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ATOMIC ENERGY HR. SEC. SCHOOL, KALPAKKAM

HAND NOTES FOR CLASS XII – PHYSICS
CHAPTER -8
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
I. Very Short Answer Questions: ( 2 Marks each )
1. What is meant by surface barrier?
The potential barrier which prevents free electrons from leaving the metallic surface is called
surface barrier.
2. Define work function of a metal.
The minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal surface is called work
function of that metal. The work function of the metal is denoted by 𝜙0 and is measured in
electron volt (eV).
3. Define one electron Volt (eV)
One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated by a
potential difference of 1 V.
1 eV = KE gained by the electron
= Work done by the electric field
=qV
= 1.602 × 10−19 C × 1 V

∴ 1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J

4. Mention the various types of electron emission.

(1) Thermionic emission
(2) Field emission
(3) Photo-electric emission
(4) Secondary emission
5. What is meant by Thermionic emission?
By suitably heating a meal, sufficient thermal energy can be imparted to the free electrons to
enable them to come out of the metal. This is called Thermionic emission.
Examples: cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, X-ray tubes etc.
6. What is meant by Field emission?
By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 Vm−1 ) to a metal, electrons can be
pulled out of the metal, as in a spark plug.
Examples: Field emission scanning electron microscopes, Field-emission display etc
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7. What is meant by Secondary emission?

When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes the surface of the metal, the kinetic energy of the
striking electrons is transferred to the free electrons on the metal surface.
Thus the free electrons get sufficient kinetic energy so that the secondary emission of electron
occurs.
Examples: Characteristic x-rays, photo multiplier tubes etc.
8. What is meant by Photoelectric effect?
The emission of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light or any other
electromagnetic radiation such as γ rays, X-rays, ultraviolet and even visible light.
The electrons so emitted are called as Photo electrons.
9. Define Stopping potential.
The minimum negative (retarding) potential given to the anode for which the photo electric
current becomes zero is called the cut-off potential or stopping potential (𝐕𝟎 ).
10. Define Threshold frequency (𝝂𝟎 ).
Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of incident radiation below which photo
electrons are not emitted.
11. What is meant by Dual nature of radiation?
In the phenomena like interference, diffraction, polarisation, the photon behaves like a wave.
In the phenomena like emission, absorption and interaction with matter (photo electric effect)
photon behaves as a particle. Hence light photon has a dual nature.
In the low frequency region, light behaves as waves.
In the high frequency region, light behaves as particles.
12. What is a photo electric cell? Mention its types.
Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy.
It works on the principle of photo electric effect.
Photo cells are classified into three types.
(1) Photo emissive cell
(2) Photovoltaic cell
(3) Photoconductive cell
13. What are X-rays?
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength ranging from 0.1 Å to 100 Å which are
produced, when fast moving electrons strike a metal target such as tungsten.
14. What is meant by cut - off wave length of x-rays?
For a given accelerating voltage, the lower limit for the wavelength of continuous x-ray spectra is
same for all targets. This minimum wavelength is called cut-off wavelength.
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15. What is meant by Bremsstrahlung radiation?

When a fast moving electron penetrates and approaches a target nucleus, the interaction between
the electron and the nucleus either accelerates or decelerates it which results in a change of path
of the electron.
The radiation produced from such decelerating electron is called Bremsstrahlung or braking
radiation.
16. Explain Hertz’s observation in photoelectric effect.

The electromagnetic waves produced in Hertz experiment were detected by a detector that has a
copper wire bent in the shape of a circle.
Hertz observed that high voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the
was illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp.
The reason for this behaviour of the spark is due to the photoelectric emission.
Whenever ultraviolet light is incident on the metallic sphere, the electrons on the outer surface
are emitted which caused the spark to be more vigorous.

17. Explain Lenard’s observation in photoelectric effect.

Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an
evacuated glass/quartz tube enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit.
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As soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow also stopped.
These observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiations fall on the emitter plate C, electrons
are ejected from it which are attracted towards the positive, collector plate A by the electric field.
The electrons flow through the evacuated glass tube, resulting in the current flow.
Thus, light falling on the surface of the emitter causes current in the external circuit.

18. Explain Hallwach’s observation in photoelectric effect.

Hallwachs connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope. He observed that the
zinc plate lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light.
An uncharged zinc plate became positively charged when it was irradiated by ultraviolet light.
Positive charge on a positively charged zinc plate was found to be further enhanced when it was
illuminated by ultraviolet light.
From these observations he concluded that negatively charged particles were emitted from the
zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.

19. Explain the effect of intensity of light on photo current.

Keeping the frequency of the incident radiation and the potential difference between the
cathode and the anode at constant values, the intensity of incident radiation is varied.
The corresponding photoelectric current is measured in the microammeter.
It is found that the photo electric current increases linearly with the intensity of incident
radiation.
Since the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the number of photoelectrons
emitted per second, it implies that the number of photoelectrons emitted per second is
proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
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20. Explain the effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential.

Adjust the same intensity of light radiation at various frequencies and study the variation of photo
current with collector plate potential.
The resulting variation is shown below.

From the graph, it is found that higher the frequency of the incident radiation, higher is the value
of stopping potential V0 .
We obtain different values of stopping potential but the same value of the saturation current
for incident radiation of different frequencies.
The stopping potential is more negative for higher frequencies of incident radiation.
The stopping potentials are in the order 𝐕𝟎𝟑 > 𝐕𝟎𝟐 > 𝐕𝟎𝟏 if the frequencies are in the order
𝝂𝟑 > 𝝂𝟐 > 𝝂𝟏 .
This implies that greater the frequency of incident light, greater is the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons. Consequently, we need greater retarding potential to stop them completely.
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21. Mention the laws of photoelectric effect.

(1) For a given frequency of incident light, the number of photoelectrons emitted is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The saturation current is also directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light.
(2) Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is independent of intensity of the incident light.
(3) Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons from a given metal is directly proportional to the
frequency of incident light.
(4) For a given surface, the emission of photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency of incident
light is greater than a certain minimum frequency called the threshold frequency.
(5) There is no time lag between incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons.

22. Explain the failure of wave theory of light in explaining photoelectric effect.
(1) According to wave theory, light of greater intensity should impart greater kinetic energy to
the liberated electrons.
But this does not happen. The experiments show that maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons does not depend on the intensity of the incident light.
(2) According to wave theory, if a sufficiently intense beam of light is incident on the surface,
electrons will be liberated from the surface of the target, however low the frequency of the
radiation is.
But from the experiments, we know that photoelectric emission is not possible below a certain
minimum frequency. Therefore, the wave theory fails to explain the existence of threshold
frequency.
(3) According to wave theory, electron needs considerable amount of time (a few hours) to get
energy sufficient to overcome the work function and to get liberated from the surface.
But experiments show that photoelectric emission is almost instantaneous process (the time
lag is less than 10−9 s after the surface is illuminated) which could not be explained by wave
theory.
In short, the wave picture is unable to explain the most basic features of photoelectric
emission.
23. Explain the concept of quantization of energy.
According to Planck, matter is composed of a large number of oscillating particles (atoms) which
vibrate with different frequencies.
Each atomic oscillator - which vibrates with its characteristic frequency - emits or absorbs
electromagnetic radiation of the same frequency.
(1) If an oscillator vibrates with frequency 𝜈, its energy can have only certain discrete values,
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given by the equation.

En = n h 𝜈

where, n = 1, 2, 3,…. is an integer

and h → Planck’s constant ( h = 6.625 × 10 −34 J s )

The oscillators emit or absorb energy in small packets or quanta and the energy of each quantum

E=hν

24. Mention the characteristic properties of photons .

1. In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles called
photons.
2. The photons of light of frequency ν and wavelength λ will have energy, given by
𝑐
E=hν=h
𝜆

and the momentum is given by

hν h
p= =
c 𝜆

where, c → velocity of light.

3. All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have the same energy E = h ν
hν
and momentum p = whatever the intensity of radiation may be.
c
[Link] energy of a photon is determined by the frequency of the radiation and not by its intensity.
5. Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
6. When a photon interacts with matter (photon-electron collision), the total energy, total linear
momentum and angular momentum are conserved.

25. Explain the working of a photo emissive cell.

CONSTRUCTION: It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb in which two metallic

electrodes that is, a cathode and an anode are fixed as shown in Figure below.
The cathode C is semi-cylindrical in shape and is coated with a photo sensitive material.
The anode A is a thin rod or wire kept along the axis of the semi-cylindrical cathode.
A potential difference is applied between the anode and the cathode through a galvanometer G.
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WORKING:
When cathode is illuminated, electrons are emitted from it. These electrons are attracted by anode
and hence a current is produced which is measured by the galvanometer.
For a given cathode, the magnitude of the current depends on
(i) the intensity to incident radiation and
(ii) the potential difference between anode and cathode.

26. Mention some applications of photo cells.

Photo cells are
(1) used in automatic switching on and off the street lights using sensors that switch on and off
according to whether it is night or day.
(2) used for reproduction of sound in motion pictures.
(3) used as timers to measure the speeds of athletes during a race.
(4) used as exposure meters in photography which are used to measure the intensity of the given light
and to calculate the exact time of exposure.
(5) used in opening and closing of door automatically.
(6) used in burglar alarm and fire alarm.

27. Derive an expression for the de Broglie wave length of matter waves.
The momentum of photon of frequency ν is given by
h𝜈 h
p= = [ ∵c=𝜈λ ]
𝑐 λ
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h 𝑐
(or) = =λ
p 𝜈
Hence, the wavelength of a photon in terms of its momentum is
h
λ= (1)
p

For a particle of mass m travelling with speed v, the wavelength is given by

h h
λ= = (2)
p mv

This wavelength of the matter waves is known as de Broglie wavelength.

METHOD 2 :
Energy of a photon is E = h 𝜈 ( according to Maxwell )
E = m c 2 ( according to Einstein )
∴ m c2 = h 𝜈
c
(or) (mc) c = h
λ
h
(or) mc =
λ
h
(or) λ=
mc

h
(or) λ= (1)
p

For a particle of mass m travelling with speed v, the wavelength is given by

h h
λ= = (2)
p mv

28. Derive an expression for the de Broglie wave length of an electron.

When an electron of mass m and charge e is accelerated through a potential difference V, then
the energy eV is equal to kinetic energy of the electron.
1
2
mv 2 = e V
2eV
v2 =
m

2eV
(or) v =√ (1)
m
The de Broglie wavelength of the electron is
h h
λ= = (2)
p mv
h
Substituting the value of v, λ=
2 eV
m√
m
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h
=
2
√2 m e V
m

h
λ= (3)
√2 meV

Substituting the known values in equation (3), it can be shown that

12.27
λ = A° (4)
√V
Since the kinetic energy of the electron, K = eV, then the de Broglie wavelength associated with
electron can be also written as
h
λ= (5)
√2 mK

29. Mention the applications of x-rays.

(1) Medical diagnosis :
X-ray radiographs are used to detect fractures, foreign bodies, diseased organs etc.
(2) Medical therapy :
X-rays are employed to cure skin diseases, malignant tumours etc.
(3) Industry :
X-rays are used to check for flaws in welded joints, motor tyres, tennis balls and wood. At the
custom post, they are used for detection of contraband goods.
(4) Scientific research :
X-ray diffraction is important tool to study the structure of the crystalline materials – that is, the
arrangement of atoms and molecules in crystals.

III. Long Answer Questions: ( 5 Marks each )

30. Explain the effect of potential difference on the photoelectric current.
For a given metallic surface C, the intensity (I1 ) and frequency of the incident radiation are kept
constant.
When the positive potential of A is increased, the photoelectric current is also increased.
However, if the positive potential is further increased, the photoelectric current reaches a certain
maximum value and this current is known as saturation current.
If the potential of the plate A is made negative, the photocurrent does not immediately drop to
zero but flows in the same direction as for positive potential. This shows that the photo electrons
are emitted from the plate C with finite velocity.
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If the negative or retarding potential is further increased, the photo current decreases and finally
becomes zero at a particular value. Thus, the minimum negative (retarding) potential given to the
anode for which the photo electric current becomes zero is called the cut-off potential or
stopping potential ( 𝐕𝟎 ).

If m is the mass of the photo electron emitted with a velocity 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 then the kinetic energy
1
associated with it is K 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = m𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
2

Since at the stopping potential V0 , the fastest electron is just prevented from reaching the plate
A, work done in bringing the fastest electron to rest = kinetic energy of the fastest electron.
1
e V0 = K 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 m𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥

The above equation indicates that the stopping potential depends upon the velocity of the fastest
electron.
1
m𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = e V0
2
2e V0
𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑚

2e V
(or) 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ 𝑚 0

Substituting the constants, it can be shown that

2 × 1.602 × 10 −19
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ × V0
9.1 × 10−31

(or) 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 5.93 × 105 √V0

K 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = e V0 ( in joule )
K 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = V0 ( in e V )
The experiment is repeated with the incident radiation of same frequency, but of higher
intensities
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I1 , I2 and I3 such that ( I3 > I2 > I1 ).

It is found from the graph, the saturation currents are proportional to the intensities of the
radiation.
But, the stopping potential remains the same for all the intensities.
Thus, for a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is independent of
its intensity.
Graphical Representation:

31. Derive Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

According to Albert Einstein, energy of each photon is given by
E=h𝜈
where h is Planck’s constant and 𝜈 is the frequency of light.
According to Einstein, the emission of photo electron is the result of the interaction between
a single photon of the incident radiation and an electron in the metal.
When a photon of energy h 𝜈 is incident on a metal surface, its energy is used up in two ways
(i) A part of the energy of the photon is used in extracting the electron from the surface of
metal. This energy 𝜙0 spent in releasing the photo electron is known as photoelectric work
function of the metal.
(ii) The remaining energy of the photon is used to impart kinetic energy to the liberated electron.
∴ Energy of the incident photon = Work function + Kinetic energy of the electron
If m is the mass of an electron and v is its velocity then
1
h 𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 2 m𝑣 2 (1)

If the electron does not lose energy by internal collisions, its KE is maximum (K 𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
1
∴ K 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 m𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
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1
∴ h 𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 2 m𝑣 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥

(or) h 𝜈 = 𝜙0 + K 𝑚𝑎𝑥

(or) K 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = h 𝜈 − 𝜙0 (2)

Equation (2) is called Einstein’s photo electric equation.

K 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is proportional to the frequency of the light and is independent of intensity of the light.
But 𝜙0 = h 𝜈0
𝜙0
where 𝜈0 = is called threshold frequency.
h
Hence, for a given photo sensitive material, there is a minimum frequency called the threshold
frequency, below which emission of photoelectrons stops completely, however great the
intensity may be.
∴ K 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = h 𝜈 − h 𝜈0

(or) K 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = h (𝜈 − 𝜈0 ) (3)

Equation (3) is another form of Einstein’s photo electric equation.

The slope of the line is h and its y-intercept is – 𝜙0 .

32. Explain Davisson – Germer experiment.
Davisson and Germer demonstrated that electron beams are diffracted when they fall on
crystalline solids. It proved the wave nature of electrons.
Experimental Arrangement :
The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.) battery. Electrons are emitted from the hot
filament by thermionic emission.
They are then accelerated due to the potential difference between the filament and the anode
aluminium cylinder by a high tension (H.T.) battery.
Electron beam is collimated by using two thin aluminium diaphragms and is allowed to strike a
single crystal of Nickel.
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The electrons scattered by Ni atoms in different directions are received by the electr on detector
which measures the intensity of scattered electron beam. The detector is rotatable in the plane of
the paper so that the angle θ between the incident beam and the scattered beam can be changed.
The intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured as a function of the angle θ.
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The above Figure shows the variation of intensity of the scattered electrons with the angle θ for
the accelerating voltage of 54V.
For a given accelerating voltage V, the scattered wave shows a peak or maximum at an angle of
50° to the incident electron beam.

This peak in intensity is attributed to the constructive interference of electrons diffracted from
various atomic layers of the target material. From the known value of interplanar spacing of
Nickel, the wavelength of the electron wave has been experimentally calculated as 1.65Å.
The wavelength can also be calculated from de Broglie relation for V = 54 V from the equation
12.27
λ = A°
√V

12.27
(or) λ = A°
√54

(or) λ = 1.67 A°

This value agrees well with the experimentally observed wavelength of 1.65Å. Thus this
experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s hypothesis of the wave nature of moving particles.

33. Describe the principle, construction and working of an electron microscope.

Principle: The wave nature of the electron is used in the construction of microscope.
The resolving power of a microscope is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the radiation
Higher magnification as well as higher resolving power can be obtained by employing the waves
of shorter wavelengths. Electrons have wave length of the order of x-rays.
Electron microscopes have magnification more than 2,00,000 times the optical microscope.
WORKING :
In electron microscope focussing of electron beam is done by the electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
The electron beam passing across a suitably arranged either electric or magnetic fields undergoes
divergence or convergence thereby focussing of the beam is done.
The electrons emitted from the source are accelerated by high potentials. The electron beam is
made parallel by magnetic condenser lens.
When the beam passes through the sample to be magnified, the beam carries the image of the
sample.
With the help of magnetic objective lens and magnetic projector lens system, the magnified
image is obtained on the fluorescent screen.
It can also be obtained on a suitable photographic plate for a permanent record.
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Electron Microscope

34. Describe the production of x-rays.

X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength ranging from 0.1 Å to 100 Å which are
produced, when fast moving electrons strike a metal target of suitable material.
X-rays are produced in Coolidge X-ray tube.

A tungsten filament F is heated to incandescence by a battery. As a result, electrons are emitted

from it by thermionic emission .
These electrons are accelerated to high speeds by the voltage applied between the filament F and
the anode, and are allowed to strike a target.
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The target consists of a copper block in which a piece of tungsten or molybdenum is embedded.
The face of the target is inclined at an angle of 45° to the electron beam .
When high-speed electrons strike the target, they are decelerated suddenly and lose their kinetic
energy. This loss of kinetic energy appears as X-rays.
NOTE :
(1) The intensity of X-rays depends upon the number of electrons striking the target. i.e. the rate of
emission of electrons from the filament. This can be controlled by varying the filament current.
(2) The wavelength of X–rays depends upon the kinetic energy of the electrons producing them and
this kinetic energy depends upon the potential difference between the filament and the target.

35. Explain Continuous x–ray spectrum.

It consists of radiations of all possible wavelengths with a certain minimum wavelength λ0 which
depends on the voltage across the electrodes.
Origin of Continuous x-ray spectra:
When a fast moving electron penetrates and approaches a target nucleus, the interaction between
the electron and the nucleus either accelerates or decelerates it which results in a change of path
of the electron.
The radiation produced from such decelerating electron is called Bremsstrahlung or braking
radiation.
The energy of the photon emitted is equal to the loss of kinetic energy of the electron.
Since an electron may lose part or all of its energy to the photon, the photons are emitted with all
possible energies (or frequencies). This gives rise to a Continuous x-ray spectrum.

When an electron gives up all its energy, then the photon is emitted with highest frequency 𝜈0
(or lowest wavelength λ0 ).
The initial kinetic energy of an electron is given by eV where V is the accelerating voltage.
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Therefore, we have
hc 𝑐 c
eV = h 𝜈0 = [ ∵ 𝜈 = 𝜆 and 𝜈0 = ]
λ0 λ0

hc
(or) λ0 = (1)
eV

where, λ0 → cut - off wavelength

Substituting the known values in the above equation, we get

12400
λ0 = A° (2)
V

The relation given by equation (2) is known as the Duane – Hunt formula.

NOTE :

(1) The value of λ0 depends only on the accelerating potential.

(2) For the given operating voltage V, the minimum wave length λ0 is same for all target metals.

36. Explain Characteristic x–ray spectrum.

It consists of definite, well defined wavelengths superimposed on the continuous spectrum.

These spectral lines generally occur in the form of small groups and are characteristic of the
material of the target.
Origin of Characteristic x–ray spectra:
1
Few of the fast moving electrons having velocity of about (10) 𝑡ℎ of the velocity of light may

penetrate the surface atoms of the target materials and knock out the tightly bound electrons even
from the inner most shells (like K, L shells) of the atom.
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From the above Figure, it is found that K-series of lines in the x-ray spectrum of an element
arises due to the electronic transitions from L, M, N, . . levels to the K-level.
Similarly, the longer wavelength L-series originates when an L-electron is knocked out of the
atom and the corresponding vacancy is filled by the electronic transitions from M, N, O level to
the L-level and so on.
The K α and K β of the K-series of molybdenum are shown by the two peaks in its x-ray spectrum
in Figure below.

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