs.
Alternating Current
“AC”. Lecture (2) 2
TODAY

• Resistance. • Kirchhoff's voltage law.

• Resistance: Basic Concepts • Series Connection.
and Assumptions. • parallel Connection.
• Electrical resistance. • Voltage Divider.
• Ohm’s law. • Current Divider.
• Conductance.
• Power in resistor.
• Open circuit and short circuit.
• Branches, nodes, loops.
• Kirchhoff's current law.

Lecture (2) 3
 Lecture #2
Basic Laws

Lecture (2) 4
Resistance
• Materials in general have a characteristic behaviour of resisting the flow
of electric charge.
• This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance
and is represented by the symbol R.
• Depends on geometry and resistivity of the material
—Copper 1.673e-8 ohm-meters.
— Lead 20.648e-8 ohm-meters.
—Paper 1010 Insulator
—Mica 5 ×​1011 Insulator
—Glass 1012 Insulator
—Teflon 3 ×​1012 Insulator

Lecture (2) 5
Resistance
• Ohms per square for sheet.
• A cylinder of length ℓ and cross-sectional area A has a resistance:

• ℓ
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
where
—R= resistance of an element in ohms (Ω).
—ρ=resistivity of the material in ohm-meters.
—ℓ= length of cylindrical material in meters.
—A =Cross sectional area of material in meters.

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist

the flow of electric current; it is measured in ohms (Ω)
Lecture (2) 6
Resistance: Basic Concepts and
Assumptions
• We will always measure resistance in Ohms.
• Ohms are denoted by the Greek letter Omega: Ω
• Examples: 50Ω, 1kΩ, 2.6MΩ
• Conductors (e.g. wires) have very low resistance (< 0.1Ω ) that can
usually be neglected (i.e. we will assume wires have zero resistance).
• Insulators (e.g. air) have very large resistance (> 50 MΩ) that can
usually be ignored (omitted from circuit for analysis).
• Resistors have a medium range of resistance and must be accounted for
in the circuit analysis.
• Conceptually, a light bulb is similar to a resistor.
• Properties of the bulb control how much current flows and how much
power is dissipated (absorbed & emitted as light and heat).

Lecture (2) 7
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across
a resistor is directly proportional to the
current i flowing through the resistor.
• As with all circuit elements, we need to know how
𝑣 ∝ 𝑖
the current through and voltage across the device
are related.
• Many materials have a complicated nonlinear
relationship (including light bulbs): v = ±f(i)
• Materials with a linear relationship satisfy Ohm’s
law: v = mi.
• The slope, m, is equal to the resistance of the
element.
• Ohm’s Law: 𝑣 = ±𝑖 𝑅.
• Sign, ±, is determined by the passive sign
convention (PSC). Lecture (2) 8
Other Eq. derived from Ohm’s Law

• Ohm’s law implies: 𝑖 = 𝑣/𝑅

𝑝 = ±𝑣𝑖.
• Therefore
𝑣 𝑣2 .
𝑝= 𝑣 ( ) = 𝑝 = (𝑖𝑅)𝑖 = 𝑖2𝑅.
𝑟 𝑅

—Resistors cannot produce power so the power absorbed by a

resistor will always be positive.

1Ω = 1𝑉/𝐴.

Lecture (2) 9
Conductance
• Sometimes conductance is specified instead of resistance.
• Inverse of resistance.
1 𝑖
𝐺= =
𝑅 𝑣
• Units: siemens (S) or mhos (Ʊ).
• 1S=1Ʊ=1A/V.
• In words: the ability of an element to conduct electric current.
𝒗 𝟐
𝒗 = 𝒊𝑹 𝒑 = 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒊𝟐 𝑹 =
𝑹
𝒊 = 𝑮𝒗 𝒊𝟐
𝒑 = 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗𝟐 𝑮 =
𝑮

Lecture (2) 10
Example
• Example 2.1: An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its
resistance.
Solution
𝑣 120
• From Ohm’s law, 𝑅 = = = 60 Ω
𝑖 2
• Practice Problem 2.1: The essential component of a toaster
is an electrical element (a resistor) that converts electrical
energy to heat energy. How much current is drawn by a
toaster with resistance 15 Ω at 110 V?
Solution
𝑣 110
• From Ohm’s law, 𝑖 = = = 7.33𝐴
𝑅 15

Lecture (2) 11
Example 2.2
• In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.8, calculate the
current i, the conductance G, and the power
p?
Solution
𝑣 30
• 𝑖 = = = 6 mA
𝑅 5 × 103
• The conductance is
1 1
• 𝐺 = = = 0.2 Ʊ= 0.2 mS
𝑅 5 ×103
• 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 30 (6 × 10−3 ) = 180 𝑚𝑊
• 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 = (6 × 10−3 )2 × (5 × 103 ) = 180 𝑚𝑊
• 𝑝 = 𝑣 2 𝐺 = (30)2 × 0.2 × 10−3 = 180 𝑚𝑊

Lecture (2) 12
Example 2.3
• A voltage source of 20 sin 𝜋t V is connected across a
5-kΩ resistor. Find the current through the resistor
and the power dissipated.
Solution
𝑣 20 sin 𝜋𝑡
•𝑖 = = = 4 sin 𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝐴
𝑅 5×103
• Hence, p = vi = 80 sin 𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝑊

Lecture (2) 13
Short Circuit as Zero Resistance

• A short circuit is a circuit element (or wire) with resistance

approaching zero, R ≈ 0.
• Just drawn as a wire (line).
• 𝑣 = 𝑖 ×𝑅 = 0

Lecture (2) 14
Open Circuit

• An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance

approaching infinity R ≈ ∞
𝑣
• 𝑖= lim =0
𝑅→∞ 𝑅
• Just omitted

Lecture (2) 15
Circuit Building Blocks
• Before we can begin analysis, we need a common
language and framework for describing circuits.
• For this course, networks and circuits are the same.
• Networks are composed of nodes, branches, and
loops.

Lecture (2) 16
Topology of Electric Circuit
Electric Circuit
An electric circuit consists of

Branches Nodes Loops

Lecture (2) 17
Topology of Electric Circuit
Branch
 Nodes
A node is the point of connection between two or
more branches
• A node is usually indicated by a dot in a
circuit. If a short circuit (a connecting
wire) connects two nodes, the two nodes
constitute a single node.
• The three points that form node b are
connected by perfectly conducting wires
and therefore constitute a single point.
The same is true of the four points
forming node c.
• Essential Node: the point of connection
between three or more branches
Lecture (2) 19
Topology of Electric Circuit

Node
A node is a common terminal between two or more elements.
• Simple node is a common terminal inside a branch 1,4,5,6
• Non-simple node is a common terminal of more than
two branches 2, 3, 0

Lecture (2) 20
Topology of Electric Circuit
Loop
A Loop is a set of branches making a closed path.
• Independent loops 12501, 23052, 34603
• Non-independent loops 12301, 1234601, 2346052

Lecture (2) 21
Example 2.4
• Determine the number of branches
and nodes in the circuit shown in Fig.
2.12. Identify which elements are in
series and which are in parallel.
Solution
• There are four elements in the circuit,
the circuit has four branches: 10 V, 5 Ω,
6 Ω, and 2 A. The circuit has three
nodes as identified in Fig. 2.13. The 5-
Ω resistor is in series with the 10-V
voltage source because the same current
would flow in both. The 6-Ω resistor is
in parallel with the 2-A current source
because both are connected to the same
nodes 2 and 3. Lecture (2) 22
Overview of Kirchhoff’s Laws
• The foundation of circuit analysis is
— The defining equations for circuit elements (e.g.
Ohm's law)
— Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)
— Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)
• The defining equations tell us how the
voltage and current within a circuit element
are related
• Kirchhoff's laws tell us how the voltages and
currents in different branches are related

Lecture (2) 23
 Basic Laws

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) states that

The algebraic sum of the currents entering any node is zero

To do an algebraic sum, algebraic sign corresponding to a

reference direction must be assigned to every current at the node

Lecture (2) 24
 Basic Laws
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) states that

Lecture (2) 25
 Basic Laws

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

KCL is usually applied only

for non-simple node.

Lecture (2) 26
 Basic Laws

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

 Basic Laws
Series Connection
Example 2.5
• For the circuit in Fig. 2.21(a), find
voltages v1 and v2.
Solution

Lecture (2) 29
Example 2.5
• Find current io and voltage vo in the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.25.
Solution

Lecture (2) 30
 Basic Laws
Series Connection
 Basic Laws
Series Connection

The series combination of resistors results in increasing the

total resistance
Lecture (2) 32
 Basic Laws
Parallel Connection
 Basic Laws
Parallel Connection
 Basic Laws
Parallel Connection
 Basic Laws
Parallel Connection
 Basic Laws
Parallel Connection
Example 2.9
• Find Req for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.34

1Ω+5Ω=6Ω

2Ω+2Ω=4Ω

Req = 4 Ω + 2.4 Ω + 8 Ω = 14.4 Ω

Lecture (2) 38
Example 2.10
Calculate the equivalent
resistance Rab in the circuit in
Fig. 2.37

1Ω+5Ω=6Ω

1 Ω +​2​Ω​=​3​Ω

Lecture (2) 39
 Basic Laws

Voltage Divider
When resistors are connected in series, the total voltage
across these resistors is divided between them with a ratio
that depends on the values of theses resistors.

Lecture (2) 40
 Basic Laws
Voltage Divider
When resistors are connected in series, the total voltage
across these resistors is divided between them with a ratio
that depends on the values of theses resistors.

Lecture (2) 41
 Basic Laws
Current Divider
When resistors are connected in parallel, the total
current is divide between these resistor with a ratio that
depends on the values of theses resistors.

Lecture (2) 42
 Basic Laws
Current Divider
When resistors are connected in parallel, the total
current is divide between these resistor with a ratio that
depends on the values of theses resistors.

Lecture (2) 43
Example 2.13
• For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.44(a),
determine: (a) the voltage vo, (b) the
power supplied by the current source, (c)
the power absorbed by each resistor

Lecture (2) 44
Example 2.13

Lecture (2) 45