CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Mechanical Engineering

Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the energies possessed by
bodies or substances, the interaction between heat and work, and the effect of this energy
interaction on the physical properties of the system.”
OR
Thermodynamics is the branch of science which deals with energy transfer and its effect on
the properties of substances.

Laws of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with heat, energy, temperature, and
their relationships. It explains how energy moves and changes form.
There are three laws of thermodynamics
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics – Law of Thermal Equilibrium
Statement:
If two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
Simple meaning:
If temperatures are equal, there is no heat transfer.
Example:
 Suppose:
o Cup A has same temperature as thermometer.
o Cup B has same temperature as thermometer.
 Then Cup A and Cup B have the same temperature.
Application: This law makes temperature measurement possible.
Limitations:
1. It does not say anything about energy transfer or entropy; it only defines what thermal
equilibrium means.

2. It is mainly conceptual and foundational, not directly used in performance

calculations of engines.

1st Law of Thermodynamics – Law of Energy Conservation

Statement:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only change from one form to another.
Formula:
Q=W + Δ U
Where:
 Q = Heat supplied
 W = Work done
 ΔU = Change in internal energy

Applications:
- Analysis of engines, compressors, turbines, boilers, and nozzles.
- Heat-balance and power-balance calculations in IC engines, steam plants, and
refrigeration systems.
Examples:
- An IC engine converts chemical energy (fuel) into heat (combustion) and then
into mechanical work and waste heat.
- For a constant-volume process (e.g., combustion in a rigid cylinder), W =0, so
all heat added increases internal energy.
Limitations:
- Does not predict the direction of a process (e.g., whether heat will flow from
hot to cold or reverse).
- Does not explain why some energy conversions are impossible (e.g., complete
conversion of heat into work in a cycle).

2nd Law of Thermodynamics – Law of Entropy (Direction of heat flow)

Clausius statement: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body.
Kelvin–Planck statement: It is impossible to construct a cyclic heat engine that converts all
heat absorbed from a single reservoir entirely into work. ()
Entropy statement: The total entropy of an isolated system never decreases; it increases for
irreversible processes and remains constant for reversible ones.
Applications:
- Design and analysis of heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps (efficiency,
COP, directional feasibility).
- Defining reversibility and irreversibility in processes (e.g., throttling, friction,
heat transfer across finite temperature difference).
Examples:
 - In a steam power plant, only part of the heat from boiler is converted to work;
the rest is rejected in the condenser.
- In a domestic refrigerator, electrical work is supplied to transfer heat from a
cold interior to a hotter room.
Limitations:
- It does not quantify the exact magnitude of entropy change by itself; it only
tells the direction.

SIMPLE NUMERICAL based on Thermodynamics laws

1. First Law of Thermodynamics – Numerical
Formula: Q= Δ U +W

Problem: Find change in internal energy when the Heat supplied = 500 J and Work done =
200 J
Find change in internal energy.
Solution:

Δ U =Q−W Δ U =500−200Δ U =300 J Answer: 300 J

Problem: Find heat supplied

Work done = 400 J
Increase in internal energy = 600 J
Find heat supplied.
Solution:

Q= Δ U +W Q=600+400Q=1000 J Answer: 1000 J

Problem: Find work done when the Heat supplied = 800 J and Increase in internal energy =
500 J
Find work done.
Solution:

W =Q−Δ UW =800−500W =300 J Answer: 300 J

Second Law of Thermodynamics – Numerical

 W
Formula for efficiency: η= × 100
Q1
Where, η = efficiency, W = work output, Q₁ = heat supplied

Problem: Find efficiency of engine when the Heat supplied = 1000 J and Work output =
400 J
Solution:
400
η= ×100η=40 % Answer: 40%
1000

Problem: Find heat rejected when the Heat supplied to the system = 1200 J and Work done
= 500 J
Formula: Q1 is the heat supplied, W is the Work done, Q2 is the heat rejected

Q1=W + Q2Q2=Q1−WQ2=1200−500Q2=700 J Answer: 700 J

Problem: Find work done when the Efficiency = 25% and the Heat supplied = 800 J
W
η= W =η ×Q1W =0.25 ×800W =200 J Answer: 200 J
Q1

Power Plant:
A power plant (also called a power station) is an industrial facility that converts a primary
energy source (like fuel, water, or sunlight) into electrical energy on a large scale for
domestic, commercial, and industrial use.

Types of power plants:

1. Thermal Power Plant: A thermal power plant (also called a thermal power
station or thermoelectric power plant) is a large-scale generating station that produces
electricity by converting heat energy (from fuel) into mechanical energy, and then
into electrical energy. The heat is usually obtained by burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or
natural gas.

Thermal power plants are one of the main ways the world produces electricity. In most
countries, these plants burn fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas to make heat, which is then
used to produce steam and run turbines that generate electricity. Globally, thermal power
plants still supply about two-thirds of all electricity, and the total value of
thermal-power-plant systems is around 1.5 to 2 trillion US dollars. Typical coal-based plants
are not very efficient, using only about 30–40% of the fuel’s energy to make electricity, while
modern gas and advanced coal plants can reach up to about 50–60% efficiency. However,
thermal plants are also a major source of carbon dioxide and other air pollutants, which is
why many countries are slowly adding more renewable energy and installing cleaner
technologies in these plants.
In India, thermal power plants form the backbone of the electricity system. Most of the
country’s power comes from coal-based thermal stations, with gas-based plants adding some
extra capacity. Together, thermal plants make up about two-thirds of India’s total
power-generation capacity. Many plants are large units of 400 MW, 660 MW, or even more,
which helps meet the rising electricity demand of cities, industries, and households. But these
plants also cause air pollution and greenhouse-gas emissions, so the government and power
companies are working on better pollution-control systems and gradually increasing the use
of solar and wind power to reduce the country’s dependence on thermal generation.

Block diagram of thermal power plant

Working:
A thermal power plant works by converting the heat energy of fuel (coal, gas, or oil)
into electrical energy using the Rankine cycle. First, fuel is burned in a boiler to produce
high-pressure, high-temperature steam from water. This steam expands through a steam
turbine, causing the turbine blades to rotate. The turbine is coupled to an electric generator,
which converts the mechanical rotation into electrical power. After passing through the
turbine, the low-pressure steam is cooled in the condenser and converted back into water,
which is then pumped back to the boiler to repeat the cycle. Other parts such as coal-handling
systems, chimneys, economizers, air preheaters, and cooling towers help in fuel preparation,
heat recovery, and condenser cooling.
Advantages:
 Availability of coal (fuel) is cheap
 Can generate large amounts of electricity continuously and serve as reliable base-load
power.
 Not dependent on weather (unlike solar and wind), so supply is stable.
 Suitable for large-scale power generation and can be built in many industrial regions.
  Mature and well-developed technology, with easy operation and maintenance.
 Shorter construction time compared with many hydro and nuclear plants.
 Less land required compared with hydro power plant
Disadvantages:
 Less efficiency.
 It can pollute the environment.
 Burns fossil fuels, so produces large CO₂ emissions and contributes to global
warming.
 Emits SOₓ, NOₓ, and particulate matter, causing air pollution and health problems.
 Low thermal efficiency (typically 30–40%); most of the fuel energy is lost as heat.
 Requires huge quantities of water for condenser cooling and ash handling.
 High operating cost due to fuel, ash disposal, and chemical treatment requirements.
 Generates large volumes of ash and solid waste, needing proper disposal sites.
Factors considered while building the Thermal power plant:
 Availability of coal
 Availability of water
 Availability of transportation facilities
 It should be away from the populated area.

2. Hydro power plant: A hydroelectric (hydro) power plant is a facility that generates
electricity from the energy of flowing or falling water, usually stored behind a dam on a
river. It converts the potential energy of water at a higher elevation into kinetic energy as
the water falls, and then into mechanical energy in a turbine, which finally drives
a generator to produce electrical energy. Hydropower is a renewable, clean, and
well-established source of electricity and is widely used in hilly regions where rivers and
dams can be constructed.
In a hydro power plant, the energy conversion happens in steps:
1. Potential energy → Kinetic energy: Water stored at a high level in a reservoir
has potential energy; when it is released, it flows down through a penstock and
gains kinetic energy.
2. Kinetic energy → Mechanical energy: This high-speed water strikes the blades of a
water turbine, making the turbine shaft rotate; here kinetic energy is converted
into mechanical energy.
3. Mechanical energy → Electrical energy: The rotating turbine shaft is directly
connected to a generator (alternator); the generator uses electromagnetic induction
to convert the mechanical rotation into electrical energy, which is then stepped-up in
voltage by a transformer and sent to the grid.
Block diagram of hydro powerplant:
 Working:
1. Water is stored in a reservoir: A dam is built across a river to form
a reservoir where water is stored at a higher elevation. This water has potential
energy due to its height above the turbine.
2. Water is released through control gates: When electricity is needed, control
gates or valves are opened so that water starts flowing from the reservoir into the
intake. The flow can be adjusted to match the power requirement.
3. Water flows down the penstock: The water then travels through a large sloping
pipe called a penstock to the turbine. As it flows down, its potential energy converts
into kinetic energy, and the pressure of water increases.
4. Water strikes the turbine blades: High-pressure, high-speed water hits the blades of
the turbine (Pelton, Francis, or Kaplan, depending on head and flow), causing the
turbine to rotate at high speed. Here, hydraulic energy of water is converted
into mechanical energy of the rotating shaft.

5. Turbine drives the generator

The turbine shaft is directly coupled to an electrical generator (alternator). The
rotation of the turbine spins the rotor inside the generator, and by electromagnetic
induction, electrical energy is produced as alternating current (AC).
6. Electricity is stepped-up and sent to the grid
The generated low-voltage AC is sent to a step-up transformer, which increases the
voltage for efficient long-distance transmission. The high-voltage power is then fed
into the transmission lines and distributed to homes, industries, and cities.
7. Water is discharged to the tailrace
After passing through the turbine, the low-pressure water is released into the river
downstream through a tailrace or draft tube, completing the cycle and returning to
the natural watercourse.

Advantages:
  Hydropower is a renewable energy source because it uses naturally flowing or
falling water, which is continuously replenished by rainfall and rivers.
 It produces no direct air pollution or CO₂ emissions during operation, so it is much
cleaner than thermal plants.
 Once built, it has very low operating and fuel cost since water is free and available
naturally.
 Hydro plants have a long lifespan (often 50–100 years) and high reliability if water
supply is well-managed.
 They can adjust output quickly, so they are suitable for peak-load demand and
load-balancing in the grid.

Disadvantages:
 The initial construction cost is very high due to dams, tunnels, penstocks,
power-houses, and large civil works.
 It depends heavily on water availability and rainfall, so output can drop in droughts
or dry seasons.
 Building large dams often floods large areas of land, leading to displacement of
people and submergence of forests and farmland.
 Dams and reservoirs can disrupt river ecosystems, change water temperature, and
block fish migration and spawning.
 Sediment carried by rivers can accumulate behind the dam, reducing reservoir
capacity and plant efficiency over time

Factors considered:
 Water availability and flow: The river must have a sufficient and relatively
perennial flow of water so that the plant can generate power throughout the year.
 Water head (height difference): A good natural head (difference in elevation
between the reservoir and the turbine) is essential for higher power output and
efficiency.
 Suitable topography and geology: The site should have rocky hills, narrow gorges,
or natural valleys that can support a dam and reservoir, with stable foundations and
low seismic risk.
 Site accessibility: The place should be reachable by road or rail so that heavy
construction equipment, machinery, and materials can be transported easily.
 Distance from load centres: The plant should preferably be not too far from cities,
industries, or load centres to minimize transmission losses and cost of power lines.

3. Gas Turbine Power Plant: A gas turbine power plant is a generating station that uses a gas
turbine as the prime mover to produce electricity. Air is compressed, mixed with fuel
(usually natural gas or oil), and burned in a combustion chamber; the hot, high-pressure
gases expand through a gas turbine, causing it to rotate and drive an electric generator. The
plant operates on the Brayton (or Joule) cycle and is widely used for peak-load supply,
standby power, and combined-cycle plants because it can start and stop quickly and has a
compact layout.
 Block diagram:

Working of Gas turbine power plant:

1. Air intake and filtration – Ambient air is drawn into the plant and passed through
an air filter to remove dust and particles that could damage the compressor and
turbine blades.
2. Compression – The filtered air enters the compressor (axial or centrifugal), where it is
compressed to a high pressure (typically 10–30 times atmospheric pressure). This
compression increases both the pressure and temperature of the air.
3. Combustion – The high-pressure air flows into the combustion chamber, where fuel
(usually natural gas or oil) is injected and burned at nearly constant pressure. The
fuel–air mixture is ignited, producing very hot, high-pressure combustion gases.
4. Expansion in the turbine – The hot gases expand through the gas turbine, which
consists of several stages of blades. During expansion, the thermal energy of the gas is
converted into mechanical energy, causing the turbine shaft to rotate at high speed.
5. Power generation – The same shaft is connected to an electric generator (alternator).
The rotating shaft drives the generator, which converts mechanical energy into AC
electrical energy.
Advantages:
 Compact and lightweight; needs less space than a steam power plant of the same
capacity.
 Simple layout; no boiler or condenser required, so construction is easier and faster.
 Quick start-up and shutdown; can reach full load in minutes, good for peak-load and
standby power.
 Lower water requirement because there is no condenser or large cooling tower.
 Lower operating cost and maintenance compared with steam plants when using clean
fuel.
 Gives low air pollution (SOₓ, particulates) when using natural gas as fuel.

Disadvantages:
 High fuel cost when used for base-load; most economical only for peak or intermittent
duty.
  Overall net output is reduced because a large fraction of turbine power is used to drive
the compressor.
 Very high temperature in combustion chamber and turbine, reducing component life
and increasing maintenance.
 Requires a clean fuel and filtered air; dirt or impurities severely damage compressor
and blades.
 Needs an external starting motor or power source to begin compressor rotation.

Factors considered while selecting the location:

 Nearness to load centres – Should be close to cities or industries to reduce
transmission losses and cost.
 Availability of natural gas or fuel supply – Easy and reliable pipeline or fuel-transport
link for continuous gas/fuel supply.
 Transport and access – Good road or rail access for transporting heavy equipment,
spare parts, and during construction.
 Land requirement and type – Sufficient flat, stable land with good bearing capacity
for the compact plant and auxiliaries.
 Distance from populated areas – Located somewhat away from dense residential areas
due to noise and exhaust-heat effects

4. Nuclear Power Plant: A nuclear power plant is a generating station that produces
electricity using heat from nuclear fission in a reactor instead of burning fossil fuel. In
the reactor, heavy atoms like uranium-235 undergo controlled fission, releasing a large
amount of heat, which is carried away by a coolant (usually water) and used to generate
steam. This steam drives a steam turbine connected to an electric generator, producing
electricity on a large scale. The plant works on the Rankine cycle and is known
for high-capacity, continuous power output with very low direct CO₂ emissions, but it
requires strong radiation shielding, strict safety systems, and careful handling and
disposal of radioactive waste.
Nuclear fission: Nuclear fission is the process in which the heavy nucleus of an atom,
such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239, splits into two or more smaller nuclei when it
absorbs a neutron. This splitting releases a large amount of energy in the form of heat,
along with additional neutrons and some radiation. These emitted neutrons can go on to
cause fission in other nearby fissile nuclei, creating a chain reaction. If the reaction is
controlled, as in a nuclear reactor, this energy is used to generate electricity; if it is
uncontrolled, as in an atomic bomb, it produces a powerful explosion.
 Working of Nuclear power plant: A nuclear power plant generates electricity by using
the heat released from controlled nuclear fission of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 in the
reactor core. The heat produced in the reactor is absorbed by a coolant, usually water,
which is then used to generate high-pressure steam in a steam generator. This steam
expands through a steam turbine, causing it to rotate; the turbine shaft drives an electric
generator to produce electricity. The spent steam is condensed back into water and
reused, while the entire radioactive system is enclosed in strong containment structures
and shielded to prevent radiation leakage.

Advantages:
 Produces very large amount of power from a small amount of fuel.
 Low fuel consumption compared with thermal power plants, so fuel cost is relatively
low.
 No direct CO₂ or greenhouse-gas emissions during power generation
(climate-friendly operation).
 Suitable for continuous base-load supply due to steady and stable output.
 Requires less land per unit of power than many other power plants.

Disadvantages:
 High initial capital cost and long construction time.
 Produces radioactive waste that is difficult to store and dispose of safely for long
periods.
 Risk of serious accidents (e.g., meltdown, radiation release) if safety or design fails.
 Requires high-cost safety and security systems and highly trained personnel.
 Public and political opposition due to radiation hazard and accident concerns.
Factors considered in site selection:
 Water availability – Large and reliable supply of cooling water from a river, reservoir,
sea, or ocean is essential because nuclear plants need substantial cooling.
 Distance from populated areas – The plant must be located far from dense residential
zones to minimize public risk in case of radioactive release.
 Distance from load centres – As far as possible, the plant should be near major load
centres to reduce transmission losses and grid-cost.
 Geological and seismic stability – Site should be on stable bedrock with low
earthquake risk and no active faults or major seismic hazards.
 Accessibility and transport – Good road and rail connectivity is required for
transporting heavy components, fuel assemblies, and radioactive shipments.
 Space for waste disposal – The site must have adequate land nearby for safe storage
and disposal of low- and medium-level radioactive waste.

Internal Combustion Engine:

Definition:
An engine is a machine that converts some form of energy (such as heat from fuel, steam, or
electrical energy) into mechanical motion or work. In internal-combustion form, it burns fuel
inside the engine to push pistons or rotate a turbine, producing rotary or linear motion used in
vehicles, power plants, pumps, etc.
Classification of Engine:
1. On the basis of cycle of operation (thermodynamic cycle)
 Otto cycle engine – Uses constant-volume heat addition (e.g., petrol / SI engines).
 Diesel cycle engine – Uses constant-pressure heat addition (e.g., diesel / CI engines).
 Dual (mixed) cycle engine – Combines Otto and Diesel cycles (pre-chamber or
modern high-pressure diesel).
 Brayton cycle engine – Continuous-flow gas-turbine engines.

2. On the basis of fuel used

 Petrol (gasoline) engine – Uses petrol as fuel.
 Diesel engine – Uses diesel fuel.
 Gas engine – Uses gaseous fuels such as CNG, LPG, or biogas.
 Biofuel engine – Runs on ethanol, biodiesel, or other bio-diesels.
 Multi-fuel engine – Can operate on more than one type of fuel (e.g., petrol–LPG,
diesel–biodiesel blends).
3. On the basis of cylinder arrangement
  In-line (straight) engine – Cylinders arranged in a single straight line.
 V-type engine – Two rows of cylinders set at an angle (V-shape).
 Opposed / flat / boxer engine – Cylinders placed opposite each other (≈ 180°).
 Radial engine – Cylinders arranged around a central crankshaft like spokes (mostly
used in aircraft).
 W-type / H-type – More complex layouts for special-purpose engines.

4. On the basis of number of strokes
 Two-stroke engine – Completes one working cycle in two strokes (one up, one
down) of the piston per crankshaft revolution; simple and light but less efficient and
more polluting.
 Four-stroke engine – Completes one cycle in four strokes (intake, compression,
power, exhaust) and two crankshaft revolutions; more efficient and commonly used in
cars and most power applications.

5. On the basis of application

 Automotive engine – Used in cars, buses, trucks, two-wheelers.
 Marine engine – Large slow-speed or medium-speed diesels for ships.
 Aircraft engine – Piston engines or gas-turbine engines for aircraft.
 Stationary engine – Fixed-mounted engines for generators, pumps, compressors,
agricultural machinery.
 Locomotive engine – Diesel engines for railway traction.

6. On the basis of ignition method

 Spark Ignition (SI) engine – Uses a spark plug to ignite an air-fuel mixture (e.g.,
petrol engines).
 Compression Ignition (CI) engine – Fuel is injected into highly compressed hot air;
it ignites by its own temperature (e.g., diesel engines).

[Link] the basis of place of ignition:

 Internal Combustion Engine: Here, the combustion process is done inside the
combustion chamber (e.g. Automobile Engine)
 External Combustion Engine: Here, the combustion process done outside the
combustion chamber (e.g. Steam engine)

Basic Terminology of Engine:

 Bore – The internal diameter of the cylinder; it mainly decides the size of the cylinder.
 Stroke – The distance travelled by the piston from the top position (TDC) to the
bottom position (BDC) in the cylinder.
 Swept / Displacement volume – The volume displaced by the piston in one stroke; for
all cylinders together, it is often quoted as “engine capacity” in cc or litres.
 Clearance volume – The small space remaining above the piston when it is at its
topmost position (TDC); this is where combustion starts.
 Compression ratio – The ratio of total cylinder volume (swept + clearance) to
clearance volume; higher ratio generally means more power and efficiency.
 TDC (Top Dead Centre) – The highest position of the piston in the cylinder, closest to
the cylinder head.
 BDC (Bottom Dead Centre) – The lowest position of the piston in the cylinder,
farthest from the cylinder head.

 Power (brake power) – The actual useful power available at the engine’s output shaft,
usually measured in kW or horsepower.

 Indicated power (IP) – The power developed inside the engine cylinder, before losses
such as friction and pumping.
 Torque – The turning force produced by the engine; it decides how “strongly” the
engine can rotate a load (e.g., pulling a vehicle uphill).
 Mechanical efficiency – The ratio of brake power to indicated power; it tells how
much of the internal power actually reaches the shaft.

Four Stroke Engine:

A four-stroke engine is a common type of engine in cars, bikes, and lawnmowers that
turns fuel into power through four simple steps, taking two full turns of its main spinning
part (crankshaft) and four reciprocating moments of piston (2 upward and 2 downward)
Working of Four stroke Engine-
Intake Stroke (Suction):
The first stroke starts when the piston moves down from TDC to BDC. The intake valve
opens while exhaust valve stays closed. This creates low pressure, sucking air-fuel
mixture into the cylinder. Piston reaches BDC, cylinder half-filled with fresh charge.
Crankshaft rotates 180° during this stroke.
Compression Stroke:
Piston now moves up from BDC to TDC. Both valves closed—no entry or exit.
Air-fuel mixture gets compressed to 1/10th volume (compression ratio 10:1). Temperature
rises to 300-500°C, pressure increases 10 times. Ready for spark at TDC; crankshaft
another 180°.
Power Stroke (Expansion):
At TDC, spark plug ignites compressed mixture. Burning creates hot gases expanding
rapidly (pressure 50-60 bar). Pushes piston down forcefully to BDC—this produces
power. Crankshaft gets maximum torque; only useful stroke. Heat energy converts to
mechanical work.
Exhaust Stroke:
Piston moves up again from BDC to TDC. Exhaust valve opens, intake closed.
Burnt gases (CO₂, H₂O, N₂) pushed out to exhaust pipe. Cylinder clears completely for
next cycle. Completes 720° rotation; process repeats.
Two Stroke Engine:
A two-stroke engine is a common type of engine in cars, bikes, and lawnmowers that
turns fuel into power through two simple steps, taking one full turn of its main spinning
part (crankshaft) and four reciprocating moments of piston (1 upward and 1 downward).
First stroke- Upward Stroke (Compression + Suction):
Piston moves up from BDC to TDC, covering transfer and exhaust ports. Both ports
closed—air-fuel mixture above piston compresses (ratio 6:1-10:1). Spark plug fires near
TDC, burning mixture creates high pressure. Below piston, inlet port opens—fresh
mixture sucked into crankcase. Crankshaft rotates 180°; crankcase fills with new charge.
Second stroke- Downward Stroke (Power + Exhaust):
Burnt gases expand, pushing piston down from TDC to BDC—power stroke! Piston
uncovers exhaust port first (allows burnt gases out). Then transfer port opens—fresh
charge from crankcase rushes in. Scavenging: Fresh charge pushes remaining exhaust out
(some mixing occurs). Completes 360° cycle; process repeats twice as fast as 4-stroke.
Automobiles
An Automobile is a wheeled vehicle carrying its own motive power unit.
his classic definition emphasizes three essential features:
 Wheeled vehicle—must have wheels for ground travel (excludes aircraft,
boats)
 Self-propelled—"motive power unit" (engine) carried within itself
 Carries own power—not externally powered like trolleys or horse-
drawn carts
Classification of Automobiles:
1. Based on Purpose
Passenger vehicles carry people: Car, Bus, Jeep, Motorcycle.
Goods vehicles transport cargo: Truck, Lorry, Tanker.
Special purpose: Ambulance, Fire engine, Refrigerated van
2. Based on Capacity/Load
Light motor vehicles (LMV): Car, Scooter, Motorcycle (up to 1 tonne).
Medium motor vehicles: Mini truck, Small bus.
Heavy motor vehicles (HMV): Large bus, Heavy truck (above 7.5 tonnes)
3. Based on Fuel Used
Petrol vehicles: Cars, Scooters, Motorcycles.
Diesel vehicles: Trucks, Buses, Tractors.
Alternate fuel: CNG cars, Electric vehicles, LPG auto-rickshaws.
4. Based on Number of Wheels/axles
2-wheelers: Motorcycles, Scooters.
3-wheelers: Auto-rickshaws.
4-wheelers: Cars.
6-wheelers (6×2, 6×4): Medium trucks.
10-wheelers (10×4): Heavy trucks.
5. Based on Drive Layout
Rear wheel drive (RWD): Traditional cars, Trucks.
Front wheel drive (FWD): Most modern cars (Maruti Swift).
All wheel drive (AWD/4WD): SUVs (Mahindra Scorpio), Jeeps.
6. Based on Body Style
Saloon car: Sedan (Maruti Dzire) - closed body.
Estate car: Station wagon.
Convertible: Open roof cars.
Coupe: 2-door sports car.
7. Based on Transmission
Manual: Conventional gearbox (5-speed manual cars).
Semi-automatic: Automated manual (Maruti 800 early models).
Fully automatic: Torque converter (Honda City AT).
8. Based on Load Capacity (Trucks)
4-wheeler (4×2): Light truck.
6-wheeler (6×4): Medium truck with 4 drive wheels.
8-wheeler (8×4): Heavy truck.
General layout of Two-wheel drive automobile (/Four-wheeler):

Automobile Engine:
Internal combustion engine converts chemical energy (fuel) to mechanical
energy. Four-stroke cycle (intake-compression-power-exhaust) rotates
crankshaft via piston movement. Pistons reciprocate in cylinders; connecting
rods convert up-down motion to rotary. Power output 30-200 kW; controlled by
throttle valve, spark timing, fuel injection. Cooled by water/air, lubricated by oil
pump; major vehicle weight at front.
Clutch:
Connects/disconnects engine crankshaft from gearbox input shaft smoothly.
Single plate dry clutch: Friction disc gripped between flywheel (engine) and
pressure plate.
Pedal pressed → spring releases pressure plate → clutch disengages (power
cut).
Pedal released → springs push pressure plate → clutch engages (power flows).
Prevents engine stalling during gear changes, starting from stop.
Gearbox:
Changes engine speed/torque ratio to suit driving conditions (4/5/6 speeds).
Sliding/constant mesh/synchromesh gears on countershaft (layshaft) mesh
with main shaft. 1st gear: High torque, low speed; 5th gear: Low torque, high
speed. Synchromesh equalizes gear speeds before engagement (smooth shifts).
Neutral: No power to wheels; reverse: Power opposite direction.
Propeller Shaft:
Long steel tube transmits rotation from gearbox to rear axle differential.
Universal joints (Hooke's joints) at both ends handle angle changes over
bumps. Slip joint/splines allow length changes as suspension moves up-down.
Rotates 3000-6000 RPM; balanced to prevent vibration. Protected by torque
tube or universal joints in some designs.
Differential:
Differential is used to differentiate the torque generated by engine into two
sides. It Splits engine power equally to left/right wheels; allows different speeds
when cornering. When the vehicle is taking left turn, the left side wheels are
called as inner wheels and right side wheels are called as outer wheels. While
taking a left turn, the torque should be differentiated in such a way that the inner
wheels are getting less rotations and at the same time, outer wheels are getting
more rotations.
In general, following things happens.
Bevel pinion (from propeller shaft) drives crown wheel (90° turn).
Spider gears inside differential allow outer wheel to rotate faster in turns.
Final drive ratio (3.5:1 to 5:1) multiplies torque for wheel drive.
Limited slip differential (LSD) prevents wheel spin on slippery surfaces.
Difference between 2-wheel drive and 4-wheel drive vehicles.

Feature 2-Wheel Drive 4-Wheel Drive

Wheels Powered 2 (front OR rear) All 4

Best For City roads Off-road/mud/snow

Fuel Economy Better Lower

Cost Cheaper Expensive

Examples Maruti Swift, Tata Ace Mahindra Thar, Fortuner