01

PHYSICS
After analysing the previous year question papers, we have seen that 40-45 questions are asked from
science section, out of these 20-22 questions are asked from Physics. From physics section, around 2 to 3
questions each are asked from topics like motion, sound, electric current and 1 to 2 questions each are
asked from topics like optics, modern physics and heat.

MEASUREMENT, MOTION, WORK,

ENERGY AND POWER

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES e.g. unit of speed can be derived from fundamental units as,
All the quantities which can be measured directly or Unit of distance m
Unit of speed = = = ms-1
indirectly in terms of which law of physics are Unit of time s
described and whose measurement is necessary, are
called physical quantities. e.g. velocity, time, mass, etc. SI System
It is based on the following seven basic units and two
Unit supplementary units.
The standard amount of a physical quantity chosen
Name of Quantities Name of Units Name of Quantities Name of Units
to measure the physical quantity of same kind is
called a physical unit. Basic Units
Length Metre Thermodynamic Kelvin
temperature
Fundamental and Derived Units Mass Kilogram Luminous intensity Candela
The unit of a defined set of physical quantities called Time Second Quantity of matter Mole
fundamental quantities are known as fundamental Electric current Ampere
units and the units for all other physical quantities,
Supplementary Units
except fundamental quantities are known as derived
units. Plane angle Radian Solid angle Steradian
580 CDS Pathfinder

SCALAR AND VECTOR Speed

The path length or the distance covered by an object divided
QUANTITIES by the time taken by the object to cover that distance is called
• Physical quantities which have magnitude only and the speed of that object. Its unit is m/s or km/h.
no direction are called scalar quantities. Distance travelled
e.g. mass, speed, volume, work, time, power, energy, Speed =
Time taken
etc.
• An object is said to be moving with a uniform speed, if it
• Physical quantities which have magnitude and
covers equal distances in equal intervals of time.
direction both and which obey triangle law are called
vector quantities. • An object is said to be moving with a variable speed, if it
e.g. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, covers equal distances in unequal intervals of time or
momentum, torque, etc. unequal distances in equal intervals of time.
Average Speed
MECHANICS • If a motion is the ratio of the total distance travelled by the
Mechanics deals with the study of motion of particles, object to the total time taken.
rigid and deformable bodies and general system of s + s 2 + s 3 + ...
i.e. average speed, v av = 1
particles. t1 + t 2 + t 3 + ...
• If the body covers equal distances with different speeds,
Motion 2 v1v 2
A body is said to be in motion when its position then v av =
v1 + v 2
changes continuously with respect to a stationary body
taken as a reference point. When the speed of an object is constantly changing, then the
speed at a particular moment or instant of time is called the
Distance and Displacement instantaneous speed of that object.
• The distance covered by a body is the actual length
of the path travelled by the body between the initial
Velocity
position and final position. The rate of change in position or displacement of a body with
– It is always positive. time is called the velocity of that body. It is a vector quantity.
– It is a scalar quantity which has magnitude only. Displacement in particular direction
Velocity =
Its unit is metre. Time taken
• The displacement of a particle is the change in • A body is said to be moving with uniform velocity, if
position of the particle in a particular direction and is equal displacements of the body take place in same
given by a vector drawn from its initial position to its direction in equal intervals of time.
final position. • If a body moves in such a way that its speed or the
– Displacement may be positive, negative or zero. direction or both changes with time, the body is said to
– It is a vector quantity and its unit is also metre. have variable velocity.
– The magnitude of displacement may or may not be
equal to the path length travelled by an object. Average Velocity
– Displacement ≤ Distance • If a body is defined as the net displacement divided by the
C time taken for displacement.
E B x - x1
v av = 2
t 2 - t1
D
C As net displacement = x2 - x1 and time taken = t 2 - t1
• Average velocity could be zero, positive or negative but
A A
(a) (b) B average speed is always positive for moving body. When a
particle returns to the starting point, its average velocity is
– In Fig. (a) a particle starts from A and reach B zero but average speed is not zero.
through points C, D and E, then AB is the
displacement and ( AC + CD + DE + EB ) is the Relative Velocity
distance travelled. • When two bodies are moving in the straight line, the speed
– Also, in Fig. (b), a particle starts from A and reach (or velocity) of one with respect to another is known as its
to C through point B, then AC is displacement relative speed (or velocity).
and distance covered is ( AB + BC ). • When two bodies are moving in the same direction, then
relative velocity = v1 - v 2 . When the two bodies are moving
in opposite directions, then relative velocity = v1 + v 2 .
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 581

Acceleration 2. Velocity-Time Graphs

• It is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Its SI (i) In case of zero acceleration, the velocity of
2 2
unit is m/s and CGS is cm/s . It is a vector quantity. the object does not change with time.

• An object is said to be moving with uniform acceleration, if its

velocity changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of time.

Velocity
• An object is said to be moving with a variable acceleration, if
its velocity changes by unequal amounts in equal intervals of
time.
• If the velocity of an object increases without change in
Time
direction, it is said to be moving with positive acceleration.
• If the velocity of an object decreases without change in (ii) If the object is moving with uniform
direction, the object is said to be moving with negative positive acceleration having zero initial
acceleration or deceleration or retardation. velocity, then the velocity - time graph is a
straight line starting from origin.
• Acceleration of an object is zero, if it is at rest or moving with
uniform velocity.

Graphical Representation of Motion

Velocity
1. Position–Time Graphs
(i) When distance covered by a moving
object goes on increasing with time, Time
Position

the object is said to have positive (iii) In case of negative and constant
acceleration (i.e. velocity increases acceleration, the velocity of the object
with time). decreases linearly with time.
(ii) When distance covered by a moving
Time
object goes on decreasing with time,
the object is said to have negative acceleration (i.e.
Velocity

velocity decreases with time).

Position

Time
(iv ) When the acceleration of the object is
increasing, line bending towards velocity
Time axis represent the increasing acceleration in
(iii) When the moving object covers equal distance in equal the body.
time, the object is said to have zero acceleration i.e.
uniform velocity.
Velocity
Position

Time
(v) When the acceleration of the object is
Time decreasing, line bending towards time axis
(iv) When the position of object does not change with time, represents the decreasing acceleration in the
the object is at rest (i.e. velocity is zero). body.
Velocity
Position

Time
Time
582 CDS Pathfinder

• The horizontal range is the same when the body is

Equations of Motion projected at θ and (90 °- θ ).
For a moving object, the relations among its velocity, • The horizontal range of a projectile is maximum when
displacement, time and acceleration can be represented by angle of projection is 45°.
equations. These equations are called equations of motion.
• When two balls of different masses are projected
• For motion a straight line with constant acceleration a
horizontally they will reach ground at same time.
1
(i) v = u + at (ii) s = ut + at 2
2
(iii) v 2 = u 2 + 2as FORCE
• Equation of motion under gravity, (downward Force is a push or pull which produces or tends to produce
direction) a change in uniform motion of body; stops or tends to stop
1 a body which is in motion. Its unit is Newton.
(i) v = u + gt (ii) h = ut + gt 2
2 • It is a vector quantity and the straight line along which a
(iii) v 2 = u 2 + 2 gh force is directed is called the line of action of the force.
Where, u = initial velocity • The rotational effect of a force on a body about an axis
v = final velocity of rotation is described in terms of moment of force.
g = gravitational acceleration • CGS unit of force is dyne i.e. 1 dyne = 10 -5 N.
If an object is thrown vertically upward away from the Force is of two types
earth, then we shall substitute -g in place of g in the (i) Component of Force Forces acting at same angle from
above equations. The value of g is 9.8 m /s 2 . the coordinate axes can be resolved into mutually
➨ Note If a body starts from rest and moves with uniform perpendicular forces called components. The
acceleration, then distance covered by the body in t sec is component of a force parallel to the X-axis is called
proportional to t2(i. e. s ∝ t2 ). x-component, parallel to the y-component and so on.

Projectile Motion
F sin θ
F
When a body moves under an acceleration whose
direction is different from the direction of the initial
θ
velocity, then both the magnitude and direction of its
F cos θ
velocity changes with time. Hence, the body moves on a
curved path in a plane. This type of motion is called Here,
projectile motion. • x-component of force F is Fcosθ.
• A bullet fired from a rifle and a body dropped from the • y-component of force F is F sinθ.
window of a moving train shows the projectile motion. (ii) Contact and Non-contact Force The forces which act
on bodies when they are in physical contact are called
Y
contact forces. e.g. muscular force, frictional force, etc.
A force which can be exerted by an object on another
v sin θ

u
v object even from a distance (without physical contact
u sin θ

with each other) is called a non-contact force. e.g.

v cos θ
magnetic force, electrostatic force and gravitational
h force.
θ
O u cos θ
R
X NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Newton has given three laws of motion as below:
2u sinθ
• Flight time of projectile, T =

2 2
g First Law
u sin θ It states that every body continues in its state of rest or in
• Height of projectile, h =
2g uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled by
u 2 sin 2θ an external force to change that state.
• Range of projectile, R = .
g First law is also called law of Galileo or law of inertia.
• We drop down a ball from a roof and at the same time • The property of bodies by virtue of which they oppose
throw another ball in a horizontal direction, then both only change in their present state is called inertia.
the balls would strike the earth simultaneously at • Mass is a measure of the inertia of a body.
different places.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 583

Here some practical examples are as follows in which first • It is difficult to drive a nail into a wooden block
law is used. without holding the block.
• Athlete runs some distance, before taking a long jump. • A jet plane moves on the principle of Newton’s third
• A ball thrown upward in a train moving with uniform law of motion. As exhaust gases come out from the
velocity returns to the hand of thrower. nozzle at a greater speed, the reaction of the same
• The mud from the wheels of a moving vehicle flies-off moves the plane forwards.
tangentially.
• When we shake the branch of a mango tree, the mangoes Validity of Newton’s Laws of Motion
fall down. Newton’s laws are valid in classical physics only under
• A man jumping from a moving train may fall down. certain conditions
• If a cloth placed under a book is given a sudden pull, it • In general, the distances which one work must be
comes out without disturbing the book. much greater than the size of atoms and molecules.
• When a horse suddenly starts moving, the rider falls Else, quantum mechanics must be used in place of
backward. classical mechanics.
• When a running horse suddenly stops, the rider falls • In general, the speeds which one work with must be
forwards. much less than the speed of light. Else, relativistic
• We hit a carpet with a stick to remove the dust. mechanics must be used in place of classical mechanics.
• Also, this is valid with respect to inertial frame of
Second Law reference only.
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the applied force and takes place in the Linear Momentum
direction in which the force acts. According to second law • The linear momentum of a body is defined as, the
dp dp product of its mass and its velocity i.e.
F∝ or F = k
dt dt Momentum = Mass × Velocity, p = m × v
where, k is constant of proportionality • It’s direction is the same as the direction of velocity of
d the body. It is a vector quantity. It’s SI unit is kg-m/s.
F=k (mv) = kma
dt • Concept of momentum was introduced by Newton.
for simplicity let k = 1. • A heavier body has a larger linear momentum than a
⇒ F = ma lighter body moving with the same velocity. i.e. In the
1 newton = 10 5 dyne absence of external forces, the total momentum of the
system is conserved.
• Newton’s second law gives the magnitude of force.
i.e. m1v1 = m2v 2 [For single body]
• Newton’s first law is contained in the second law.
and m1u1 + m2u 2 = m1v1 + m2v 2 [For two bodies]
Here some practical examples are as follows in which second
law is used. Applications of Conservation of
• China wires are wrapped in straw or paper before
Momentum
packing.
• A person falling on pucca floor (or frozen ice) is likely to
When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun recoils or
gives a sharp pull in backward direction. While firing a
receive more injuries than one falling on kuccha floor
bullet, the gun must be held tight to the shoulder.
(loose earth).
• While catching a ball, a cricket player lowers his hands to • When a man jump from a boat to the shore, the boat
save himself from getting hurt. slightly moves away from the shore.
• Bogies of the trains are provided with buffers to avoid • Rocket works on the principle of conservation of
severe jerks during shunting of trains. momentum.
• If someone left on a frictionless floor desires to get out
Third Law of it, he can do so by blowing air out of his mouth.
According to this law, to every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction. ‘Action and reaction always act on the Impulse
different bodies.’ Here some practical examples are as • An impulse is a large force acting on a body for a
follows in which third law is used short time to produce a finite change in momentum.
• In order to walk, we press the ground in backward • Impulse = Force × Time interval i.e. I = F × ∆t
direction with our feet. As a result, the ground pushes us It’s SI unit is N-s or kg-m/s
in forward direction.
584 CDS Pathfinder

Examples of momentum and impulse are as follows: • Friction is independent of the area of contact of the two
• In catching a ball, a player by drawing his hands surfaces. Rolling friction is less than sliding friction.
backward increases the time of contact. • Force of friction ( F ) is directly proportional to the
• An athlete is advised to come to stop slowly after normal reaction ( R).
finishing a fast race. i.e. F ∝R
• The layer of bricks is broken by player. F = ∝R
• Vehicles like cars, buses, and scooters, are provided with where, ∝ = coefficient of friction.
shockers. Also, ∝ = tan α, where α is the angle of friction.
• Bogies of the trains are provided with buffers, because Angle of repose = Angle of friction i.e. θ = α
buffers increase the time duration of jerks during
shunting. This reduces the force with which bogies push Methods for Reducing Friction
or pull each other and severe jerks are avoided. • By using lubricants e.g. grease, oil, etc.
• By using ball or roller bearings, which changes sliding
FRICTION into rolling.
• By using soap solution.
The opposing force which comes into play when a body
• By using powder.
moves or tries to move the surface of another body is
known as friction. • Friction due to air is considerably reduced by streamling
• The maximum value of the force of friction which comes the shape of the body moving at high speed in air. e.g.
into play before a body just begins to slide over the aircraft, jet-planes, fast cars are streamlined.
surface of another body is called limiting friction. • The tyres are provided with treads which increases the
• The force of friction that comes into play between the
friction between the tyres and the road.
surfaces of two bodies before the body actually starts ➨ Note Pulling is easier than pushing
moving is called static friction. While pushing, there is one component of force that acting
downward on the object adds to the weight of the body hence
• The force of friction that opposes relative motion
there is more friction opposing the effort. Whereas on pulling, the
between two surfaces in contact is called kinetic or vertical component of force is against the weight of the body and
sliding friction. hence there is less overall friction. So, it is easy to pull than push.
• The frictional force developed, when a body rolls over a
surface, is known as the rolling friction. CIRCULAR MOTION
• Static friction is a self adjusting force and it adjusts
When an object moves along a circular path, then its motion
itself, so that it became equal to the applied force.
is called circular motion as motion of top, etc. In circular
Advantages of Friction motion force is always at right angles to the displacement
therefore no work is done by the force on the particle.
• Due to friction, we are able to move on the surface of
• When an object moves along a circular path with
the earth.
uniform speed, its motion is called uniform circular
• The fibres of thread are held together due to force of
motion.
friction.
• Circular motion is accelerated even, if the speed of the
• The brakes applied in automobiles work only due to
body is constant. The motion of a satellite is accelerated
friction.
motion.
• Sledges are used in Arctic region as friction is very low
on the surface of ice. Angular Velocity
Disadvantages of Friction Angular velocity is the rate at which angle swept by the
• A lot of energy is wasted in the form of heat due to
radius at the centre changes with time. Its unit is rad/s.
friction that causes wear and tear of the moving parts. B, t=1

• Due to friction, speed of automobiles cannot be s

increased beyond a certain limit. θ
O A, t=1
r
Laws of Friction
Friction acts in a direction opposite to the direction of
motion of the objects. It depends upon the nature of the θ θ
two surfaces in contact. • Angular velocity, ω = ⇒ s = v × t and ω = ,
t t
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 585

s
θ= Centrifugal Force
r
There are certain situations in which we feel that a body is
So, v=ω ×r
acted upon by a force, but actually there is no force on the
as v = linear speed, body. Such an apparent force is called a pseudo force.
ω = angular velocity, • Centrifugal force is such a pseudo force. It is equal and
r = radius of the circular path. opposite to centripetal force. When a person stand on a
Thus, linear velocity = Angular velocity rotating platform, then he feels the centrifugal force.
× Radius of circular path. • Cream separator and centrifugal drier work on the
The angular velocity of revolution of a planet around the principle of centrifugal force.
sun in an elliptical orbit increases. When the planet came ➨ Note Centrifugal is a device to separate the particles of different
closer to sun and vice-versa. masses present in liquid.

Angular Acceleration WORK

• The rate of change of angular velocity is defined as Work is said to be done, if a force acting on a body is able
angular acceleration. to actually move it through some distance in the direction
ω of the force.
• Angular acceleration, α = . Its unit is rad/s 2 or
t • Work = Force × Distance,
revolution/sec 2 . i.e. W = F ⋅s
• Relation between angular acceleration and linear • If the force F is making an angle θ with the direction of
acceleration, a = α × r displacement of the body, then the work done is
W = Fs cosθ
Centripetal Acceleration • It’s SI unit is joule (J).
The acceleration is directed towards the centre and is given
• CGS unit of work is erg i.e. 1 J = 10 7 ergs
v2
by a = , where v is the speed and r is the radius. This is
r
called centripetal acceleration.
Types of Work
Work can be of following types
Centripetal Force 1. Positive Work Done Positive work means that force
A body performing circular motion is acted upon by a is parallel to displacement.
force which is always directed towards the centre of the Examples
circle. This is called centripetal force. Work done by • When a body falls freely under gravitational pull.
centripetal force is always zero. • When a horse pulls a cart on a level road.
• If a body of mass m is moving on a circular path of 2. Negative Work Done Negative work means that force
radius R with uniform velocity v, then the required is opposite to displacement.
mv 2 Examples
centripetal force, F = = mω 2 R
R • When a body is made to slide over a rough surface
or when a positive charge is moved towards
• Any of the forces found in nature such as frictional
another positive charge.
force, gravitational force, electrical force, magnetic force
may act as a centripetal force. 3. Zero Work Done If the force is perpendicular to the
displacement and if either the force or the displacement
• Cyclist bends his body towards the centre on a turn is zero, work done will be zero.
while turning to obtain the required centripetal force.
Examples
• Generally, in rain the scooter slips off the turning of a • When a coolie travels on a platform with a load on
road because the friction between tyre and road is
his head.
reduced. Due to this necessary centripetal force is not
provided. • When a body is moved along a circular path. When
a person does not move from his position but he
• Vehicles can move on circular path safely, if friction
may be holding any amount of heavy load.
force ≥ required centripetal force.
• If the force is perpendicular to the displacement
• Roads are banked at turns to provide the required
and if either the force or the displacement is zero,
centripetal force for taking a turn.
work done is zero.
• Work done by centripetal force is always zero.
586 CDS Pathfinder

Conservative and Applications of potential energy are given below

(i) The potential energy of the wound spring of a clock
Non-conservative Forces is used to drive the hands of the clock.
• A force is said to be conservative, if the work done by (ii) Due to potential energy of the stretched bow, the
the force in moving a body depends only upon the arrow goes forward with a large velocity on releasing
initial and final positions of the body and is independent the bow.
of the path followed between the initial and final (iii) The potential energy of water in dams is used to run
position, e.g. gravitational force, electrostatic force and turbines in order to produce electrical energy using
magnetic force, etc. the generators.
• A force is said to be non-conservative, if the work done
by the force or against the force, in moving a body from Principle of Conservation
one position to another, depends upon the path followed of Energy
between the two positions. e.g. friction force, etc.
According to the law of conservation of energy it can
neither be created nor be destroyed but can only be
ENERGY transformed from one form to another.
The energy of an object is its capacity for doing work. It is • The total amount of energy in the universe remains
a scalar quantity and its unit is joule (J). constant. e.g. when an object falls, its potential energy
• Energy can exist in different forms such as mechanical decreases but at the same time kinetic energy increases
energy, heat energy, sound energy, light energy, chemical by an equal amount.
energy, etc.
• Mechanical energy is of two types i.e. kinetic energy and
Transformation of Energy
potential energy. • In a heat engine, heat energy changes into mechanical
energy. In the sun, mass changes into radiant energy.
1. Kinetic Energy • In an electrical heater, the electric energy is converted
into heat energy.
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is
• In an electric bulb, the electric energy is converted into
called its kinetic energy.
light energy in burning coal, oil, etc. The chemical
• If a body of mass m is moving with velocity v, then
energy changes to heat energy.
1 p2
kinetic energy = mv 2 = • When we rub our hands, heat is generated. Here,
2 2m mechanical energy of muscles is converted into heat energy.
• When momentum is doubled kinetic energy becomes • In an electromagnet the electric energy is converted into
four times. magnetic energy.
• If a body is moving in horizontal circle then its kinetic
energy is same at all points, but if it is moving in Einstein’s Mass-Energy Equivalence
vertical circle, then the kinetic energy is different at In 1905, Einstein proved the relation between mass and
different points. energy. E = mc 2 , where c is the velocity of light.
Applications of kinetic energy are given below E = mc 2 leads to verification of the two laws, law of
(i) Kinetic energy of air is used to run wind mills. conservation of mass and law of conservation of energy.
(ii ) Kinetic energy of running water is used to run the
water mills.
(iii ) A bullet fired from a gun can pierce a target due to
POWER
its kinetic energy. The time rate of doing work is called power.
W
If W is work done in time t then power, P = .
2. Potential Energy t
For a constant force F, the
It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its
position. Power ( P ) = F ⋅ v ⇒ P = Fv cosθ
• Suppose a body is raised to a height h above the surface where v = velocity of object
of the earth, then potential energy θ = angle between F and v
of body = mgh • Power is a scalar quantity with SI unit watt (W) or joule/s.
• Also, here potential energy = work done = mgh • Some other units of power are 1 watt hour = 3600 J
• When the body is projected upwards, then its kinetic 1 kilowatt hour = 3. 6 × 10 6 J
energy goes on changing to potential energy and
vice-versa. 1 HP (Horse Power) = 746 W
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 587

ROTATIONAL MOTION AND GRAVITATION

ROTATIONAL MOTION Radius of Gyration
When a body rotates about a fixed axis, it is said to Radius of gyration is defined as the distance from axis of
perform a rotational motion and the axis is called the rotation at which, if total mass of the body were supposed to
axis of rotation. In rotational motion every particle of be concentrated, the moment of inertia would be same.
the body moves in a circle and the centres of all these I = MK 2
circles lie at the axis of rotation. where, M = total mass of the body, K = radius of gyration
• The rotating blades of an electric fan and the motion
of a top are examples of rotational motion. Torque or Moment of Force
• Rigid body is the body in which there is no The turning effect of a body is known as the moment of the
displacement among the particles of the body on force or torque.
applying an external force. • Moment of force or torque, τ = F ⋅ d, here d is the
perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation.
Centre of Mass [CM] • It is a vector quantity having SI unit N-m.
A point within the body or outside the body at which the • A body of lesser weight can produce the same turning
whole mass of the body is assumed to be concentrated. effect as the body of higher weight by adjusting their
distance from the axis of rotation.
• The centre of mass of sphere, cylinder and ring is at
• Torque is equal to the product of moment of inertia and
its geometric centre.
angular acceleration. i.e. τ = I × α.
• The centre of mass may lie outside the body where
Practical applications of torque are given below
there is no material as in case of ring, hollow sphere,
• The handle or the knob is fitted near the free edge of the
hollow cylinder, etc.
door. So that, a heavy revolving door is opened or closed
easily, when the force is applied at the edge of the door.
Moment of Inertia • A wrench with a long arm is used to unscrew a nut fitted
Moment of inertia of a body with respect to axis of tightly into a bolt and the handle of a screw driver is made
rotation is the product of the mass ( m) and the square wide.
of distance from the axis of rotation ( R).
i.e. moment of inertia I = mR2 ANGULAR MOMENTUM
2 • The angular momentum ( J ) of a body about an axis is equal
• The SI unit of moment of inertia is kg-m .
to the product of the moment of inertia ( I ) of the body and
• Moment of inertia of a ring about an axis passing
its angular velocity (ω ) about that axis. i.e. J = I ω.
through its centre and perpendicular to its plane is • If no external torque is acting upon a body rotating about
I = MR2 . an axis, then the angular momentum of the body remains
• Moment of inertia of a diameter about its diameter is constant. It is called conservation of angular momentum.
1 Examples related to conservation of angular momentum are
I= MR2 .
2 given below
• The moment of inertia depends not only on the mass • When a diver jumps into water from a height, he does not
and size of the body but also upon the manner in keep his body straight but pulls in his arms and legs
which the mass is distributed around the axis of towards the centre of his body. On doing so, the moment
rotation. of inertia of his body decreases. But, since the angular
momentum remains constant, his angular velocity increases.
Practical applications of moment of inertia are given
• A man with his arms outstretched and holding heavy
below
dumb-bells in each hand, is standing at the centre of a
• The moment of inertia plays important role in our rotating table. When the man pulls-in his arms, the speed of
daily life. rotation of the table increases.
• In cycle, rikshaw, bullockcart, etc., the moment of • The reason is that on pulling-in the arms, the distance of
inertia of the wheels is increased by concentrating the dumb bells from the axis of rotation decreases and so
most of the mass at the rim of the wheel and the moment of inertia of the man decreases. Therefore by
connecting the rim to the axle of the wheel through conservation of angular momentum, the angular velocity
spokes. increases.
• It is due to the large moment of inertia of the wheels • The angular velocity of revolution of planet around the sun
that when we stop cycling, the wheels of the cycle in elliptical orbit increases, when the planet comes closer to
continue rotating for some time. the sun.
588 CDS Pathfinder

• If a cat is dropped from a height, they almost always tend

to land on their feet because they use the conservation of
Acceleration due to Gravity
angular momentum to change their orientation. It is the force by which the earth attracts a body towards
• When a cat is in the air, no net external torque acts on it
its centre.
• The acceleration due to gravity is the rate of change of
about its centre of mass, so the angular momentum about
velocity of a body due to the gravitational force acting
the cat’s centre of mass cannot change. GMe
• Stretching out its legs increases its rotational inertia and towards the earth. It is represented by g =
Re2
thus slows the cats angular speed. The conservation of
angular momentum allows the cat to rotate its body and where, M e is the mass of the earth and Re is the radius
slow its rate of rotation enough, so that it lands on its of the earth.
feet easily. • The value of g at the surface of the earth is 9.8 m/s 2 .
• Earth is surrounded by an atmosphere of gases due to
gravity. The value of g on the moon is 1/6th of that of
ROLLING MOTION the earth.
The rolling motion can be regarded as the combination of
pure rotation and pure translation. Variation in the Value of (g)
• The kinetic energy of a body rolling without slipping is • When we go above the surface of the earth, the
the sum of kinetic energies of translational and rotational acceleration due to gravity goes on decreasing.
motion. • When we go below the surface of the earth, the
i.e. total KE of a rolling body acceleration due to gravity goes on decreasing and
= Rotational KE + Translational KE becomes zero at the centre of the earth.
1 1 2 • Decreasing the rotational motion of the earth, the value
= I ω 2 + mv cm
2 2 of g increases. When we go from the equator towards
• If a ring, a disc and a sphere, all of the same radius and the poles, the value of g goes on increasing.
mass roll down an inclined plane from the same height, • If earth stops its rotation about its own axis, then at
the sphere will reach the bottom first and ring at last. the equator, the value of g increases and consequently
the weight of body lying there increases.
GRAVITATION • The value of g is maximum on surface of the earth.

The phenomena of action of attractive forces between two

bodies by virtue of their masses is known as gravitation. MASS AND WEIGHT
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in
Newton’s Law of Gravitation it. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is kg. Mass does
The force of gravitational attraction between two bodies is not change from place to place and remains constant.
directly proportional to the product of their masses ( m1 ⋅ m2 ) The weight of the body is the force with which it is
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) attracted towards the centre of the earth.
m m • Weight of the body w = mg
between them i.e. F = G 1 2 2
r • Weight of a body is not constant, it changes from place
where, m1 is the mass of first body, m2 is the mass of second to place. At the pole, the weight of a body will be
body and r is the distance between them. maximum whereas at the equator it is minimum.
• The value of G is 6 . 67 × 10 -11 N-m 2 /kg 2 . • Mass is measured by an ordinary equal arm balance,
while weight is measured by a spring balance.
• It is always attractive in nature, unlike electric and
magnetic force which can be attractive or repulsive both. Weight of a Body at Moon
• It acts along the line joining the centres of two interacting As mass and radius of moon is lesser than the earth, so
forces. the force of gravity at the moon is also less than the
• The gravitational force between two masses is independent earth. Its value at the moon’s surface is g/6.
of the presence of any other object medium present
between two masses. Centre of Gravity
• The predictions of solar and lunar eclipses on the basis of The centre of gravity of a body is that point, at which
the Newton’s law of gravitation come out in perfect the whole weight of the body appears to act.
agreement with actual observation. • It can be inside the material of the body or outside it.
• Tides are formed in oceans due to gravitational attraction • For regularly shaped body, the centre of gravity lies at
between moon and ocean water. its geometrical centre.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 589

Weight of a Body in Lift Energy of a Satellite

Some conditions are given below A satellite revolving around the earth has potential energy as
• If lift is stationary or moving with uniform speed well as kinetic energy. It has potential energy because it
(either upward or downward), the apparent weight of a remains in the gravitational field of earth and kinetic energy
body is equal to its true weight. because it is in motion.
• If lift is going up with acceleration, the apparent Total energy of the satellite,
weight of a body is more than the true weight. E = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
• If lift is going down with acceleration, the apparent GM e m  GM e m
weight of a body is less than the true weight. E= + - 
2Re  Re 
• If the rod of the lift is broken, it falls freely. In this
situation, the weight of a body in the lift becomes GM e m
E=-
zero. This is the situation of weightlessness. 2Re
• While going down, if the acceleration of lift is more where, m is the mass of satellite.
than acceleration due to gravity, then the body in the
lift raise towards the ceiling of the lift.
ESCAPE VELOCITY
Escape velocity is that minimum velocity with which a body
SATELLITE should be projected from the surface of the earth, so as it
The heavenly body which revolves around the sun is called goes out of gravitational field of earth and never returns to
planet e.g. the earth, while the heavenly body which the earth. Escape velocity at the surface is 11.2 km/s.
revolves round the planets is called Satellite. Moon is a Escape velocity is given by
natural satellite of the earth.
2GM
• Orbital speed of a satellite is independent of its mass ve =
Re
and depends upon the radius of orbit.
i.e. v 0 = gR  GM 
v e = 2gRe ! g = 2 
• The orbital speed of a satellite revolving near the  Re 
surface of the earth is 7.9 km/s. • The value of the escape velocity of a body does not
• Time period of revolution of satellite revolving near the depend on its mass. Its value on the moon surface is
surface of the earth is 1 hr 24 min (84 min). 2.38 km/s. So, there is no atmosphere around the moon.
• Period of revolution of a satellite depends upon the • Escape velocity is 2 times the orbital velocity.
height of satellite from the surface of the earth. • Satellites are launched with the escape velocity as needed.
• Every body inside the satellite is in a state of
weightlessness.
• Period of revolution of a satellite is independent of its
KEPLER’S LAWS
mass. Kepler’s law of planetary motion are three scientific laws
describing motion of planets around the sun.
• If a satellite revolves in equatorial plane in the direction
of the earth’s rotation i.e. from West to East with a • All planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits having
period of revolution equal to time period of rotation of the sun at one focus of the orbit.
the earth on its own axis i.e. 24 h, then the satellite will • The areal speed of a planet around the sun is constant.
appear stationary relative to the earth. Such a satellite is • The square of the period of revolution of any planet
called geo-stationary satellite. Such a satellite revolves around the sun (T ) is directly proportional to the cube of
around the earth at a height of 3600 km. its mean distance from the sun (a) i.e.
• INSAT 2B and INSAT 2C are geo-stationary satellites T 2 ∝ a3.
of India. It is used to reflect TV signals and telecast TV
programs from part of the work to another. Black Hole
• Polar satellite revolves around the earth in polar orbit A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong
at a height of 800 km. Time period of the satellites is gravitational effects that nothing not even particles and
84 min. These are used for weather forecasting and electromagnetic radiation such as light can escape from
mapping, etc. inside it. Event horizon is the boundary marking the limits
➨ Note The earth rotates on its axis from West to East. This rotation of a black hole. Thus, nothing that enters a black hole can
makes the sun and the stars appear to be moving across the sky get out or can be observed from outside the event horizon.
from East to West.
590 CDS Pathfinder

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
ELASTICITY Atmospheric Pressure
Elasticity is the property of material of a body by virtue of The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called
which the body acquires its original shape and size after atmospheric pressure.
the removal of deforming force. • Atmospheric pressure = 1.01 bar
• Steel and ivory are more elastic than rubber and water is = 1.01 × 10 5 N/m 2
more elastic than air.
= 760 torr
• The internal restoring force acting per unit area of
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by barometer.
cross-section of a deformed body is called stress. Its unit
is N/m 2 or Pascal. • Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude (height
from the earth’s surface). This is why
• The fractional change in configuration i.e. length, volume
– It is difficult to cook on the mountain.
and shape is called strain.
– The fountain pen of a passenger leaks in aeroplane at
• The ratio of stress to strain is a constant for the material
height.
and is called modulus of elasticity.
Stress • The slow rise in the barometric reading is the indication
i.e. E= of clear weather.
Strain
• Sudden fall in barometric reading is the indication of
It is also called Hooke’s law. storm.
• The maximum deforming force up to which a body • Slow fall in barometric reading is the indication of rain.
retains its property of elasticity is called the limit of
➨ Note Building and dams are laid on a larger area of ground so that,
elasticity. the height of the building or dam produces less pressure on ground.
• Putty, paraffin wax are nearly perfectly
plastic bodies.
PASCAL’S LAW
• Iron, copper, silver, aluminium, etc., are examples of
ductile materials. Glass, dry clay, etc., are examples of Pascal’s law states that ‘Pressure in a fluid in equilibrium is
brittle materials. the same everywhere, if the effect of gravity can be
neglected.’
• Rubber is one example of elastomers.
• Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press, hydraulic brakes work
on the basis of Pascal’s law.
PRESSURE • Hydraulic lift is used to lift heavy loads.
Pressure is defined as, force acting normally on unit area of
the surface.
Force
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
Pressure = When a solid body is immersed wholly or partially in a
Area
liquid (in general, in a fluid), then there is some apparent
• Its unit is N/m 2 also called Pascal. It is a scalar quantity. loss in its weight. This loss in weight is equal to the
• The pressure exerted by liquid at depth h below the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
surface of liquid is given as, Applications of Archimedes’ principle are given below
p = hdg, where d is density of liquid. • Archimedes’ principle is used in determining the relative
• It is measured by manometer. density of a substance.
• Pressure at a point in a static liquid has same value in all • Archimedes’ principle is used in designing ships and
directions. submarines.
• Pressure at a point in a liquid is proportional to the • The hydrometers used for determining the density of
density of the liquid and depth of the point from the liquids are based on Archimedes’ principle.
free surface. • The lactometers used for determining the purity of milk
• Boiling point of all substances increases with the increase are based on Archimedes’ principle.
in pressure.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 591

DENSITY Fluid Dynamics

(i) Streamline Flow or Steady Flow In this flow
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. velocity at every point in the fluid will remains
Mass M constant.
• Density, ρ = = . Its SI unit is kg/m 3 .
Volume V (ii) Turbulent Flow In this flow, the fluid does not
• Relative density of substance is defined as the ratio of the maintain constancy of the velocity.
density of that substance to the density of water at 4°C (iii) Critical Velocity The velocity above which flow
i.e. will become turbulent.
Density of material
Relative density =
Density of water at 4 °C PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY
• Relative density has no unit. It is a scalar quantity. It states that, when an incompressible and non-viscous
• The density of water is maximum at temperature 4°C. liquid flows in streamlined motion through a tube of
• Relative density of liquid or fluid is measured by non-uniform cross-section, the product of the
hydrometer. area-section and the velocity of flow is same at every
point in the tube. For a tube of flow, between two
• The density of sea water is more than that of normal
points having area of cross-section A1 and A 2 and
water. This explains why it is easier to swim in sea water.
velocities V1 and V2 .
• If ice floating in water in a vessel melts, the level of water
Then,
in the vessel does not change.
AV = Constant
• Ice floats on water surface as its density (0.92 g /cm 3 ) is
A1V1 = A 2V2
lesser than the density of water (1 g/cm 3 ).
According to the equation of continuity, the speed of
• Iron will sink in mercury because density of mercury is
fluid flow becomes faster in the narrower pipe.
more than the iron.

BUOYANT FORCE BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

When an incompressible and non-viscous liquid (or gas)
When a body is immersed partially or wholly in a liquid, a flows in streamlined motion from one place to another,
force acts on the body by the liquid in the upward direction. then at every point of its path the total energy per unit
This force is called buoyant force or force of buoyancy of volume (Pressure energy + Kinetic energy + Potential
upthrust. energy) is constant.
• It is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body 1
and acts at the centre of gravity of displaced liquid. P + ρv 2 + ρgh = constant
2
• The buoyant force exerted by a liquid depends on the
where, ρ is density of fluid. This is the principal of
volume of the solid object immersed in the liquid.
conservation of energy for the non-viscous fluids i.e.
• The buoyant force exerted by a liquid depends on the there is no viscous force acting between the layers of the
density of the liquid in which the object is immersed. fluid.
Venturimeter, Pitot tube, Bunsen’s burner, atomizor,
Law of Floatation filter pump and magnus effect are based upon the
When body floats in neutral equilibrium, the weight of the Bernoulli’s theorem.
body is equal to the weight of displaced liquid.
➨ Note Bernoulli’s theorem is applicable only to streamline flow
• The centre of gravity of the body and centre of gravity of of a fluid. It is not valid for non-steady or turbulent flow.
the displaced liquid should be in one vertical line.
• Three cases are possible when the body is immersed in the SURFACE TENSION
fluid. Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the normal
(i ) If the weight of the body is greater than the force acting per unit length on either side of an
upward force or upthrust by the fluid acting imaginary line drawn on the free surface of liquid and
upwards, then the body sinks. tangential to the free surface.
(ii ) If the weight of the body is equal to the upthrust • If a force F acts on an imaginary line of length l, then
or the weight of the body is just balanced by F
upthrust, then the body floats fully immersed. surface tension T = . Its SI unit is Newton/metre.
l
(iii ) If the weight of the body is less than the upward • Force of attraction applied between molecules of same
force, then the body floats partially immersed. The substance is called cohesive force, while attractive
centre of gravity of a body is that point at which force between molecules of different substances is
the whole weight of the body appears to act. called adhesive force.
592 CDS Pathfinder

• The surface tension of a liquid decreases with increase in • Writing nib is split in the middle, so that a fine
temperature and becomes zero at the critical temperature. capillary is formed in it. When it is dipped in
• On mixing soap, the surface tension of water decreases. ink, the ink rises in the capillary.
➨ Note The liquids which wet glass for which the angle of
Some Phenomena Based contact is accute, rise up in capillary tube, while those
which do not wet glass, for which the angle of contact is
on Surface Tension obtuse are depressed down in the capillary.
• Warm soup is tasty because at high temperature its surface
tension is low and consequently the soup spreads on all parts of VISCOSITY
the tongue. It is the property of the liquid by virtue of which,
• Medicines used for washing wounds, as dettol have a surface it opposes the relative motion between its adjacent
tension lower than water. So, they reach the fine cavities formed layers.
in the wound. • Viscosity is the property of liquids and gases
• The surface tension of the tooth-paste scum is also less that it both.
spreads quickly on the full areas of teeth and clean them.
• With rise in temperature, viscosity of liquids
• Insects and mosquitoes swim on the surface of water in ponds decreases and that for gases increases.
and lakes due to surface tension.
• Viscosity of liquid increases with increase in
• Hair of a shaving brush cling together due to surface tension, pressure.
when the brush is taken out from the water.
• Viscosity of a fluid is measured by its coefficient
• The ends of a glass tube become rounded on heating. Small
of viscosity. It’s SI unit is (N - s / m -2 ).
drops of mercury are spherical while large ones are flat.
Formation of lead shots, liquid-drop model of nucleus.
Floatation of needle on water. Dancing of camphor on water STOKES’ LAW
and helping. Detergent in cleaning the clothes all are due to
When a small spherical body of radius r is moving
surface tension.
slowly with a constant velocity v through a
perfectly homogeneous medium (liquid or gas) of
ANGLE OF CONTACT infinite extension and coefficient of viscosity η,
The angle inside the liquid between the tangent to the solid then the retarding viscous force acting an the body
surface and the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact is F = 6π ηr v
is called the angle of contact for that pair of solid and liquid. • This law is used in Millikan’s method for
• The angle of contact for pure water and clean glass is zero. For determining the electronic charge and for finding
ordinary water and glass it is about 8°. out the radii of small aid-drops by measuring their
terminal velocity in air.
• The angle of contact for water and silver is 90°.
• The liquids which wet the solid have acute angle of contact.
Meniscus of these liquids will be concave. TERMINAL VELOCITY
• The liquids which do not wet the solid have obtuse angle of When a body falls in viscous medium, its velocity
contact as for mercury and glass the angle of contact is 135°. first increases and finally becomes constant. This
Meniscus of these liquids will be convex. constant velocity is called terminal velocity. The
terminal velocity of the sphere is directly
proportional to the square of the radius of the
CAPILLARITY sphere.
If a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, liquid ascends or descends • The cloud particles fall down very slowly
in the capillary tube. This phenomenon is called capillarity. because of the viscosity of air and hence appear
• The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to capillary action of floating in the sky.
threads in the wick. • Thin liquids like water, alcohol, etc are less
• To prevent loss of water due to capillary action, the soil is viscous than thick liquids coal for blood, honey,
loosened and split into pieces by the farmers. glycerine, etc.
• The root hairs of plants draws water from the soil through • Honey is less viscous than glycerine.
capillary action.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 593

HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS

TEMPERATURE Total Radiation Pyrometer
The measurement of hotness or coldness of a body is Radiation pyrometer measures the temperature of a body by
called its temperature. When two bodies are placed in measuring the radiation emitted by the body. It cannot measure
contact, heat always flows from a body at higher temperature below 800°C because at low temperature, emission
temperature to the body at lower temperature. of radiation is very small and cannot be detected. Sun's
temperature is measured by it.
THERMOMETER ➨ Note Bolometer and thermopile are also used to measure the amount of
heat radiated by a body.
An instrument used to measure the temperature of a
body is called a thermometer. Mercury is generally
used as, thermometric substance, because it is sensitive
HEAT
to slightest change in temperature which is notable It is a form of energy which produces the sensation of warmth
when it is used in a thermometer. Mercury has a in our body.
freezing point of - 38 ⋅ 83°C and boiling point at • It is due to the kinetic energy of the molecules constituting
356 ⋅ 7 °C, this gives a very big range to measure the object or body. Its units are calorie, kilocalorie or joule.
temperatures for many general purposes. Also, it does • Calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
not stick to (wet) the capillary wall of the thermometers temperature of 1 g of water through 1°C (from 10°C to
and it is easy to obtain in its elemental form. 11°C). It is represented by cal, 1 cal = 4.18 J.
• Air is a non-conductor of heat and silver is the best
Temperature Scales conductor of heat.
Some temperature scales are as follows • Ebonite rubber, glass and air are bad conductors of heat.
1. Celsius Scale (C) The melting point of the ice at
standard atmospheric pressure is regarded as 0°C Specific Heat
and the boiling point of water as 100°C. This • Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the
scale was designed by Anders Celsius in the year
temperature of a unit mass of the substance by 1°C.
1710.
• If Q heat changes the temperature of m by ∆T , then specific
The degree celsius (°C) can refer to a specific
temperature on the celsius scale as well as a unit heat
to indicate a temperature interval. Q
C=
2. Fahrenheit Scale (F) The melting point of ice is m∆ T
regarded as 32°F and the boiling point of water as The SI unit of specific heat is J/kg-K.
212°F. This scale was designed by Gabriel • Specific heat of gold = 130 J/kg-K
Fahrenheit in the year 1717. • Specific heat of water = 4180 J/kg-K
3. Reaumer Scale (R) The melting point of ice is
• The specific heat of water is maximum.
regarded as 0°R and the boiling point of water as
80°R. This scale was introduced by RA Reaumer • Mercury has low specific heat.
in year 1730.
• Scales of temperature measurement,
Thermal Capacity
C- 0 F - 32 R-0 K - 273 It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
= = = body through 1K. Its units are J/K or cal/°C or kcal/°C.
100 - 0 212 - 32 80 - 0 100 - 0
Thermal capacity = mC
C F - 32 R K - 273
⇒ = = = where, m is the mass of the body and C is the specific heat.
5 9 4 5
• The normal temperature of a human body is 37°C or Water Equivalent
98.4 F. It is the mass of water, which absorbs or emits the same
• - 40 ° is the temperature at which Celsius and amount of heat as is done by the given body for the same rise
Fahrenheit thermometers read same. or fall in temperature.
• The range of a laboratory thermometer is generally • The water equivalent of a body is denoted by W. Its SI unit
from - 10 °C to 110 °C. A laboratory thermometer is kg and CGS unit is g.
cannot be used to measure the human body • Water equivalent, W = mC
temperature. where, m is mass of the body and C is the specific heat.
594 CDS Pathfinder

Principle of Calorimetry Anamalous Expansion of Water

The heat lost by the hot body must be equal to the heat Almost every liquid expands with the increase in
gained by the cold body. This is known as principle of temperature. But when temperature of water is increased
calorimetry or principle of mixtures, i.e. from 0°C to 4°C its volume decreases. If the temperature is
Heat gained = Heat lost increased above 4°C its volume starts increasing, clearly
density of water is maximum at 4°C.
• Work and heat are two equivalent forms of energy.
• Calorimeter is a cylindrical vessel made of copper. Interconversion of States of Matter
The temperature at which solid starts to liquify is known
THERMAL EXPANSION as melting point of that solid.
The phenomenon of change in dimensions of an object due • The process in which a solid changes into a liquid on
to heat supplied is known as thermal expansion. heating is called melting solid. Change of state takes
place i.e. ice changes into water.
• A solid can undergo three types of expansions:
• The process in which a liquid changes into a solid is
– Linear expansion (expansion in length)
called fusion. The temperature at which liquid starts to
– Superficial expansion (expansion in area) freeze is known as freezing point of the liquid.
– Cubical expansion (expansion in volume) • The process in which a liquid changes into a vapour on
• Relation between the coefficients of linear, superficial heating is called vaporisation. The temperature at which
and cubical expansion : α : β : γ = 1: 2 : 3 the liquid starts to evaporate is called the boiling point
where change of state takes place i.e. water changes into
Practical Applications of Thermal water vapour or steam.
• The process of change of state directly from solid to
Expansion vapour (or gas) is known as sublimation.
• When hot tea is poured into a glass tumbler made of
soft glass, it cracks because of thermal expansion of LATENT HEAT
glass.
• Telegraph wires are given enough gap to allow the wires It is the amount of heat absorbed by a unit mass of the
for contraction in winter. substance to change its state without change in temperature.
• SI unit of latent heat is joule per kilogram.
• An ordinary pendulum clock runs faster in winter but
slower in summer, because in summer the length of • Latent heat of fusion is 80 cal/g and vaporisation is
pendulum increases, while in winter it decreases. 540 cal/g.
• A metallic ball before heating can pass easily through the • Ice at 0°C is more effective in cooling a substance than
ring, but after heating the ball does not pass through the water at 0°C.
ring because of the thermal expansion of ball. • If Q is quantity of heat absorbed (or given out), then
• A gap is provided between the iron rails of the railway Q = mL
track, so that rails can easily expand during summer and where, m = mass of the substance
do not bend. In the construction of bridges, ends of L = latent heat of substance.
steel gerders are not fixed but placed on rollers to allow • Steam contains more heat, in the form of latent heat,
free expansion and contraction in summer and winter then boiling water.
respectively to avoid any damage to the bridge. • The burns caused by steam are much more severe than
• A tightly fitted cork can be removed from a glass bottle those caused by boiling water though both of them are
without breaking it on heating its mouth carefully. The at the same temperature of 100°C.
glass wall expand and the cork will come out easily.

Expansion of Liquids EVAPORATION

It is the slow process of conversion of a liquid into its
• Liquids do not have their definite length and surface
vapour even below its boiling temperature.
area. It always need a container. When they are heated,
they expand and at the same time the container also • Cooking is caused by evaporation due to expansion.
expands. • Factors affecting the evaporation of a liquid are
– the area of the liquid surface
• The expansion of a liquid, when the expansion of its
– the nature of the liquid
container has not been taken into account is called
– temperature of the liquid
apparent-expansion.
– dryness of air
• The expansion of a liquid, when the expansion of its
– the movement of the air
container is taken into account, is called real expansion.
– temperature of air or surrounding
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 595

RELATIVE HUMIDITY Difference between Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine

The ratio of amount of water vapour ( m) actually present Petrol engine Diesel engine
in a certain volume of air at a given temperature to the It works with a spark plug. It works with an oil plug.
amount of water vapour ( M ) required to saturate it, is Efficiency is smaller (47%). Efficiency is larger (55 %).
called relative humidity, RH .
m It is associated with the risk of No risk of explosion, because only
RH = × 100%. explosion, because petrol vapour and air is compressed. Hence,
M air is compressed. So, low compression ratio is kept large.
compression ratio is kept.
• The amount of water vapour in air is called as
humidity. Petrol vapour and air is created with Spray of diesel is obtained through
spark plug. the jet.
• The amount of water vapour in the air varies as it
depends on the rate of evaporation.
• The amount of water vapour present in 1 m 3 air is
Transmission of Heat
called its absolute humidity. Transfer of heat from one place to other place is called
transmission of heat.
• Relative humidity is measured by hygrometer.
There are three processes by which transmission of heat takes
• Relative humidity increases with the increases of
place.
temperature.
(a) Conduction (b) Convection (c) Radiation
• In solids, transmission of heat takes place by conduction
THERMODYNAMICS process.
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with • In liquids and gases heat takes place by convection
exchange of heat energy between bodies and conversion
process.
of the heat energy into mechanical energy and
• Heat from the sun reaches on the earth by radiation.
vice-versa.
• Mercury though a liquid is heated by conduction and not
First Law of Thermodynamics The amount of heat
by convection.
given to a system is used up in two ways, first to
increase the internal energy and second to do the • In rooms, ventilators are provided to escape the hot air by
external work. i.e. the process of convection.
• Air is poor conductor of heat.
dQ = dU + dW .
• On a cold night two thin blankets gives more hotness than
Second Law of Thermodynamics The second law of
a single thick blanket because the layer of air between the
thermodynamics is the outcome of human experience
two blankets works as better insulator of heat.
under which heat energy can be converted into
mechanical energy. This law is based upon the two • Cooking utensils are made up of aluminium, brass and
statements given below. steel, because these substances have low specific heat and
(i) It is impossible to construct a device which operates high conductivity.
in a cycle that will take heat from a body and
convert it completely into the work. KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
(Kelvin-Planck’s Statements) Kirchhoff’s law signifies that good absorbers are good
(ii) It is impossible to construct a self acting device emitters. If a shining metal ball with some black spot on its
which operates in a cycle that will transfer heat surface is heated to a high temperature and seen in dark, the
from a cold body to a hot body without shining ball becomes dull but the black spots shines
expenditure of work (Clausius Statement). brilliantly because black spot absorbs radiation during heating
and emit in dark.
Nature of Internal Energy
• White and light colours are bad absorbers and good
• According to the kinetic modal of matter, every
reflectors of heat.
substance is composed of molecules which are in
constant motion inside the substance. Hence, • In deserts, day temperature is very high and night
molecules posses kinetic energy. temperature is extremely low because the specific heat of
sand is very low. Therefore, it absorbs the heat readily and
• Molecules also exert force on one another which is
its temperature raises by a large degree during day. At
called intermolecular force, hence they posses potential night sand radiates the heat equally readily making the
energy also. The kinetic energy and potential energy temperature loss.
of molecules is the internal energy of the substance.
• The internal energy of an ideal gas is only the kinetic
Perfectly Black Body A perfectly black body is one which
absorbs completely all the radiations falling on its surface,
energy of its molecules which depends only upon the
whatever be the wavelength.
temperature of the gas.
596 CDS Pathfinder

Perfectly black body is a perfect absorber hence, where, σ is Stefan's constant.

according to Kirchhoff’s law, it will also be a perfect
radiator. It is not essential that a perfectly black body
➨ Note Wein's displacement law can be used to compute the
temperature of the sun or of the stars.
should appear black. Sun emits radiation of all
Newton’s Law of Cooling The rate of loss of heat by a
wavelength, so it may be called a black body, even
body is directly proportional to the difference in
though it looks white.
temperature between the body and the surrounding.
Stefan’s Law The radiant energy emitted by unit area of
If the door of refrigerator is kept open, it will not cool the
perfectly black body per unit time is directly
room, it will increases the temperature of the room, because
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
heat rejected by the refrigerator to the room, will be more
temperature.
than the heat taken by the refrigerator from the room.
E ∝T4 ⇒ E = σ T 4

OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

PERIODIC MOTION –no force acts on the particle.
When a body repeats its motion continuously on a definite
–velocity is maximum.
– acceleration is zero.
path in a definite interval of time, then its motion is called
– kinetic energy is maximum.
periodic motion and the interval of time is called time
– potential energy is zero.
period. Motion of hands of a clock, motion of earth around
the sun and motion of the needle of a sewing machine are • When a particle executing SHM is at the extreme end,
examples of periodic motion. then
– velocity of particle is zero.
Oscillatory Motion – acceleration of the particle is maximum.
– kinetic energy of particle is zero.
If a body in periodic motion moves along the same path
– potential energy is maximum.
to and fro about a definite point (mean position or
– restoring force acting on particle is maximum.
equilibrium position), then the motion of the body is a
vibratory motion or oscillatory motion. Oscillatory motion • In case of spring block system, time period of oscillation
is also called as harmonic motion. m
is given by T = 2π , where m is the mass of the block.
• The motion of the pendulum of a wall clock, the motion k
of the bob of a simple pendulum, the motion of a loaded
• In case of spring block system, the restoring force
spring, the motion of liquid contained in a U-tube , the
F = - kx
motion of the prongs of tuning fork and the motion of a
where, x is displacement of the block from mean
bar magnet suspended in the earth’s magnetic field are
position and k is spring constant.
examples of oscillatory motion.
• All oscillatory motions are periodic motions, but all
periodic motions are not oscillatory. RESTORING FORCE
When oscillating particle is displaced from its equilibrium
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION position, then a periodic force acts upon it which is always
directed towards the equilibrium position. This force is
(SHM) called restoring force.
If a particle repeats its motion about a fixed point after a
regular time interval in such a way that at any moment the Simple Pendulum
acceleration of the particle is directly proportional to its A simple pendulum consists of a small metal ball
displacement from the fixed point at that moment and is suspended by a long thread from a rigid support, such that
always directed towards the fixed point, then the motion the bob is free to swing back and forth.
of the particle is called simple harmonic motion. • The distance of the pendulum from its mean position is
• Vibrations of the prongs of a tuning fork, oscillations of called its displacement.
a body. Suspended by a spring. Oscillations of a body • The maximum displacement of the pendulum on either
partly immersed in a liquid and oscillations of a simple side of its mean position is called the amplitude of
pendulum are examples of simple harmonic motion. oscillations.
• When a particle executing SHM passes through the mean
• Time period is the time taken by the pendulum to
position, then
complete one full oscillation.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 597

• Frequency is the number of full oscillations completed by

pendulum in one second.
WAVES
A wave is a disturbance which propagates energy
• Second pendulum is one whose time period is 2s.
from one place to the other without the transport
L of matter.
• Time period of simple pendulum T = 2π , where L is length
g These are of two types
of thread and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
• The time period of a simple pendulum of infinite length is 84.6
Mechanical Waves
min. A pendulum clock goes slow in summer and fast in winter. The waves which require material medium (solid,
liquid or gas) for their propagation are called
• If a simple pendulum is suspended in a lift descending down
mechanical waves or elastic waves. These are of two
with acceleration, then time period of pendulum will increase. If
types
lift is ascending, then time period of pendulum will decrease.
(i) Longitudinal Waves If the particles of the
• If a lift falling freely under gravity, then the time period of the
medium vibrate in the direction of propagation
pendulum will be infinite. of wave, the wave is called longitudinal waves.
• At moon, the time period of simple pendulum increases because Waves on springs or sound waves in air are
acceleration due to gravity at moon is lesser. examples of longitudinal waves.
➨ Note Every body inside a satellite remains in a state of weightlessness, that (ii) Transverse Waves If the particles of the
is the effective value of g remains zero. Hence, a pendulum inside a satellite medium vibrates perpendicular to the direction
will not oscillate. Therefore, the pendulum clock cannot work inside space of propagation of wave, the wave is called
satellites. transverse waves.
Oscillation of Liquid Column in a U-tube Waves on strings under tension, waves on the
surface of water are examples of transverse
If a liquid is taken in a U-tube, it maintains equal level in both the waves.
columns of the tube. When air is blown-in on side B, the liquid
may go down upto point D. The displacement of the liquid is Electromagnetic Waves
given by BD = x.
The waves which do not require any medium for
In the second column, the
their propagation i.e. which can propagate even
liquid goes upto E and the E
B C x through the vacuum are called electromagnetic
displacement is CE. As the x
B C
D F waves. They propagate as transverse wave.
applied force is withdrawn,
the liquid level in the second h • Electromagnetic waves of wavelength range 10 -3
column comes down because m to 10 -2 m are called microwaves.
of gravity from E to C. But • Microwaves are absorbed by water molecules and
due to inertia, it overshoots the mark C and goes to F (CF = x ), living tissue internal heating will damage or kill
whereas the liquid in the other column also goes up by the same cells.
distance. • Microwaves are used in communications,
Thus, the liquid starts oscillating in both the columns. This satellites, telephony, heating water and food.
motion of the liquid in the U-tube is SHM with time period, ➨ Note Cathode rays, canal rays, α-rays, β-rays are not
h electromagnetic waves. Light and heat are examples of
T = 2π where, h is the height of liquid in each column.
g electromagnetic waves.

Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves

Wavelength range Frequency
Electromagnetic Waves Discoverer (in metre) Uses
range
- 14 - 10 20 18 Medical tracers, killing cancerous cells,
γ-rays Henry Becqueral 10 to 10 10 to 10
steralisation, imaging defects in metal.
X-rays W Roenetgen 10 - 10 to 10 - 8
1018 to 1016 Imaging defects in bones, hidden devices.
- 8 - 7 16 14
Ultraviolet rays Ritter 10 to 10 10 to 10 Making vitamin D, making ions.
Visible radiation Newton 3.9 × 10 -7 to 7.8 × 10 -7 1014 to 1012 Photography
-7 -3 12 10
Infrared rays Hershel 7.8 × 10 to 7.8 × 10 10 to 10 TV remote control
-3 10 8
Short radio waves Heinrich 10 to 1 10 to 10 Communication, radio, TV.
or Hertz hertzian waves
Long radio waves Marcony 1 to 10 4 10 8 to 10 6 Communication, radio, TV.
598 CDS Pathfinder

Important Terms Related to Waves • To hear echo, the minimum distance between the observer

• Amplitude (A) Maximum displacement of a vibrating

and reflection should be 17. Persistance of ear is 1/10 s.
particle of medium from its mean position is called • At the moon, the echo is not heared due to absence of
amplitude. atmosphere.
• Wavelength (λ) Wavelength is the distance between any
two nearest particle of the medium, vibrating in the SONAR
same phase.
It stands for sound navigation and ranging. It is used to
• Frequency ( f ) Frequency of vibration of a particle is measure the depth of a sea and to locate the submarines
defined as the number of vibrations completed by and shipwrecks. The transmitter of a sonar produces pulses
particle in one second. of ultrasonic sound waves of frequency of about 50000 Hz.
1 The reflected sound waves are received by the receiver.
Frequency =
Time period
• Velocity of wave (v) = Frequency (f ) × Wavelength ( λ ) Speed of Sound
The distance travelled by sound wave in one second is
Waves in Different Frequency Range known as speed of sound wave. i.e.
According to their frequency range, longitudinal Speed of sound, v = Frequency × Wavelength
mechanical waves are divided into the following categories: • Speed of sound basically depends upon elasticity and
• The longitudinal mechanical waves which lie in the range density of medium. The speed of sound in a medium is
20 Hz to 20000 Hz are called audible or sound waves. E
given by v = , where E is modulus of elasticity of
Human ears are sensitive to the waves in this frequency d
range. the medium and d = density.
• The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies γp
• For gases, v =
less than 20 Hz are called infrasonic. These are d
produced by earthquakes, volcanic eruption, ocean waves where, p is pressure and γ is ratio of specific heats.
and elephants and whales.
• Speed of sound is maximum in solids and minimum in
• The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies gases. Speed of sound in air is 332 m/s, 1483 m/s in
greater than 20000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves. water and 5130 m/s in iron.
• Human ear cannot detect the ultrasonic waves. But • When sound enters from one medium to another
certain creatures like dog, cat, bat, mosquito can detect medium, its speed and wavelength changes but frequency
these waves. Bat also produces ultrasonic waves. remains unchanged.
• Ultrasonic waves are used for sending signals, measuring • Speed of sound remains unchanged by the increase or
the depth of sea, cleaning clothes and machinery parts of decrease of pressure.
clocks removing lamp shoot from chimney of factories • The speed of sound increases with the increase of
and in ultrasonography. temperature of the medium. The speed of sound in air
• The use of ultrasonic waves to investigate the action of
increases by 0.61 m/s, when the temperature is
increased by 1°C.
the heart is called echocardiography.
• The speed of sound is more in humid air than in dry air
Sound Waves because the density of humid air is less than the density
of dry air.
Sound wave is the form of energy which make us hear and
• The speed of sound in air is very slower as compared to
having frequency and high wavelength. These can not
the speed of light in air. Therefore, in rainy season, the
travel in vacuum. It is of two types i.e. longitudinal wave
flash of lightning is seen first and the sound of thunder
and mechanical wave. is heard a little later.
• The rebouncing back of sound when it strikes a hard ➨ Note The astronauts who land on moon, talk to one another
surface is called reflection of sound. The reflection of through wireless sets using radio waves.
sound is utilised in working of devices such as
megaphone, bulbhorn, stethoscope and sound board. Characteristics of Sound Waves
• The repetition of sound caused by the reflection of There are following characteristics of sound waves.
sound waves is called an echo. In addition to curtains,
carpets and sofa-sets in our rooms also reduce the Intensity
formation of echoes by absorbing sound waves. Intensity of sound at any point in space is defined as
• The persistence of sound in a big hall due to repeated amount of energy passing normally per unit area held
reflections from walls, ceiling and floor of the hall is around that point per unit time. SI unit of intensity is
reverberation. W / m 2.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 599

• Intensity of sound at a point is inversely – If mach number > 1, body is called supersonic.
proportional to the square of the distance of point – If mach number > 5, body is called hypersonic.
from the source and directly proportional to the – If mach number < 1, body is said to be moving with
square of amplitude of vibration, square of subsonic speed.
frequency and density of the medium.
• The loudness depends on intensity as well as on Resonance
sensitivity of ear. • If however, the frequency of the external force is equal to
• The loudness of sound is measured in decibel (dB). the natural frequency of the body, then the amplitude of the
I forced oscillations of the body becomes quite large. This
• Sound level, β = 10 log 10   phenomenon is called resonance.
 I0 
• A group of soldiers on a bridge are advised not to walk in
where, I0 = the minimum intensity that can be heard steps because their movement causes the bridge to vibrate. If
called threshold of hearing 10 -12 W/m 2 at 1 kHz. they walk in step, the frequency of vibration may match the
Standard value of noise pollution natural frequency of the bridge structure and thus causing
resonance. This resonance of frequency can cause the bridge
Areas Day time (dB) Night time (dB) to collapse.
Industrial area 75 70
Commercial area 65 55 Some Definitions Regarding Waves
Residential area 55 45 Interference When two waves of same frequency, same
Silence 50 40 wavelength, same velocity moves in the same direction. Their
superimposition results in the interference. In interference,
➨ Note Likewise intensity of sound wave, intensity of an energy is neither created nor destroyed but is redistributed.
earthquake defines the energy released by it which is indicated
by the local effects and potential for damage produced on the Beat When two sound waves of slightly different frequencies,
earth’s surface. It can be measured by a seismograph. travelling in a medium along the same direction, superimpose
on each other, the intensity of the resultant sound at a
Pitch particular position rises and falls regularly with time. This
It is that characteristic of sound, which distinguishes a phenomenon of regular variation in intensity of sound with
sharp sound from a grave sound. time at a particular position is called beats.
• Pitch depends upon frequency of sound waves. Progressive Waves The disturbance produced in the medium
• The pitch of female voice is higher than the pitch of travels onward, it being handed over from one particle to the
male voice. next. Each particle executes the same type of vibration as the
• The pitch of sound produced by roaring of lion is preceding one, though not at the same time.
lower whereas the pitch of sound produced by Stationary Waves When combination of two waves moving in
mosquito whisper is high. opposite directions, each having the same amplitude and
frequency.
Quality (or Timbre)
It is that characteristic of sound which enables us to
distinguish between sounds produced by two sources
DOPPLER’S EFFECT
having the same intensity and pitch. If there is a relative motion between source of sound and
observer, the apparent frequency of sound heard by the
observer is different from the actual frequency of sound
SHOCK WAVES emitted by the source. This phenomenon is called Doppler’s
A body moving with supersonic speed in air leaves effect.
behind it a conical region of disturbance which spreads When the distance between the source and observer decreases,
continuously. Such a disturbance is called shock the apparent frequency increases and vice-versa.
waves.
• These waves carry huge energy and may even make
Uses of Doppler’s Effect
(i ) By police to check over speeding of vehicles.
cracks in window panes or even damage a building.
• The speed of supersonic wave is measured in mach
(ii ) At airport to guide the aircraft.
number. One mach number is the ratio of velocity (iii ) To study heart beats and blood flow in different parts on
of source to the velocity of sound. the body.
Velocity of source (iv) It is used to determine the velocities of which stars and
• Mach number =
Velocity of sound galaxies are moving toward or away from the earth.
600 CDS Pathfinder

OPTICS
LIGHT • Focal length of plane mirror is infinity i.e. power of the
It is the radiation which makes our eyes able to see the plane mirror is zero.
• Linear magnification produced by plane mirror is 1.
object. Its speed is 3 × 10 8 m/s in vacuum.
• Light is the form of energy. It is a transverse wave and it • When two plane mirrors are kept facing each other at an
takes 8 min 19 s to reach on the earth from the sun. angle θ and an object is placed between them, then
360 °
• The light reflected from the moon takes 1.28 s to reach (i) Number of images, n = -1
the earth. θ
360 °
• It represents the phenomenon of reflection, refraction, If , is even or object lies symmetrically.
interference, diffraction, scattering and polarisation. θ
 360 °  360 °
(ii) Number of images, n =   . If   is odd
Reflection of Light  θ   θ 
Reflection is the phenomenon of change in the path of light or the object lies symmetrically.
without any change in its medium. In reflection, the
frequency, speed and wavelength do not change, but a
Uses of the Plane Mirror
phase change may occur depending on the nature of (i) Plane mirrors are used as looking glass.
reflecting surface. (ii) Plane mirrors are used in constructing periscope
Normal which is used in submarines.
N (iii) Plane mirror are used to make kaleidoscope.
A B

Spherical Mirrors
y
ra
In

Spherical mirrors can be regarded as a part of a hollow

c

ed
id
en

ct

i reflecting spheres of glass. These are of two types

fle
t

r
ra

Re
y

Mirror Point of incidence (i) Concave mirror (ii ) Convex mirror

P Concave mirror The spherical mirror whose reflecting
Reflection of Light surface is inwardly leaned, called concave mirror. It is also
called converging mirror.
Laws of Reflection
• The angle of reflection ( ∠r ) is always equal to the angle Principal axis
C F P B
of incidence ( ∠i ) i.e. ∠i = ∠r. A Centre of Focus Pole
• The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the curvature
point of incidence all lie in the same plane. f
Concave mirror
MIRROR Convex mirror The spherical mirror whose reflecting
surface is outwardly leaned, called convex mirror. It is also
It is a polished surface (one side) like glass, which reflects
called diverging mirror.
almost all the light that is incident on it.
There are two types of mirror
Pole (P) Principal
axis
Plane Mirror F C
If the reflecting surface of a mirror is plane, then the Focus Centre of
mirror is called a plane mirror. curvature
• Size of image is always equal to the size of object.
Convex mirror
• The minimum size of the mirror required to see the full
image of an observer is half the height of the observer. Real Image
• If the plane mirror is rotated in the plane of incidence by
• Real images can be formed on a screen by the actual
an angle θ, then the reflected ray rotates by an angle 2θ.
• If the object is displaced by a distance x towards or
intersection of reflected (or refracted) light rays.
• The image formed on a cinema screen is a real image.
away from the mirror, then its image will be displaced
by a distance x towards or away from the mirror. • A concave mirror forms real image, when an object is
placed beyond its focus.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 601

Virtual Image (iii) When the object is between infinity and C

The image formed is real, inverted and smaller in
• Virtual images cannot be formed on the screen by the
size and is formed between F and C.
apparent intersection of reflected (or refracted) light
Concave mirror
rays.
• The image of our face when we look into a plane A
D
mirror is a virtual image. A concave mirror forms a B′
virtual image, when an object is placed between focus P
B C F
and pole of the mirror. Object A′
Image E

Position of Position of Size of image Nature of (iv) When the object is at C The image formed is
object image image inverted, real, equal in size and is formed at C
At infinity At F Highly diminished Real and itself.
inverted Concave mirror
Between infinity Between F and C Diminished -do- Object
and C A D
At C At C Same size -do- B P
Between F and C Between infinity Enlarged -do- B' C F
and C E
A′
At F At infinity Highly enlarged -do- Image
Between F and P Behind the pole Enlarged Virtual and
erect (v) When the object is between F and C The
image is formed beyond C and is inverted, real and
larger than the object.
Position of Position of Size of Nature of Concave mirror
object image image image
At infinity At F Highly diminished Erect and Object
virtual A
D
B′ B
Between infinity Between F Diminished in size Erect and P
C F
and pole and P virtual
A′
Image Formation by
Concave Mirror (vi) When the object is at focus The image is
formed at infinity. The image is real, inverted and
The following are the positions and nature of the images infinitely large in size.
formed in a concave mirror for different positions of the
Concave mirror
object E
(i) When the object is at infinity Image is A D
formed at F. C B P
From F
Concave mirror Object
infinity
At infinity
C F
P (vii) When the object is between F and P The images
B
formed behind the pole. The image is virtual, erect
A
Image and large.
B′
(ii) When the rays are parallel to the principal
axis The image is formed at F. Object B
Image
Concave mirror
P A
C F P A′
From infinity
P
C F
602 CDS Pathfinder

Image Formation by Convex Mirror REFRACTION OF LIGHT

(i) When the object is at infinity The image is formed When a ray of light passes from one medium to other, it
at focus. bends from its path. This phenomenon of bending of light
Convex mirror
is called as refraction of light.
• When light passes from rarer medium to a denser
A′ medium, it bends towards the normal at the point of
B B′
F
incidence.
Object at
Image • When light passes from a denser medium to a rarer
infinity
medium, it bends away from the normal.
(ii) When the object is between infinity and pole
• When a ray of light enters from one medium to other
The image is formed between pole and focus.
medium its frequency and phase do not change but
Convex mirror
wavelength and velocity change.

A
Laws of Refraction
E A′ • The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the
point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
B P B′ F C
Object Image • The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the
M sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for a given
medium.
sin i
MIRROR FORMULA sin r
=∝ [Snell’s law]
• If v is the image distance, u is the object distance and f
where, ∝ is refractive index of the second medium with
1 1 1 2
is the focal length of a mirror, then + = = respect to first.
v u f R ∝2 c /v 2
• The linear magnification (m) produced by a mirror is
! ∝= =
∝1 c / v1
equal to the ratio of the image distance to the object v1 v
v f f -v ∴ ∝= or 1 ∝2 = 1
distance with negative sign, m = - = = v2 v2
u f -u f
where, v1 is speed of light in first medium and v 2 is speed
• If the magnification has positive sign, then the image is
of light in second medium.
virtual and erect.
• If the magnification has negative sign, then the image is
real and inverted.
Some Illustrations of Refraction
• Twinkling of stars.
Uses of Spherical Mirrors • Oval shape of sun in the morning and evening.
• Bending of a linear object when it is partially dipped in
Concave Mirrors
a liquid inclined to the surface of the liquid.
• These are used as reflectors in automobiles (car, buses,
• A fish in a pond when viewed from air appears to be at
etc.), head light, search light, hand torches and table a smaller depth than actual depth.
lamps. • A coin at the base of a vessel filled with water appears
• These are used as shaving mirrors. raised.
• These are used by doctors for focussing intense light to
examine inside of eye, ears, etc.
• Large concave mirrors are used in the application of
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
solar energy, to focus the sun’s rays for heating solar In case of propagation of light from denser to rarer
furnaces etc. medium through a plane boundary. Critical angle is the
angle of incidence for which angle of refraction is 90°.
Convex Mirrors
• If light is propagating from denser medium towards the
• These are used as rear-view mirrors in automobiles as
rarer medium and angle of incidence is more than critical
they give large view of the traffic. angle, then the light incident on the boundary is
• Big convex mirrors are used as shop security mirrors. reflected back in the denser medium, obeying the law of
• These are used wherever we want to see erect images. reflection. This phenomenon is called total internal
➨ Note We cannot use a concave mirror as a rear-view mirror in reflection.
motor vehicles.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 603

• Conditions of Total Internal Reflection

Light must be propagating from denser to rarer
–
Position of Position of Nature of
medium. object image
Size of image
image
– Angle of incidence must exceeds the critical angle.
At infinity At F2 Diminished Erect and
• Sparkling of diamond, mirage and looming, shinning virtual
of air bubble in water and optical fibre are the Between infinity Between F2 and Diminished Erect and
examples of total internal reflection. and lens lens virtual
➨ Note Optical fibre is used for the transmitting and receiving the
electrical signals after converting it into the light signal. Image Formation by a Convex Lens
(i) Object at infinity The image formed is at second focus,
SPHERICAL LENSES real, inverted and highly diminished.
A lens is a piece of transparent glass bounded by two A
Para
spherical surfaces. poin llel ray Convex lens
A t of s
dist from to
There are two types of lenses ant
obje p
ct D
(i) Convex lens (converging lens) A lens which is
F2 B′
thicker at the centre and thinner at its ends. B
F1 C
(ii ) Concave lens (diverging lens) A lens which is Object A′
thinner at the centre and thicker at its ends. at infinity Image
Principal
Principal Optical (ii) Object beyond 2F1 The image formed is between F2
axis
First focus axis centre
F1 F2 Second and 2F2 on the right side of the lens, real, inverted and
focus
F2 F1 diminished.
Optical First
Second Convex lens
centre focus
Convex lens focus Concave A
lens D
(a) (b)
F2 B′ 2F2
• The centre point of a lens is known as its optical B 2F1 F1 C
Object A′
centre. Image
• The line joining the centres of the surfaces of the lens
is called the principal axis of the lens. (iii) Object at 2F1 The image formed is at 2F2 , real, inverted
• The distance of the first focus from the optical centre and of same size as that of the object.
of the lens is called the first focal length of the lens. Convex lens
• The distance of the second focus from the optical A
D
centre of the lens is called the second focal length or
the principal focal length. B F2 2F2
2 F1 F1 O B′
Object
A′
Position of Nature of
Position of image Size of image Image
object image
At infinity At F2 Highly Real and (iv) Object between F1 and 2F1 The image formed is beyond
diminished inverted 2F2 , real, inverted and magnified.
Beyond 2 F1 Between F2 and 2 F2 Diminished -do- Convex lens
At 2 F1 At 2 F2 Same size -do- A
D
Between 2 F1 Beyond 2 F2 Enlarged -do-
and F1 B F2 2F2 B′
2F1 F1 O
At F1 At infinity Highly enlarged -do-
Object
Between F1 Behind the object, Enlarged Virtual and
and lens on the same side of erect
the object f A′
2f
Image
604 CDS Pathfinder

(v) Object at F1 The image formed is real, inverted, • If m is the total magnification of two lenses in contact
and highly enlarged at infinity. having magnification m1 and m2 , then
Convex lens m = m1 × m2
A • Power (P) of a lens is the reciprocal of focal length of lens
D 1
i.e. P=
B F1 F2 f
Object O
SI unit of power is dioptre (D).
X
• If two or more lenses are combined, then
Y
f – there is an increase in the magnification of image.

(vi) Object between F1 and O The image formed is – the final image is erect.

behind the object, virtual, erect and enlarged. – the spherical aberration is reduced.

A′ • If P is power of two lenses in contact having powers P1

Convex lens and P2 , then
D 1 1 1
A P = P1 + P2 or = +
F f1 f2
F2 • If two lenses of equal focal length but of opposite nature
B′ F1 B O X are in contact, then combination will behaves as a plane
Object Object
glass plate and f = ∞
Y ➨ Note When lens is dipped in a liquid of higher refractive index the
focal length increases and convex lens behaves as concave lens and
vice-versa.
Image Formation by a Concave Lens An air bubble trapped in water or glass appears as convex but behaves
(i) Object at infinity The image formed is at F2 , as concave lens.
erect, virtual and diminished.
Concave lens
Properties of Light
Dispersion of Light
F2
Sir Isaac Newton observed that when a narrow beam of light
O
is incident on a prism, the emergent beam is not only
Object at Image
infinity deviated but at the same time splits up into a coloured band
of seven colours. This phenomenon is called dispersion
of light.
(ii) Object anywhere between infinity and lens The • The seven colours of band are Violet, Indigo, Blue,
image formed is between F2 and lens, erect, virtual Green, Yellow, Orange and Red (can be memorised as
and diminished. VIBGYOR).
Concave lens • The colour of an object is determined by the colour of the
A light reflected by it.
C
A′
• Violet colour deviates through maximum angle and red
colour deviates through the minimum angle.
B F2 B′ O
Image Image • Rainbow is formed due to the dispersion of light suffering
refractions and total internal reflection in the droplets
present in the atmosphere.

LENS FORMULA Primary Colours

• If v is the image distance, u is the object distance and f Red, green and blue are called primary colours or basic
is the focal length of a lens, then colours.
1 1 1
= - Mixing of Colours
f v u
Red + Green + Blue = White
v I Size of image
Magnification, m = = = Red + Blue = Magenta
u O Size of object
Blue + Green = Peacock blue (or Cyan)
• If the magnification m has a positive value, the image Red + Green = Yellow
is virtual and erect. And if the magnification m has a
negative value the image will be real and inverted.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 605

• Magenta, Cyan and Yellow, etc., are called secondary

colours. HUMAN EYE
• A rose appears red, when day light falls on it because it Human eye is an optical instrument which forms real image
absorbs all the constituent colour of white light except of the objects.
red which it reflects to us. • The ability of an eye to focus the distant objects as well
• If all the colours of white light are reflected back from as the nearby objects on the retina by changing the focal
the object, then it appears white. length of its lens is called accommodation.
• If all the colours of white light are absorbed by the • Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm.
object, then it appears black. • Far point of normal eye is at infinity.
• The natural colours of transparent objects are due to
their selective transmission of light. Defect of Human Eye
The ability to see is called vision. The defects of vision are
Scattering of Light known as defects of eye. There are following defects of
• When sunlight passes through the earth’s atmosphere, human eye
much of the light is absorbed by the fine dust particles • Myopia A person suffering from myopia can see the
and air molecules in the atmosphere which give out the near objects clearly while far objects are not clear;
absorbed light in some other direction. This is concave lens is used to remove it. The defect of eye called
scattering of light. myopia is caused
• The scattering of light by particle in its path is called (i) due to high converging power of eye lens or
Tyndall effect. (ii) due to eye ball being too long.
• The blue coloured light present in white sunlight is • Hypermetropia A person suffering from
scattered much more easily by air molecules causes the hypermetropia can see the distant objects clearly but not
blue colour of the sky. the near objects. Convex lens is used to remove it.
• The sun and the surrounding sky appear red at sunrise The defect of eye called hypermetropia is caused
and at sunset because at that time most of blue colour (i) due to low converging power of eye lens or
present in sunlight has been scattered out and away (ii) due to eye ball being too short.
from our line of sight, leaving behind mainly red colour • Presbyopia In the old age, the power of accomodation
in the direct sunlight beam that reaches our eyes. of the eye is so much lost that a person can neither see
• Dangers signals are of red colour because red colour of the near objects distinctly nor the distant objects. To
light scatter least and therefore signals can be see from correct this defect bifocal lens is used.
far. • Astigmatism In this defect, a person cannot distantly
• If the earth had no atmosphere, there would have been see the horizontal and vertical lines, simultaneously at a
no scattering of sunlight at all. In that case, no light normal distance. To correct this defect, cylindrical lens is
from the sky would have entered our eyes and the sky used.
would have looked dark and black to us. • Cataract In this defect, an opaque, white membrane is
developed on cornea due to which a person losses power
Interference of Light of vision partially or completely. This defect can be
When two waves of exactly same frequency travels in a removed by removing this membrane through surgery.
medium, in the same direction simultaneously, then due to
➨ Note Colour blindness is a genetic disorder which occurs by
their superposition at same points, intensity of light is inheritance. John Dalton was colour blind.
maximum while at some other points intensity is
minimum. This phenomenon is called interference of light. Optical Magnifying Instruments
• Thin layer of oil on water surface and soap bubbles
show various colours in white light due to interference
Microscope
of waves reflected from the two surfaces of the film. A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are
• Polarisation is the only phenomenon which proves that too small for the naked eye.
light is a transverse wave. • A simple microscope consists of a convex lens of small
focal length.
Diffraction of Light • It is used to see the details of very small objects.
If an opaque obstacle is kept between a source of light • The magnifying power of a simple microscope is given by
and a screen, a sufficiently distinct shadow is obtained on  D
the screen. This shows that light which travels the M = 1 + , D is least distance of distinct vision.
 f
obstacle is small. There is a departure from straight line
propagation and so the light bends round the corners of • For compound microscope m = mo × me , where mo is
obstacle and enters in the geometrical shadow. This magnification of objective lens and me is magnification of
bending of the light is called diffraction. eye-piece.
606 CDS Pathfinder

Telescope fo
• Magnifying power of telescope, m = where fo
• Telescope is an optical instrument which is used for observing fe
distinct images of heavenly bodies like stars, planets, etc., is focal length of objective of the telescope and
when the final image is formed at infinity. where fe is focal length of eye-piece of the
• There are two types of telescopes telescope.
– Astronomical telescope (invented by Kepler in 1611) • Length of telescope tube in astronomical telescope
– Galilean telescope (invented by Galileo in 1609)
is
L = fo + fe
• In an astronomical telescope, the objective lens is a convex lens In Galilean telescope the length of telescope,
of large focal length but eye-piece is a convex lens of short L = fo + fe .
focal length.
➨ Note Periscope consists of two plane mirrors inclined at an
• In Galilean telescope, the objective lens is a convex lens of angle of 45°. The principle of working of periscope is based
large focal length but the eye-piece is a concave lens of short upon reflection and refraction.
focal length.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
ELECTRIC CHARGE Electric Field
Charge is the basic property associated with matter due to The region around an electric charge in which its effect can
which it produces and experience electrical and magnetic be experienced is called the electric field.
effects. The SI unit of electric charge is Coulomb. F
Electric field intensity (E ) =
• Positively charged particles called protons and negatively q0
charged particles called electrons. A proton possesses a
positive charge of 1. 6 × 10 -19 C, whereas, an electron Electric Potential
possesses a negative charge of 1. 6 × 10 -19 C. The electric potential at a point in an electric field is the
• Similar charges repel each other and opposite charges work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity
attract each other. to that point.
Work done
• Electric potential = . Its SI unit is volt (V).
Conservation of Charges Charge
When two or more charged bodies come in contact, then • Potential difference (VA - VB ) between two points A and
total charge on all the bodies are conserved. B is the work done in bringing a unit charge from point
• Conductors are those substances which allow passage of B to point A.
electrical charges to flow through them and have very • Potential difference is a scalar quantity and is measured
low electrical resistance e.g. copper, aluminium, gold, by means of voltmeter (a high resistance device).
silver, etc. • The electric potential inside a spherical surface is same at
• Human body and earth act like a conductor. Silver is the each point and is equal to the potential on the surface.
best conductor. • Electrical potential on earth is considered to be zero.
• Charges are always distributed on the surface of the • A voltmeter connected in parallel with conductor to
conductor. measure the potential difference across its ends.
• Resistors offer high resistance to the flow of current • Voltage is the other name for potential difference.
through them e.g. eureka, nichrome, etc.
• Insulators have infinite resistance and do not allow the Electric Current
passage of current. e.g. rubber, glass, ebonite, etc. • The rate of flow of electric charges through any
cross-section of conductor is called electric current.
➨ Note The presence of free electrons in a substance makes it a
conductor. • The direction of positive charges is same as direction of
conventional current.
Coulomb’s Law • Current =
Charge
⇒I=
Q
• The force of attraction or the force of repulsion acting Time t
between the two point charges is proportional to the • The SI unit of electric current is ampere.
product of the magnitudes of the two charges and • Current is measured by an instrument called ammeter.
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
• An ammeter is connected in series with the conductor to
1 q1 q2
between them i.e. F = measure the current passing through it.
4πε 0 r 2
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 607

• There are two types of electric current (i ) Alternating • The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called the
current (AC) and (ii) Direct current (DC). electrical conductance of the conductor.
• Alternating current is used in houses and factories and its
1
Conductance =
frequency is 50 Hz. Resistance
• Ordinary DC ammeter and DC voltmeter cannot • Unit of conductance is mho or siemen.
measure alternating current/voltages. They record zero • The specific resistance of the material depends only on
reading, when used in AC circuits, because average value the material of conductor and its temperature.
of alternating current/voltage over a full cycle is zero. • Resistivity increases with temperature.
• Resistivity of a conductor change with impurity.
Galvanometer • Resistivity of an alloy is greater than the resistivity of
It is a device used to detect and measure electric current in its constituents and remains unchanged with
a circuit. It can measure current up to 10 -6 A. temperature.
A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by • If a wire is stretched or doubled on itself, its resistance
connecting a very high resistance in its series. will change, but its specific resistance will remains
➨ Note Conventionally the direction of electric current is opposite to unaffected.
that of electrons. Since, electrons flow from negative terminal of a • The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its
cell to its positive terminal, electric current flows from positive
terminal to negative terminal. conductivity. Its SI unit is mho m -1 or siemen/metre
( Sm -1 ).
Capacitor
A capacitor or condenser is a device over which a large Combination of Resistances
amount of charge can be stored. There are two combinations given below:
Charge (Q ) (i) Series combination R = R1 + R2 + R3 and here
• Capacitance of capacitor (C) =
Potential (V ) current flows through each conductor is same.
• Its unit is coulomb/volt or farad.
• A capacitor is used in several electrical devices having an R1 R2 R3
electric motor and in several electronic circuits.
+ –
E
OHM’S LAW The total resistance in the series combination is more
If the physical circumstances of the conductor. (length, than the greatest resistance in the circuit.
temperature, etc) remains constant then the current flowing 1 1 1 1
(ii ) Parallel combination = + + and here
through the conductor is directly proportional to the R R1 R2 R3
potential difference across its ends. potential across each conductor is same.
i.e. I ∝V R1
or V = IR , where R is resistance.
R2

Resistance R3
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its
V
length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.
If l and A are respectively length and cross-sectional area of
a conductor and R is its resistance, then + –
E
l l The total resistance in parallel combination is less
R∝ ⇒ R=ρ
A A than the least resistance of the circuit.
Unit of resistance is ohm ( Ω ).
where, ρ is a constant of material of conductor is called ELECTRIC POWER
specific resistance or resistivity. Its SI unit is ohm-metre. Electrical power is the electrical work done per unit time.
• On increasing the temperature of the metal, its resistance W
increases. P = or P =V ×I
t
• Those materials whose electrical conductivity lies in
or P = I 2R [! V = IR]
between that of insulators and conductors are called
semiconductors. On increasing the temperature of V2
or P =
semiconductor, its resistance decreases. R
Its SI unit is watt (W).
608 CDS Pathfinder

• 1 kilowatt hour =3600000 J = 3.6 × 10 6 J • When poles of two magnets are brought close together,
they exert force on each other. This force is called
1 Horse power (HP) = 746 W
intersection between the poles.
1 Horse power (HP) = 550 foot-pound/second • If we cut a magnet in two parts, then each separate part
volt × ampere × hour will behave as a magnet.
Unit =
1000 • Permanent magnets are usually made of alloys such as
watt × hour carbon steel, chromium steel, cobalt steel, tungsten steel
Unit =
1000 and alnico (alloy of aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron).
• Such permanent magnets are used in microphones,
Heating Effect of Electric Current loudspeakers, electric clocks, ammeters, voltmeters,
speedometer and many other devices.
Heat is produced, when electric current is passed through
a conductor. This effect is called heating effect of electric ➨ Note The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) technique which is used
current. to scan inner human body parts in hospitals also uses magnets for its
working.
V 2t
Heat produced = I 2 Rt = VIt = joule
R Magnetic Field
➨ Note The filament of an electric bulb gets very hot and therefore The space in the surrounding of a magnet or a current
easily oxidised. Thus, bulbs are sealed with inactive nitrogen and carrying conductor in which its magnetic effect can be
argon gases to prevent oxidation of the filament and increase its experience is called magnetic field.
life.
In electric bulb, tungsten is used for the construction of filament • Magnetic lines of force are imaginary lines in the magnetic
because it has high melting point. field, which shows the direction of magnetic field
continuously.
IMPORTANT POINTS BASED • The magnetic field lines originate from the North pole of
ON HEATING EFFECT a magnet and end at its South pole.
●
In home appliances like electric iron, electric heater • The magnetic field lines do not intersect one another.
and heating rod, the heating element used is of a
nichrome (an alloy of Ni and Ci) wire. Nichrome has
high melting point and high resistivity. To avoid the
Magnetic Materials
risk of electric shock, the metal body of electrical According to behaviour of magnetic substances, they are
appliances is earthed. classified into three classes
●
An electric fuse is generally prepared from tin-lead alloy • Those substances when placed in an external magnetic
(63% tin + 37% lead). It should have high resistance and field, acquire a very low magnetism in direction opposite
low melting point. It is connected in the series. to the field are called diamagnetic substances. e.g. copper,
●
Tubelight contains a long tube of glass which is linked silver, bismuth, zinc, diamond, salt, water, mercury, etc.
internally with a fluorescent substance. It is filled with an • The permeability of diamagnetic substance is less than
inert gas like argon along with some mercury. one.
• Those substances when placed in an external field, acquire
Magnetic Effect of Current a feeble magnetism in the direction of field are called
When electricity passes through insulated copper wire, it paramagnetic substances. e.g. aluminium, sodium,
develops a magnetic field around it. Larger the amount of potassium, oxygen, etc.
electricity, stronger the magnetic field. And when we • The permeability of paramagnetic substance is slightly
place compass needle in the radius of the magnetic field it greater than one.
diverts from its North-South position. • Those substances, when placed in a magnetic field, acquire a
strong magnetism in the direction of field are called
ferromagnetic substances. These substances when brought
MAGNETS near the end of a strong magnet get radially attracted
Magnet is a piece of iron or other materials that can towards it. e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt, magnetite, etc.
attract iron containing objects and the property of • The permeability of ferromagnetic substance is much
attracting the magnetic substance by a magnet is called greater than one.
magnetism.
• The magnets which do not lose their magnetism with Electromagnet
normal treatment are called permanent magnets.
An electromagnet is a solenoid coil that attains magnetism due
• The materials which retain their magnetism for a long
to flow of current. It works on the principle of magnetic effect
time are called hard magnetic materials. of current. It is used in electric bells, electric motors,
• In bar, rod and horse-shoe magnets, North or South
telephone, diaphragms, loudspeakers etc.
poles are either indicated by the letter N or S.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 609

• AC generator consists of slip rings, armature, magnet

Magnetic Flux and brushes while DC generator consists of magnet
The magnetic flux linked with a surface is equal to the commutator, armature and brushes.
total number of magnetic lines of force passing through ➨ Note Electric motor is a rotating device which converts electrical
that surface normally. Its unit is weber. energy into mechanical energy.

ELECTROMAGNETIC Transformer
Transformer is a device which converts low voltage AC
INDUCTION into high voltage AC and high voltage AC into low
When a change occurs in the magnetic flux linked with the voltage AC. It is based on mutual induction.
coil, an emf is induced in the coil. The phenomenon is • Core of a transformer is made up of soft iron.
called electromagnetic induction. • Step-up transformer converts a low voltage of high
• The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a current into a high voltage of low current.
circuit due to change in magnetic flux in its • Step-down transformer converts a high voltage of low
neighbouring circuit is called mutual induction. current into a low voltage of high current.
• When the electric current flowing through a circuit
• The main energy losses in a transformer are given below:
changes, the magnetic field linked with circuit also
(a) Iron loss (b) Flux loss
change. As a result an induced emf is set up in the
circuit. This phenomenon is called self-induction. (c) Hysteresis loss (d) Humming loss
• Transformer is used in voltage regulators, refrigerators,
• Microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy
and works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. computer, air conditioner.
• Step-down transformer is used for welding purpose.
Electric Generator • Audio transformer allowed telephone circuits to carry on
a two-way conservation over a single pair of wires.
It is a device which converts mechanical energy into
• Radio frequency transformers are used in radio
electrical energy. An electric generator is based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction. It is used to communication.
produce electric current by varying magnetic field through ➨ Note A mobile phone charger is one of the best example of step
a coil. down transformer as it extracts the power from the home supply
(AC 220V) and convert it to DC of required voltage.
• A generator can produced both alternating current and
direct current.

MODERN PHYSICS
CATHODE RAYS • X-rays were discovered by scientist Roentgen.
-2
If the gas pressure in a discharge tube is 10 -3
to 10 mm • These produce illumination on falling the fluorescent
of Hg and a potential difference of 10 4 V is applied substances and travel in a straight line with the speed of
between the electrode, then a beam of electrons emerges light.
from the cathode which is called cathode rays. • X-rays penetrate through different depth into different
• Cathode rays are invisible and travel in a straight line. substances.
• These rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields. • Soft X-rays have greater wavelength and lower
• These rays can ionise gases. frequency and hard X-rays have lower wavelength and
• They can produce chemical change and thus affect a higher frequency.
photographic plate. • X-rays ionise gases through which they pass.
• When they strike a target of heavy metal such as
• X-rays are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
tungsten, they produce X-rays.
• They show all the important properties of light rays like,
reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
X-RAYS polarisation, etc.
When cathode rays strike on a heavy metal of high melting • X-rays are used in surgery, radiotherapy, engineering
points, then a very small fraction of its energy converts department and searching.
into a new type of waves, called X-rays. ➨ Note Barium and Iodine are some chemicals used as contrast
• X-rays are electromagnetic waves and these produce mediums for X-ray based imaging method. i.e. they absorbs X-ray
photoelectric effect. to highlight the targeted body part.
610 CDS Pathfinder

Photoelectric cell is based on photoelectric effect. It is a

POSITIVE OR device by which light energy is converted into the
CANAL RAYS electrical energy.
These rays are positively charged particles and are called Applications of photoelectric effect are given below
positive rays or canal rays. These rays were discovered by (i) In reproduction of sound in cinema, television and
Goldstein. photo telegraphy.
• These rays can affect the photographic plates. (ii) In automatic switches for street lights.
• These rays are capable of producing physical and (iii) In photoelectric sorters.
chemical changes. (iv) To control the temperature in furnace and in
• These rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields. chemical process.
These rays can produce fluorescence and (v) In industries for locating minor flows or holes in
phosphorescence. metallic sheets.

Fluorescence SEMICONDUCTOR
Some substances absorb the light of higher frequency or Semiconductors are those materials whose electrical
shorter wavelength and emits a light having lower frequency conductivity at room temperature lies in between that of
or higher wavelength in the presence of light source. This insulator and conductor. A semiconductor in an extremely
phenomenon of emission of light is called fluorescence. pure form is known as intrinsic semiconductor.
Such substances are called fluorescence substances. • If a measured and small amount of chemical impurity is
• Fluoresphor, petrol, uranium oxide and barium platino added to intrinsic semiconductor, it is called extrinsic
cyanide are examples of fluorescence substance. semiconductor or doped semiconductor.
• Barium platino cyanide is used in search of X-rays. • External semiconductors are of two types
(i) n-type semiconductor
Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) (ii) p-type semiconductor
Compact fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy into • An extrinsic semiconductor in which electrons are
radiant energy.
majority charge carrier is called n-type semiconductor.
• It has two components
• An extrinsic semiconductor in which holes are the
– A glass tube filled with argon and mercury vapour and
majority charge carrier is called p-type semiconductor.
coated with layer of fluorescent materials.
– An electronic ballast circuit.
Special Purpose Diodes
• The ballast circuit (small circuit board with rectifiers, a
An arrangement consisting a p-type semiconductor
filter capacitor and usually two switching transistors) brought into a close contact with n-type semiconductor is
takes a 220V input from external power source and sends called a p-n junction or p-n junction diode.
a current into the fluorescent tube as output. • A device which converts alternating current (AC) or
• When power supply is given to the CFL, filament voltage into direct current (DC) or voltage is known as
attached with the cathode heats up and emits electrons in rectifier. DC can be converted into AC with the help
the tube. This ionises the argon and mercury vapour of an inverter.
particles, causing it, ultraviolet light emission. • LED’s are specially designed diode made up of GaAsP,
GaP and are used in electronic gadgets as indicator
Phosphorescence light. It is used as a rectifier which converts an
alternating current into direct current.
Some substances after being kept in sunlight for sometime • LED’s light up very quickly. A typical red indicator
emit light even after the light source is removed. This LED will achieve full brightness in microseconds.
phenomenon is called phosphorescence. Zinc sulphide, • LED or semiconductor laser is used to convert
calcium sulphide and barium sulphide are examples of electrical energy into optical energy.
phosphorescence. • Zener diode is a highly doped p-n junction diode which
is not damaged by high reverse current. It can be used
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT as voltage regulator.
• Photo diode is a special p-n junction diode fabricated
When the ultraviolet rays (or the visible light of low
wavelength or any other kind of electromagnetic radiation) with a transparent window to allow light to fall on the
diode. It is used in reverse biasing.
are made incident on a metal, the electrons are emitted from
it. This phenomenon is called the photoelectric emission or ➨ Note Diode valve acts as a rectifier and triode valve can be used as
amplifier oscillator and detector.
photoelectric effect.
GENERAL SCIENCE Physics 611

Solar Cell frequencies upto 1500 kHz. The ground wave

propagation is generally used for local broadcasting.
Solar cell is a p-n junction device which converts solar • In space wave propagation, the radio wave from the
energy into electrical energy. It is consist of a silicon or transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna either
gallium arsenide p-n junction. directly or after reflection from the ground or from
troposphere. The space wave propagation utilises the
Uses of Solar Cell electromagnetic waves of very high frequency band
(i) Solar cells are used as solar cooker. (between 30 MHz to 300 MHz), ultra high frequency
(ii) Solar cells are used in wrist watches, calculators and band (between 300 MHz to 3000 MHz) and microwaves
light meters. having frequencies range 100 GHz to 300 GHz.
(iii) Solar cells are also used in artificial satellite to • In sky wave propagation the radio waves from the
provide power inside the satellite. transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna after
(iv) Solar cells are used for charging storage batteries. entering in ionosphere. The sky wave frequency lies
between 2 MHz to 30 MHz.
Integrated Circuits • A communication satellite is a space craft, provided with
An IC can be defined generally as an arrangement of microwave receiver and transmitter.
multifunction semiconductor devices. It consists of a single – It is placed in an orbit around the earth.
crystal chip of silicon, nearly 1.5 mm 2 in cross-section. – The frequencies used in satellite communication lies in
TV remote control is an electronic device containing an IC UHF/ microwave regions.
and few other components. If a key on a remote control is – These waves can cross the ionosphere and reach the
pressed, it emits infrared signals which are received by the satellite.
electronic circuit of the TV receiver, etc. • The satellite communication is used effectively in mobile
communication, metrology and weather forecasting.
LASER • Remote sensing is the technique to obtain information
The word LASER is the short form of Light about an object by observing it from a distance and
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is without coming to actual contact with it. It is used in
an optical device, which produces an intensive beam development of weather forecasting system.
highly coherent, monochromatic light. • Parallel wire line is used to connect an antenna with TV
Applications of laser rays are described below receiver. Parallel wire lines are never used for
transmission of microwaves.
(i) Laser rays are used in treatment of detached retina,
treatment of skin cancer and surgery of brain. • Twisted pair wires are used to connect telephone system.
(ii) Laser beams are used in signals and radio • Coaxial cables are used for long distance high frequency
communications. transmission. e.g. TV channel transmission.
(iii) The property of high intensity is used to cut hard ➨ Note Maser is a device working on the same principle as a laser.
metals. Maser means ’Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
(iv) The weather informations are collected with the help Radiation, It is used to produce very high magnetic field and in radio
astronomy and communications.
of radar, an instrument based on the properties of
laser.
(v) The laser rays are parallel and do not spread. This
Optical Communication
property of laser rays is used in the measurement of It is a better communication system for large number of
long distance. channels and higher bandwidth transmission. Now-a-days
optical fibres of very small diameters ( ≈ 10 -5 m ) are used in
COMMUNICATION optical communication. Advantages of optical
communication over the conventional two wires or coaxial
The term communication refers to the transmitting cable systems are
receiving and processing of information by electronic
(i) In optical fibres energy losses are less.
means. A basic communication system consists of an
information source, a transmitter, a link and a receiver. (ii) Secret information like banking, defence, etc., is more
secure because optical signal is confined to the inside
• Electromagnetic waves which are used in radio,
of fibre and cannot be tampered easily.
television and other communication system are
(iii)It can be used at high frequencies ( ≈ 10 14 Hz).
radiowaves and micro waves.
• In ground wave propagation, the radio wave travel Phenomenon of total internal reflection is the principle behind
through atmosphere following the surface of the earth optical fibres. Light can be transmitted along it with almost no
from transmitting antenna to receiving antenna. The loss because of total internal reflection. Important applications
ground wave propagation is useful for low range of optical fibres are in telecommunications and medicine.
02
CHEMISTRY
After analysing the previous year question papers, we have seen that 40-50 questions are asked from science section,
out of these 15-18 questions are asked from Chemistry. From chemistry section, around 2-3 questions are asked
from matter, man-made materials, 1-2 questions from atomic structure, electrochemistry, radioactivity, acid base
and 4-6 questions from inorganic, environment and its pollution and 1-2 question each from chemical bonding and
redox reaction gas law and solution, surface chemistry, chemical thermodynamics, organic chemistry etc.

MATTER
As we look at our surroundings, we see a large variety range arrangement of constituents particles) like non-metals,
of things with different shapes, sizes and textures. glass, most of the polymers, etc.
Everything in this universe is made up of material, • Liquid They have a fixed volume but no fixed shape and
which scientists have named “matter”. have moderate to high densities. The particles in liquids are
loosely packed and free to move. Their thermal conductivity
MATTER decreases with rise in temperature with the exception of
water.
Anything that has mass, occupies space and can be felt
• Gas They have neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume and
by our one or more sense organs is called matter.
Matter is found in five physical states-solid, liquid, have very low density. The particles in gas are widely spaced
gas, plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate. Out of apart and uniformly distributed in the container.
which, three states, i.e. solid, liquid and gas are more
common. Two More States of Matter
• Plasma The state consists of super energetic and super
• Solid They have a fixed shape, volume and high
density. The particles in solids are (closely) packed excited particles which are in the form of ionised gases. Due
and held in rigid positions. They can be true or to the presence of plasma, the sun and stars glow.
crystalline, (i.e. having ordered arrangement of • Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) They are formed by
constituent particles to a larger distance) like metals cooling a gas of extremely low density to super low
or amorphous or pseudo solids, (i.e. having short temperatures.
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 633

Properties of Matter CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

The properties of matter are as follow : On the basis of chemical composition, matter is
(i) Density It is the measure of relative heaviness of objects classified in the following manner:
having constant volume and is defined as mass per unit
volume. Mathematically, it can be written as : Elements
Mass The term element was first used by Robert Boyle in
Density = = g /mL
Volume 1661. These are the simplest form of matter and
At 4°C, density of water is maximum while its specific therefore, cannot be split into simpler substances by any
volume is minimum. physical or chemical methods, e.g. sodium (Na),
Gases possess very low density. iron(Fe), mercury (Hg), etc. There are 118 elements
(ii) Compression Gases are more compressible because of known at present, out of which 98 occur in nature,
the presence of large intermolecular spaces while solids while the remaining elements have been prepared
are least compressible. Compressibility of liquids lies in artificially.
between of the two other states.
(iii) Thermal Expansion It is minimum in case of solids but Compounds
maximum in case of gases because intermolecular force of These are made up of two or more elements combined
attraction is maximum in solids but minimum in gases. in a fixed ratio. A compound cannot be separated into
its components by physical methods.
Change of States of Matter • The properties of a compound are entirely different
This is phenomenon of change of matter from one state to from those of its constituent elements.
another and come back to original state by altering the • A compound has a fixed melting point, boiling point.
original temperature and pressure. A compound is a homogeneous substance. e.g. water,
(i) Boiling Point The process of conversion of liquid into ammonia, sugar, etc.
vapours by heating is called boiling and the temperature
at which the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal Mixtures
to the atmospheric pressure is called boiling point. A mixture is a substance which is made up of two or
Boiling point increases in the presence of impurity. more elements or compounds, chemically combined
At high altitude, boiling point decreases because together in any ratio (so no definite formula).
atmospheric pressure is low. Hence, food takes more
time for cooking at higher altitudes. Similarly, in These can be separated into its constituents by the
pressure cooker, food cooks early due to elevation in physical methods. A mixture does not have a fixed
boiling point. melting point, boiling point and shows the properties of
(ii) Melting Point The process of conversion of a solid into its constituents.
liquid by heating is called melting and the temperature at There are two types of mixtures:
which a solid state to convert into its liquid state is called 1. Homogeneous Mixtures In this type of mixture,
melting point. the constituents are uniformly distributed through
(iii) Sublimation It is the process of heating a solid, so that out. e.g. salt solution, sugar solution, air etc. These
it converts directly into gas. e.g. naphthalene, camphor. are also called true solutions.
(iv) Freezing It is the process of conversion of a liquid into 2. Heterogeneous Mixtures In this type of mixture
solid at its freezing point and melting is the process of constituent does not have uniform composition.
conversion of a solid into liquid at its melting point. They may or may not settle on standing for a long
(v) Evaporation It is a process of conversion of a liquid time. They exhibit Tyndall effect. e.g. colloidal
into vapour at any temperature, while boiling is the solutions, mixture of salt and sugar, iodised salt
conversion of a liquid into vapour at its boiling point. (mixture of potassium iodide and common salt) etc.
Evaporation causes cooling as the liquid takes energy for
evaporation from surroundings.
(vi) Latent Heat When heat is supplied to a body either at PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
its melting point or boiling point, the temperature of the
body does not change. In this condition, heat supplied
CHANGES
to the body is used up in changing its state and is called In physical changes, only the physical properties of
the latent heat. matter like colour, hardness, density, etc., changes while
Quantity of heat ( Q ) the chemical properties and composition remain the same.
Latent heat ( L) = .
Mass ( m ) Crystallisation, boiling, dissolution of salt and sugar,
vaporisation, melting of ice etc., are examples of
Its SI unit is Jkg −1 .
physical change.
634 CDS Pathfinder

In chemical changes, the chemical composition as well (iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous VolumesThe volume of
as chemical properties of the matter changes and a new reactants and products in large number of chemical
substance is formed. Burning of any substance, reactions are related to each other by small integers,
photosynthesis, ripening of fruits, etc., are examples of provided the volumes are measured at same temperature
chemical change. Physical changes are reversible (i.e. and pressure. These statements are considered as the law
can be reversed to obtain the original substance) while of definite proportions by volume given by Gay-Lussac.
chemical changes are irreversible.

Laws of Chemical Combination MOLECULES

The term molecule was given by Avogadro. It is the smallest
Combination of elements/atoms to form compounds is particle of a compound which can exist in free state. All the
governed by following basic laws: properties of a compound depend on its constituent molecules.
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass This law was put Molecules of a compound contain two or more different types
forth by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. It states that, of atoms in a fixed ratio. e.g. ammonia (NH 3 ), water (H 2O ),
matter can neither be created nor destroyed but etc.
can be converted from one form to another.
• Molecular mass is the mass of a molecule. It is an additive
In a chemical reaction, total mass of reactants is
property and is calculated by adding the atomic masses of
equal to total mass of products. In terms of
total atoms present in a molecule.
energy, it is called law of conservation of energy.
e.g. NH 3 = 14 + (1) × 3 = 17 .
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions A pure compound
always contains same elements combined in same • Equivalent weight is obtained by dividing molecular or
proportions by mass, whatever be its source. This atomic mass by valency.
is called law of definite proportions by weight and Molecular mass or atomic mass
is given by Joseph Proust, e.g. water obtained Equivalent weight =
Valency
from any source like tap water, well water, etc.,
always contain hydrogen and oxygen in 1:8 by (i.e. equivalent weight is affected by change in valency)
mass.
(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions This law was Mole Concept
proposed by John Dalton in 1803 . It states The number of molecules present in 12 g of C-12 atom is
that when the fixed mass of an element combines called one mole. 1 mol = 6 . 022 × 10 23 = Avogadro’s number
with different masses of another element, then the
masses of other elements (in two or more Mass (in g)
• Number of moles =
compounds) are in the ratio of small whole Atomic or molecular mass (g mol −1 )
numbers..
1 mol of atom = 6.022 × 10 23 atoms
e.g. H 2O 2 g : 16 g
H 2O 2 2 g : 32 g 1 mol of molecules = 6 . 022 × 10 23 molecules
or 1 g : 32 g. • Atomic mass is the relative mass as compared with an atom
Thus, ratio of O combining with same mass of of C-12 and is expressed in amu.
H = 1 : 2. (1 amu = 1.6 × 10 −24 g).

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atoms are the basis of chemistry, even they are the basis for According to this theory,
everything in the universe. Maharishi Kanad was one of the • Atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element,
first person to propose that matter is made up of every small i.e. it can neither be created nor be destroyed.
particles called parmanu. John Dalton called the particles • Atoms of different elements differ in mass, size and
by the name of atom. chemical properties.
• Atoms of same or different elements combine together
to form compound or molecule. The ‘number’ and
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY ‘kinds’ of atoms in a given molecule is fixed.
In 1808, John Dalton gave a theory, called atomic theory of • Atoms of the same elements can combine in more than
matter which is based upon laws of chemical combination. one ratio to form different compounds.
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 635

Atom and Molecule Properties of Subatomic Particles

Atom is the smallest particle of the element that can The properties of subatomic particles are as follow :
exist independently and retain all its capable of • Electron ( −1e 0 ) It is negatively charged particle. It was
independent chemical reactions. Atoms are made up
discovered by J. J. Thomson in 1897.
of subatomic particles like electrons, protons,
neutrons, meson, positron, etc. Charge on electron = − 1. 6 × 10 −19 C
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a Mass of electron = 9 . 1 × 10 −31 g
compound existence under ordinary conditions. The magnitude of negative charge on electron was determined
by Millikan in his oil drop experiment.
Properties of Atom • Proton (1 H1 ) It was discovered by E. Goldstein. It is
The properties of atom are as follow:
positively charged particle.
• Atomic Number For an element, it is the number
Charge on proton = 1 . 6 × 10 −19 C
of protons present inside the nucleus of its atom.
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons Mass of proton (1 H1 ) = 1. 6 × 10 −27 kg
= number of electrons • Neutron ( 0 n1 ) It was discovered by Chadwick. It has neutral
(in case of neutral atom) particle, i.e having no charge.
• Mass Number It is the total number of protons Mass of neutron = 1. 6 × 10 −27 kg
and neutrons (i.e nucleons) present in one atom of
an element. Hydrogen and protium is the only atom that does not possess
Mass number (A) neutrons.
= number of protons + number of neutrons Subatomic Particles
= atomic number + number of neutrons Particle Discoverer Charge Mass
= number of electrons + number of neutrons
Electron Thomson − 1
Representation of an Atom Proton Rutherford + 1836
Mass number or Neutron Chadwick 0 1836
atomic mass Meson Yukawa +, 0, − 273.8
A Positron Anderson + 1
ZX
Neutrino Fermi 0 20.04
Symbol of
Atomic the atom
number
NUCLEUS
Discovery of Subatomic Atom consists of a heavy and positively charged part at its
Particles centre, called the nucleus (dia = 10 −4 m). Nucleus was discovered
by Rutherford by α-particle scattering experiment. The
The subatomic particles are discovered in many ways: negatively charged electrons revolve around the nucleus in well
defined orbits. A nucleus consists of positively charged protons
Cathode Rays and electrically neutral neutrons.
These rays travel in straight line and cast shadows of
metallic object placed in their path. In the presence of Planck’s Quantum Theory
electrical or magnetic field, the behaviour of cathode (Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation)
rays are similar to that of negatively charged
The radiant energy which is emited or absorbed discontinovsly
particles, called electrons.
in the form of small discrete packets of energy known as
The first precise measurement of the charge on the quantum and in care of light, the quantum of energy is called
electron was made by Robert A. Millikan in 1909. photon.
E = hν ( c = νλ )
Anode Rays hc
In 1886, Engen Goldstein discovered the canal rays. E=
λ
These rays travel in straight line and can also produce
mechanical effects. These are positively charged, i.e. where, h = Planck’s constant = 6.63 × 10 −34 J-s
made up of protons. E = Energy of photon or quantum
636 CDS Pathfinder

If n is the number of quanta of a particular frequency and • A shell can have a maximum of 2n2 electrons
ET be the total energy, then ET = nhν. The energy possessed (where, n = number of shells). e.g. the maximum
by one mole of quanta (or photon), i.e. Avogadro’s number number of electrons in
(N 0 ) of quanta, is called one Einstein of energy i.e., 1 K (or first) shell = 2n2 = 2 (1)2 = 2
hc
Einstein of energy ( E ) = N 0 hν = N 0 L (or second) shell = 2n2 = 2 ( 2)2 = 8 and so on.
λ
• The outermost shell cannot have more than 8 electrons.
Different Atomic Species • Electrons enter in the new shell only after filling the
(i ) Isotopes Atoms of the same element having the same previous one completely.
atomic number ( Z ) but different mass number ( A ) are
called isotopes, Quantum Numbers
e.g. 1 H1 (protium), 1 H 2 (deuterium or heavy hydrogen) Quantum numbers are just like address of electrons.
and 1 H3 (tritium) are isotopes of hydrogen. There are four types of quantum numbers which are
12 13 14 given below
6 C , 6 C , 6 C are isotopes of carbon.
16 17 18 (i) Principal quantum number ( n) = 1, 2, 3, 4, …
8 O , 8 O , 8 O are isotopes of oxygen.
20 21 22 (ii) Azimuthal quantum number ( l ) = 0 to n − 1 for a
10 Ne , 10 Ne , 10 Ne are isotopes of neon.
given value of n.
(ii ) Isobars Atoms of different elements having the same
(iii) Magnetic quantum number (m or ml ) = − 1 to + 1
mass number ( A ) but different atomic number ( Z ) are
including ‘0’ for a given value of m.
called isobars, e.g. 1 H 3 and 2 He 3 ; 18 Ar 40 , 19 K 40 and
40 130 130 1 1
20 Ca ; 52 Te , 56 Ba and 54 Xe130 , etc. (iv) Spin quantum number (s or ms ) = + , − for a given
2 2
(iii) Isoelectronic Species Species having the same number value of m .
of electrons but different nuclear charge are known as
isoelectronic species. They also have same bond order. Electronic Configuration
e.g. Mg 2+ and Na + , etc., are isoelectronic species as
It is the arrangement of electrons in various shells,
both have 10 electrons.
sub-shells and orbitals in an atom. It is written as
(iv) Isotones These have the same number of neutrons. e.g. 2,8,8,18,32.
14 15
6C , 7N . e.g. the electronic configuration of
Bohr-Bury Scheme K L M N
Sodium ( Na11 ) 2, 8, 1, 0
It shows the distribution of electrons in different shells, i.e.
Calcium (Ca 20 ) 2, 8, 8, 2
orbitals or paths of different and definite energies in which
the electrons revolve. According to this scheme,

RADIOACTIVITY
All heavy elements and a few of lighter elements have The spontaneous emission of invisible radiations by
naturally occuring isotopes, which possess the property of disintegration of heavy elements into comparatively lighter
radioactivity. elements is called radioactivity. The invisible rays emitted
These isotopes have unstable nuclei and attain stability by radioactive elements consists of the following particles:
through the phenomenon of radioactivity. (i) Alpha (α) particles, i.e. 2 He 4 (+ 2 unit charge and
The unstability results in the emission of a complex type mass four units) They are deflected towards
of powerful radiations known as alpha (α ), beta (β ) and negative plate in the electric and magnetic field
gamma ( γ ) rays. and have very high ionising power.
α- particle
A A −4
ZX Æ Z − 2Y
RADIOACTIVITY (ii) Beta (β) particles, i.e. electrons (−1 charge and
Radioactivity was discovered by a French physicist Henri zero mass) They are deflected towards positive
Becquerel in 1896. However, the term radioactivity was plate in the electric and magnetic field.
given by Marie Curie, the scientist who got Nobel Prize β − particle
A A
twice (for physics and chemistry). ZX Æ Z + 1Y
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 637

(iii) Gamma ( γ ) rays (no charge and no mass) They Nuclear Fusion
are not deflected from their path in the electric or
magnetic field. These are electromagnetic The union of (two or more) lighter nuclei to form a heavier
radiations and have very high penetrating power. nucleus is called the nuclear fusion. It is also accompanied
Emission of γ-rays is the secondary effect of by release of energy because the total mass of products is
radioactive charge. lesser than the total mass of reactants.
• Nuclear fusion occurs only at extremely high
➨ Note
temperature (> 10 6 K), so it is also called thermonuclear
1. Stable nuclei are those for which number of neutrons and
protons are equal. reactions.
2. The time taken by half of the atoms of a radioactive element to • Hydrogen bomb (mixture of deuterium oxide and
disintegrate is called its half-life. Its unit is time −1. tritium dioxide) is the result of nuclear fusion.
3. X-rays were discovered by Roentgen in 1896. These are
electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength and are used • Source of solar (sun) and stellar energy is nuclear fusion.
to detect cracks in fractured bones. • The source of emission of large amount of energy during
4. If the energies of α , β and γ-particles is same, then penerating
power α < β < γ.
nuclear fission or fusion processes is conversion of mass
into energy. It is given by the relation, E = mc 2 and
Group Displacement Law calculated in MeV.
This law was put forward by Soddy, Fajan and Russel on
the basis of following fact : Applications of Radioisotopes
(i) When a radioactive element emits an α-particle, the
Isotopes of all the known elements with Z > 83 are
atomic number of the resulting nuclide decreases by 4
units e.g. radioactive and are called radioisotopes. These are used for
238 234 4 various purposes, e.g. radiocarbon dating is used to
92 U Æ 90 Th + 2 He
determine the age of dead specimen with C14 content by
(ii) When a radioactive element emits a β-particle, the comparing it with C-12 content.
atomic number of the resulting nuclide increases by n
 1
one unit but the atomic mass remains unchanged e.g., N = N0  
238 238 0
 2
92 U Æ 93 Np + −1e
where, n = total time(T)/t1 / 2
N 0 = ratio of C14 /C12 in green plant
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
These are of following two types: N = ratio of C14 / C12 in wood
Rock dating or uranium dating is used to determine the age
Nuclear Fission of rocks or earth. It is based on 82 Pb206 and 92 U 238 ratio.
The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two smaller of nearly Uses of other Radioisotopes
comparable masses and release of about 200MeV of energy
is called nuclear fission. Nuclear fission was discovered by Radioisotope Uses
‘Hahn’ and ‘Strassmann’ in 1939. I131 (Iodine-131) (i) To study the structure and activity of
thyroid gland
• Atom bomb is the result of uncontrolled nuclear fission.
(ii) For the treatment of thyroid disease
• The device in which controlled nuclear fission (chain
reactions) is carried out is called nuclear reactor. The I123 (Iodine-123) Brain imaging
fission is controlled by absorbing neutrons by using Co 60 (Cobalt-60) Treatment of cancer
cadmium or boron rods. Na 24
(Sodium-24) To trace the flow of blood
• Heavy water ( D 2O, molecular weight 20) and graphite
P 32 (Phosphorus-32) For leukemia therapy (blood cancer)
are used as moderator for slowing down the fast moving
neutrons. U 235 is used as a nuclear fuel. C14 (Carbon-14) To study the kinetics of photosynthesis
638 CDS Pathfinder

CHEMICAL BONDING AND REDOX REACTIONS

CHEMICAL BOND Electrovalent or Ionic Bond
The forces of attraction like interatomic, The bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom
intermolecular or interionic forces which holds two (usually metal) to another (usually non-metal) is called
or more constituents (atoms, molecules or ions) electrovalent bond and the compound is called electrovalent or
together are called chemical bonds and the process of ionic compound. In other words, it is an intercoulombic forces
their combination is called chemical bonding. of attraction between two oppositely charged species. The
In general, it is believed that atoms combine in order number of electrons transferred shows the electrovalency of the
to complete their octet, i.e. 8 electrons in their atom.
outermost shell (with the exception of hydrogen and The properties of electrovalent compounds are as follow:
helium in case of which outermost shell can have a • They are usually crystalline solids, i.e. have definite shape and
maximum of two electrons). are hard and brittle.
• They have high melting and boiling points.
Ions • They conduct electricity when dissolved in water or in molten
An ion is an electrically charged species. A positively
state due to the presence of free or mobile ions.
charged ion is called cation, e.g. Na + , H + , Mg 2+
• These are soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents
while a negatively charged ion is called anion, like alcohol, benzene, etc.
e.g. Cl − , F− , I− .
• If the electronegativity difference of two atoms is 1.7, the
• A cation contains less electrons than a normal bond between them is 50% ionic.
atom while an anion contains more electrons than
a normal atom. Some Electrovalent Compounds
• When an atom loses one electron, it carries one Name Formula Ions present
positive charge, i.e. converted into cation, and if it Aluminium oxide (alumina) Al 2O 3 Al 3 + and O 2−
gains one electron, it carries one negative charge, Ammonium chloride NH4Cl NH4+ and Cl −
i.e. converted into anion.
Copper sulphate CuSO 4 Cu 2 + and SO 2−
4
• There is no change in atomic number or number
of protons when an atom forms ion. Magnesium chloride MgCl 2 Mg 2 + and Cl −
Magnesium oxide MgO Mg 2 + and O 2−
Valence Electrons Sodium chloride NaCl Na + and Cl −
An electron of an atom, located in the outermost Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na + and OH−
shell (valence shell) of the atom, that can be
transferred to or shared with another atom is called Covalent Bond
valence electrons.
The bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms
• Elements having same number of valence electrons of same or different elements is called covalent bond and the
have similar chemical properties. compound is called covalent compound. When a non-metal
• Elements having 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons in their combines with another non-metal, a covalent bond is formed.
atoms are metals and form cation while those Covalent bond may be single, double or triple depending upon
having 4, 5, 6 or 7 are non-metals and form anion. the number of sharing pairs of electrons. The number of
• Elements with 8 valence electrons (except H and electrons shared shows the covalency of the element.
He which have 2 valence electrons) are inert, i.e. The properties of covalent compounds are as follow:
unreactive and exist as neutral atom. • Normal covalent compounds are gases or liquid under
• If number of valence electrons = 1, 2 or 3 ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure.
Valency = Number of valence electrons • These do not conduct electricity (due to the absence of free
If number of valence electrons ≥ 4 ions) and are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic
Valency = 8 - number of valence electrons solvents.
• Graphite although is covalent but conducts electricity because
Types of Chemical Bonds of the presence of free electrons (electrical conduction).
Chemical bonds can be of following types depending • These show stereoisomerism because covalent bond is
upon their mode of formation: directional in nature.
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 639

Some Covalent Compounds

RANCIDITY
Name Formula Elements present
The oils or fats containing materials get oxidised in the
Alcohol (ethanol) C 2H5 (OH) C, H and O presence of oxygen or air and produce foul odour and
Ammonia NH 3 N and H taste. This process is called rancidity. It is the source of
destructive free radicals. A sliced apple turns brown if
Acetylene (ethyne) C 2 H2 C and H
kept open for sometimes due to oxidation of iron present
Carbon disulphide CS 2 C and S in the apple. The chips packets are filled with inert gas
Carbon tetrachloride CCl 4 C and Cl nitrogen to protect them from being oxidised (or rancid).
Cane sugar C12 H22 O 11 C, H and O
Ethylene C 2 H4 C and H Reduction
Glucose C 6 H12 O 6 C, H and O The process which involves the gain of hydrogen or
electropositive element or one or more electrons
Coordinate or Dative Bond (electronation) or loss of oxygen by an atom, ion or
This type of bond is formed by one sided sharing of one molecule is called reduction.
pair of electrons between two atoms. The atom having e.g. S + 2 e − Æ S 2 − .
complete octet which provides the electron pair for sharing
is known as donor atom. The other atom which accepts the Reduction involves decrease in the positive valency of an
electron pair is called the acceptor atom, element.
e.g. NH 3 Æ BF3 , NH 4+
Oxidising Agent (Oxidant)
Hydrogen Bond It is a substance which accepts electron in the chemical
reaction, i.e. electron acceptors are oxidising agent. All the
This bond is formed due to the electrostatic force of
positively charged species behave like oxidising agents.
attraction between hydrogen atom highly electronegative
Oxidising agents are Lewis acids.
atom.
i.e. N, O or F and any other electronegative atom which is Reducing Agent (Reductant)
present in the same or different molecules.
The substance which donates electron in a chemical
It is mainly of two types: reaction is called reducing agent, i.e. electron donors are
(i) Intermolecular H-bonding (e.g. H 2 O, HF, NH 3 reducing agents. All the negatively charged species behave
molecule). It occurs between different molecules of a like reducing agents. Reducing agents are Lewis bases.
compound.
Some Oxidising and Reducing Agents
(ii) Intramolecular H-bonding (e.g. o-nitrophenol)
Both oxidising and
It occurs with in different parts of a same molecule. Oxidising agents Reducing agents
reducing agents
• Molecules having O—H, N—H or H—F bond show KMnO 4 , Cr 2O 2−
7 , H 2 SO 4 , Na, Al, Fe, Zn, LiH, H2O 2 , SO 2 , HNO 2 ,
abnormal properties due to H—bond formation. HNO 3, O 2, CO 2 etc. NaH, (COOH)2 etc. NaNO 2, O 3, Na 2SO 3 etc.

Redox Reactions Oxidation State

The reactions which involve both oxidation and reduction It is the real or imaginary charge which an atom appears to
as its two half reactions are called redox reactions. When have in its combined state. Oxidation state of an element
the same element is oxidised or reduced simultaneously, may be positive, negative, zero or fractional.
the reaction is called disproportionation reaction.
Rules for Determining Oxidation State
Oxidation • The oxidation state of an element in its free or
The process which involves gain of oxygen or any other uncombined state is zero. e.g. oxidation state of O in O 2
electronegative element or loss of hydrogen or loss of one and O 3 is zero.
or more electrons (de-electronation) from an atom, ion or • Oxidation state of hydrogen in most of its compounds is
molecule is called oxidation,
+ 1 but in metallic hydrides it is −1.
e.g. Mg Æ Mg 2 + + 2e − . • Oxidation state of oxygen in most of its compounds is
The positive valency of an element increases by its − 2. Except peroxides ( −1), superoxides ( −1 / 2) and
oxidation. oxygen fluorides (+2 or +1).
640 CDS Pathfinder

• Oxidation state of elements of I A, II A and III A • The algebraic sum of the oxidation states of all elements
subgroups in their compounds are + 1, + 2 and + 3, present in polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the
respectively. ion.
• Oxidation state of any ion is equal to its charge present • Oxidation state of fluorine (F) is always −1.
on it.
➨ Note Compounds of all elements with oxygen are called oxides with
• The algebraic sum of oxidation states of all the elements the exception of fluorine in case of which it is called fluorides, e.g.
in the neutral molecule is zero. oxygen fluoride (OF2 ).

GAS LAWS AND SOLUTIONS

GAS LAWS GAS EQUATION
Gases exhibit dependency on temperature, pressure, The three laws (Boyle’s, Charle’s and Avogadro’s law) can
volume and mass. These interrelations can be analysed by be combined together in a single equation which is known
gas laws. as ideal gas equation.
At STP/NTP, temperature, (T ) = 273.15 K, pressure ( p ) = 1 V ∝1/ p (Boyle’s law)
atm = 101. 35 kPa, volume, (V ) = 22. 4 L mol − 1 V ∝T (Charles’ law)
Some gas laws are given below V ∝n (Avogadro’s law)
Boyle’s Law (Robert Boyle-1662) nT
On combining, V ∝
• At constant temperature, the volume of fixed mass of a p
gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. nT
or V =R
1 P
V ∝ [at constant temperature and moles (n)]
p or pV = nRT (where, R = gas constant)
or p1V1 = p2V2 For 1 mole, pV = RT
• Value of gas constant, R depends upon the units of
Charles’ Law (Jacques Charles-1787) measurements.
• At constant pressure, volume of fixed mass of a gas is
R = 0.0821 L atm mol −1 K −1
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
V ∝T (at constant pressure and moles) = 8.3143 J mol −1 K −1 = 5.189 × 1019 eV mol −1 K −1
V1 V2 = 1.99 cal mol −1 K −1
=
T1 T2 Gas constant, R for a single molecule is called Boltzmann
R R
constant (k) or k = =
Gay Lussac’s Law ([Link] Lussac-1802) N 6.022 × 10 23
• At constant volume, the pressure of fixed mass of a gas • Density of a gas is directly proportional to pressure and
is directly proportional to its temperature. inversely related to temperature,
p ∝T  Mass ( m) 
p1 p2 i.e. d = pM /RT ! n = 
= [at constant volume and moles]  Molecular weight ( M )
T1 T2

Avogadro’s Law (Amedeo Avogadro-1811) Graham’s Law of Diffusion

• At constant temperature and pressure, the volume of (or Effusion)
any gas is directly proportional to the number of moles The rate of diffusion (r) of a gas at constant temperature
of gas. and pressure is inversely proportional to the square root of
V ∝n [at constant T and P] its molecular mass, M or density, d.
V1 V2
or = r1 M2 d2
n1 n2 = =
r2 M1 d1
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 641

Maxwell’s Distribution of Molecular Molality (m) The number of moles of solute dissolved in
1000 g of a solvent is called its molality.
Speeds (Velocities) Weight of solute (in g) × 1000
Maxwell and Boltzmann proposed that gas molecules are Thus, m =
Molecular weight × weight of solvent (in g)
always in rapid random motion colliding with each other
and with the walls of container because of which their Normality (N ) The number of gram equivalents of solute
velocity changes. On increasing temperature, the velocity dissolved in one litre of solution is known as its normality.
or molecular motion increases because of which the rate of Weight of solute (in g) × 1000
reaction increases. N=
Equivalent weight × volume of solution (in mL)

SOLUTION ➨ Note Normality and molarity are affected by temperature as these

depend upon the volume whereas molality remains unaffected from
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more temperature change.
substances on molecular level is called true solution or
solution. e.g. lemonade, soda water. The substance which is Henry’s Law
dissolved in a liquid to make a solution is called ‘solute’
and the liquid in which the solute is dissolved is called According to this law, ‘at particular temperature, the
‘solvent’. solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas above the solvent.
A true solution does not scatter light and its particles
cannot be seen even by microscope. e.g. salt solution, sea Its main applications are as follow:
water, sugar solution, copper sulphate solution, vinegar, – Soft drinks and soda water bottles are sealed under
etc. high pressure in order to increase the solubility of CO2
Depending upon the amount of solute present, the solutions in them.
– To minimise the painful effects (bends) accompanying
can be classified as :
the decompression of deep sea divers, oxygen diluted
• A solution, in which more quantity of solute can be
with less soluble helium gas is used as breathing gas.
dissolved without raising its temperature is called an
– Oxygen diluted with nitrogen cannot be used for this
unsaturated solution.
purpose due to high solubility of N 2 in blood.
• A solution, in which no more solute can be dissolved at
that temperature is called a saturated solution.
Osmosis
Concentration of a Solution It is the process of movement of solvent molecules from
The amount of a solute dissolved in unit weight or volume of the solution of low concentration to high concentration
solution is called strength (concentration) of a solution. through semipermeable membrane.
• If pressure greater than osmotic pressure (pressure
So, concentration of a solution
require to stop osmosis) is applied on the solution of
Amount of solute (in g) Amount of solute (in g)
= = high concentration, reverse osmosis takes place. e.g.
Weight of solution Volume of solution desalination of sea water.
• Isotonic solutions have same concentration and osmotic
Different Terms to Express pressure. e.g. 0.91% solution of pure NaCl is isotonic
Concentration with human red blood cells (RBCs).
Parts Per Million It shows the parts of solute present per Diffusion
million parts of solution, i.e. ppm.
• Diffusion is the process of spontaneous mixing of
Mass of solute (in g) × 10 6 different gases and in this process, molecules of a
=
Volume of solution (in mL) substance move from higher concentration to lower
concentration and goes on until a uniform mixture is
Molarity (M) The number of moles of solute dissolved in
formed. Its rate is highest for gases and lowest in solids.
one litre of solution is called its molarity.
e.g. the smell of food being cooked, reaches us even
Weight of solute (in g) × 1000 from a considerable distance by the process of diffusion.
Thus, M =
Molecular weight × volume of solution (in mL) Due to diffusion the scent spread all over the room if
the lid is opened.
642 CDS Pathfinder

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACIDS BASES
The substances which have sour taste and turn blue litmus These substances which have bitter taste and turn red litmus
to red are called acids. to blue are called bases.
• According to Arrhenius acids give hydrogen ion H + in • According to Arrhenius, bases give hydroxyl ion (OH − )
an aqueous solution. in aqueous solution. e.g. NaOH, KOH, CsOH,Mg(OH)2 ,
HCl (aq) Æ H + ( aq) + Cl − ( aq) etc.,
• According to Bronsted Lowry concept, acids donate NaOH ( aq) Æ Na + ( aq) + OH − ( aq)
proton (hydrogen ion). • According to Bronsted Lowry concept, bases have a
− + tendency to accept proton, e.g. NH 3 , H 2O, etc.
HCl + NH 3 Æ Cl + NH4 NH 3 + H 2 O ! NH 4+ + OH −
Acid Conjugate Base Conjugate
base acid
(A conjugate acid-base pair differ by a proton) • According to Lewis concept, bases have a tendency to
• According to Lewis concept, acids have tendency to donate electron pair. e.g. simple anions like Cl − , F −
OH − ,
••
accept electrons, i.e. these behave as electrophiles. etc., molecules containing lone pairs like N H 3 ,
e.g. electron deficient species like BF3 , AlCl 3 , positive •• ••
ions like Na+ , K + and molecules having multiple bond R— O —H, R— O —R , etc.
•• ••
between dissimilar atoms (e.g. CO 2 , SO 2 , etc).
Sources of Some Acids Properties of Bases
Acid Sources • Base reacts with metal to form salt and liberates hydrogen
Citric acid Lemon, orange, grapes (citrus fruits) gas. However, such reactions are not possible with all
Maleic acid Unripe apple metals.
Tartaric acid Tamarind , grapes • Water soluble bases are called alkali. Thus, all alkalis are
Lactic acid Milk , curd bases but all the bases are not alkali.
Acetic acid Vinegar • In aqueous solution and molten state, they are good
conductors of electricity.
Oxalic acid Tomato , spinach
Hydrochloric acid Stomach and other chemicals Acid and Base in a Reaction
Formic acid Red ant sting
Acid-base pair
• Most of the acids contain hydrogen.
CH3COOH + H2O Æ H3O + CH3COO–
• HCl, H 2 SO 4 , HNO 3 are mineral acids and are much
Acid Base Conjugate Conjugate
stronger than organic acids. (as donates proton) (as accepts proton) acid base
• Aqua-regia is a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric
Acid-base pair
acid and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio 3 : 1. It
can dissolve inert materials like platinum, gold, etc. • Paraldehyde (a carbonyl compound) is used as a hypnotic.
• Clove oil can be used as indicator.
Properties of Acids
• Acids liberate hydrogen gas with more reactive metals.
SALTS
e.g. Zn + 2HCl Æ ZnCl 2 + H2↑ • When acid and base react together, they form salt and
Metal Salt Hydrogen
water. This reaction is known as neutralisation reaction,
• Acids evolve carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) gas with metal e.g.
carbonates and bicarbonates. e.g. HNO 3 + KOH Æ KNO 3 + H 2O
Acid Base Salt Water
MCO3 + H 2 SO4 Æ M SO4 + H 2 O + CO2 ↑ • When acid and base both are strong, 13.7 kcal energy is
Metal carbonate Acid released. However, if either the acid or the base is weak,
• In aqueous solution, they are conductor of electricity energy released is less than 13.7 kcal because some part of
due to the presence of free H + ions. energy is utilised to ionise weak acid or base.
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 643

• KNO 3 , K 2 SO 4 , NaNO 3 , KCl, NaCl, KNO 3 are

salts of strong acids and strong bases so, they cannot
Importance of pH in Everyday Life
be hydrolysed and their aqueous solution is neutral. • Bee or ant sting (formic acid) leaves an acid into the skin
which causes pain and irritation. Use of a mild base like
• Solutions of salts of Cl ,−
SO42 − , NO3−
with metals
+ +
baking soda (NaHCO3 ) or calamine (zinc carbonate) is a
other than Na and K are acidic. e.g. NH 4 Cl . In remedy for it.
other words, salt of a strong acid and a weak base • Wasp sting introduced some base, so a mild acid is a
undergoes hydrolysis in water to give acidic solution. remedy.
• Solutions of salts of Na + and K + with anions (except • Falling of pH of the mouth below 5.5 because of substances
SO42 − , NO3− , Cl − ) are basic, e.g. CH 3 COONa. like chocolates and sweets lead to tooth decay which is
In other words, salt of a weak acid and a strong base naturally controlled by saliva (basic) to some extent but
undergoes hydrolysis in water to give basic solution. toothpaste being basic maintain this pH by neutralising
excess acid.
pH SCALE • Excessive acid (hydrochloric acid) secreted in our stomach
which causes acidity, is neutralised by mild bases called
SPL Sorensen suggested a scale to express the antacids like milk of magnesia
acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution in terms (or magnesium hydroxide) [Mg(OH)2 ] , aluminium
of hydrogen ion concentration which is known as hydroxide [Al(OH)3 ] , etc.
pH scale. This scale is based on the ionic product
of water. • Every crop grows better in a particular pH range. e.g. slightly
acidic soil is good for rice, neutral is good for sugarcane while
The pH of solution is defined as ‘‘the negative citrus fruits generally grow in alkaline soil.
logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion
concentration in moles per litre’’, ➨ Note Use of strong acid or base is not prescribed as these are corrosive
i.e. pH = − log [H+ ] in nature.
■ Pickles are kept in glass jar because acid present in them reacts with
or in other words, the logarithm to the base 10 of the metal of metallic pot to give poisonous substances.
inverse of H+ ion concentration in the solution is its ■ Acidity of soft drinks is regulated by bicarbonate salts.
1
pH. pH = log +
[H ] pOH Scale
• The negative power to which 10 must be raised in The pOH value of an aqueous solution may be defined as the
order to express the H + ion concentration of a negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration,
solution in moles per litre, is its pH. i.e. pOH = − log [ OH − ] and pH + pOH = 14.
− pH
i.e. [H + ] = 10
➨ Note
• In pure water or in neutral solution, 1. When fresh ground water comes in contact of air its pH is slightly
[H + ] = 10 − 7 so, pH = 7 reduces. This is because of the presence of CO2 in air which dissolves
in water to give a weak acid, H2CO3 (carbonic acid). This acid provides
• In an acidic solution, [H + ] > 10 − 7 so, pH < 7 H + ions and hence, increases the acidity of water due to which pH
• In an alkaline solution, [H + ] < 10 − 7 so, pH > 7
reduces.
2. pH of acidic solution increases when a base is added to it and pH of
pH of Some Common Substances basic solution decreases when an acid is added to it.

Soft drinks 2.0-4.0 Common Ion Effect

Tears 7.4 Addition of a strong electrolyte in the solution of weak acids
Lemon 2.2-2.4 or bases, decreases the ionisation of acid or base due to the
presence of common ion. This is called common ion effect. e.g.
Sea water 8.5
H2S ! 2H+ + S2– …(i)
Human urine 4.8-8.4
Weak acid

H+
Cow’s milk,saliva 6.5
HCl Æ + Cl– …(ii)
Rain water 6.0 Strong acid Common
ion (excess)
Human blood 7.36-7.42
So, the reaction (i) goes in the reverse direction.
644 CDS Pathfinder

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND SURFACE CHEMISTRY

THERMODYNAMICS • Only a very small amount of catalyst is sufficient to catalyse

It deals with the study of heat and energy changes a reaction. A catalyst does not initiate a reaction.
occurring during a physical and chemical processes. • A catalyst does not change the equilibrium state of a

An open system can exchange matter as well as energy reversible reaction as it increases the rate of forward as
with its surroundings, e.g. hot tea in a cup. well as backward reaction to the same extent.
• When a reversible reaction is performed in a closed
A closed system can exchange energy but not matter with
container, a state is reached when the rate of forward and
its surroundings, hot water in a closed beaker.
backward reactions become equal. This state is called
An isolated system can exchange neither matter nor chemical equilibrium or equilibrium state.
energy with its surroundings, e.g. thermos flask.
• Free energy change (∆G°) at equilibrium is zero.

Thermodynamic Processes Types of Catalyst

Isothermal Process The process in which temperature of 1. Positive and Negative Catalysts A catalyst which
the system remains constant, i.e., dT = 0 increases the rate of a reaction (in forward direction) is
Maximum work done during the isothermal expansion of called a positive catalyst while which decreases the
‘n’ moles of an ideal gas is given as rate of a reaction is called as negative catalyst.
V 2. Induced Catalyst The product of one reaction acts as
Wmax = − 2 . 303 nRT log 2 catalyst for another reaction is called induced catalyst.
V1
3. Catalytic Promoters and Inhibitors The substance
Adiabatic Process The process in which no heat enters which increases the activity of a catalyst are called
or leaves the system during any step of process, i.e. promoters and which decreases the activity of a
dq = 0. catalyst are called inhibitors.
Isobaric Process The process which takes place at 4. Catalytic Poisons Catalytic poisons destroy the
constant pressure, i.e. dp = 0. activity of a catalyst completely.
Isochoric Process The process in which volume of Enzyme Catalysis
system remains constant, i.e. dV = 0.
The increase in the rate of reactions by the enzyme is
Cyclic Process In a cyclic process, a system in a given known as enzyme catalysis. Since, they increase the rate of
state goes through a series of different processes but reaction occurring in living organisms, they are known by
finally returns to its initial state, i.e. dE or dU = 0. the name biocatalysts.
Spontaneous Process A process, i.e physical or chemical • All enzymes are protein in nature. Enzymes are highly
change, which can proceed by itself is known as specific in their nature. They are highly sensitive to
spontaneous process. There are also some processes temperature, i.e. the temperature at which the activity of
which require some initiation before they proceeds enzymes is maximum, varies between 25-37°C.
spontaneously, i.e. physical or chemical change. • The rates of enzymatic reactions are very much affected
• It is also known as feasible and probable process. by pH change.
• The process is spontaneous, if free energy change, ∆G is Some Important Catalyst used in Different Processes
negative.
Processes Catalyst used

SURFACE CHEMISTRY Manufacture of ghee from vegetable oils

Haber’s process for the manufacture of ammonia
Nickel
Fe (here Mo, acts
Surface chemistry deals with the phenomenon that occurs as an activator)
at the surface or interfaces. Contact process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid Pt powder
Conversion of proteins into peptide Pepsin enzyme
Catalysis Conversion of proteins into amino acids Erepsin enzyme
Conversion of glucose into ethanol Zymase enzyme
The term catalyst is given by Berzelius. A catalyst is a
Conversion of starch into maltose Diastase enzyme
substance which alters the rate of reaction without being
consumed in it and the phenomenon is known as catalysis. Formation of vinegar from cane sugar Mycoderma aceti
Conversion of sucrose into glucose and fructose Invertase enzyme
General Characteristics of Catalysts Conversion of milk into curd Lactase (lactobacilli)
• A catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical Ostwald’s process for the manufacture of nitric acid Platinum (Pt)
(HNO 3)
composition during a reaction.
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 645

COLLOIDS Types of Emulsions

There are two types of emulsions
In a colloid, the size of solute particles is bigger than
that of true solution but smaller than that of • Oil in water type e.g. milk in which tiny droplets of liquid fat
suspension, i.e. lies in between 1 to 100 nm. A are dispersed in water.
colloidal solution is a heterogeneous system in which • Water in oil type e.g. stiff greases, in which water being
one substance is dispersed as very fine particles in dispersed in lubricating oil.
another substance, called dispersion medium.
Emulsifying Agents
Properties of Colloidal During the preparation of emulsion, a small amount of some
Solutions substances such as soap, gum, agar and protein etc are added to
stabilise the emulsion. These substances are known as emulsifying
The important properties of the colloidal solutions agents.
are given below • Gel is a colloidal system in which dispersed phase is liquid and
Brownian Movement The rapid zig-zag movement dispersion medium is solid. e.g. butter, cheese. When a gel is
executed by colloidal particle is termed as Brownian allowed to stand for some time, it loses the dispersed phase
movement. (liquid), this phenomenon is called syneresis or weeping of the
Tyndall Effect When a strong and converging beam gel.
of light is passed through a colloidal solution, its • Fog, clouds, mist are the colloidal systems of liquid in gas.
path becomes visible due to scattering of light by • Smoke is a colloidal systems of carbon (solid) in air (gas).
particles. It is called Tyndall effect. Blue appearance
• Foams are the colloidal systems in which a gas is dispersed in
of sea water is an example of Tyndall effect.
liquid. e.g. alcohol, castor oil, shaving cream etc.
Electrophoresis The phenomenon involving the
• Digestion of fats in intestine is aided by emulsification.
migration of colloidal particles under the influence
of electric field towards the oppositely charged • Coagulation is the process of precipitation of colloid when it is
electrode, is called electrophoresis. shaked with some electrolyte. Its applications are
1. Purification of muddy water by alum.
➨ Colloidal solutions are purified by dialysis.
2. Ferric chloride and alum are applied on wound to stop
bleeding.
Emulsions ➨ Note
These are the colloidal solutions of two immiscible 1. Blue colour of sky is due to the scattering of light by dust particles
liquids in which the liquids act as the dispersed present in air.
phase as well as the dispersion medium. 2. The order of energy is 1 calorie > 1 joule > 1 erg.
3. Milk is a natural emulsion while paint is an artificial emulsion.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
It is the branch of chemistry which deals with Electrochemical Cell
inter-conversion of chemical energies and electrical It is a device, that produces an electric current from energy
energies. It can be converted into electrical energy by released by a spontaneous redox reaction (in short, which
means of an electrochemical cell (electrolysis). converts chemical energy into electrical energy).
Important Terms This kind of cell includes the galvanic cell or voltaic cell. It
has two conductive electrodes, i.e. anode or negative electrode
• Chemical changes involving production or
(at which oxidation occurs) and cathode or positive electrode
consumption of electricity are called electrochemical (at which reduction occurs). Electrolyte is filled in between
changes. the electrodes and contains freely moving ions.
• The substance, which allow the electricity to pass
through them are called electrolytes. e.g. common
salt (NaCl), water (H 2 O) etc. BATTERY
• The substance which do not allow the electricity to An arrangement of one or more cells connected in a series, is
pass through them are called non-electrolytes. e.g. called a battery. It is basically a galvanic cell.
sugar, wax, naphthalene etc. Batteries are of two types :
• A number of metals such as Na, Mg, Ca and Al and a
1. Primary Batteries (non-rechargeable) These batteries act
number of chemicals such as NaOH, Cl 2 , Fe etc. are as galvanic cell and used only once. e.g. dry cell,
commercially produced by electrochemical methods. mercury cell etc.
646 CDS Pathfinder

2. Secondary Batteries (rechargeable) These act as galvanic

as well as electrolytic cell and can be reused. e.g. lead
ELECTROLYSIS
storage battery, nickel-cadmium battery. The process, in which a non-spontaneous reaction is
Some Important Batteries carried out by using electrical energy is called electrolysis
and the instrument or container, in which the process of
Battery Anode Cathode Electrolyte Used in electrolysis is done, is called electrolytic cell.
Leclanche Zinc Carbon Paste of ammonium Transistors,
cell (Dry (Graphite) rod chloride (NH 4 Cl) clocks
Electrolysis of brine (the water saturated or nearly
cell) and zinc chloride saturated with salt, usually sodium chloride) gives
(ZnCl 2) hydrogen and chlorine. The products are gaseous.
Mercury cell Zinc-
mercury
Paste of HgO
and C
Paste of KOH
and ZnO
Hearing aids
watches and
NaCl Æ Na + + Cl −
amalgam camera H 2 O Æ H + + OH −
Lead Lead Lead packed 38% solution of Automobiles,
storage cell with lead sulphuric acid invertors At anode 2Cl − Oxidation
 Æ Cl 2 + 2e −
dioxide
Nickel Cadmium Nickel OH Torchlights,
At cathode 2H + + 2e − Reduction
 Æ H 2
Cadmium Dioxide Solution Electric
cell Shavers Na + + OH – Æ NaOH
Net reaction
NaCl + 2H 2O Æ 2NaOH + H 2 + Cl 2
FUEL CELLS K
+ –
These are galvanic cells, which use energy of combustion of +
–
–
fuels like hydrogen (H 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) , methanol
(CH 3 OH) etc., as the source to produce electrical energy. e.g. Cathode or
Anode or
hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. This cell was used for the first positive
negative
electrode
time in Apollo space programme. The byproduct of this cell, electrode +
+ +
i.e. water vapours, were condensed and used by the astronauts +
for drinking.
Advantages associated with fuel cell are Electrolytic cell
• Fuel cells are more efficient than conventional power ➨ Note During electrolysis, electrolytes get decomposed at the
stations or batteries etc. electrodes.
• With a fuel cell there are fewer stages in producing the
Electrolysis is used in the following ways :
useful energy, so there is less opportunity to lose
potentially useful energy, e.g. waste heat, friction from • In the production of oxygen for spacecraft and
moving parts etc. nuclear submarines.
• In layering metals to fortify them.
• A hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is a non-polluting clean fuel
since, the only combustion product is water. • In production of hydrogen for fuel.
• In electrolytic etching of metal surfaces like tools or
Disadvantages associated with fuel cell are
knives with a permanent mark or logo.
• Fuel cells cannot be used for large scale energy production,
• In electroplating, electrorefining, electroprinting,
so conventional fossil fuels or nuclear power stations still electro-metallurgy and industrial preparation.
have an important future.
• Hydrogen is a gas and requires a much larger storage volume
as compared to fossil fuels like petrol. FARADAY’S LAWS OF
• Safe storage is also an issue, especially as it would be stored ELECTROLYSIS
under high pressure to decrease the storage space required.
This immediately makes leaks and, accidents more likely to First Law of Electrolysis
happen because hydrogen is a highly flammable explosive It states that “The amount of electricity (or charge)
gas, too easily ignited. required for oxidation or reduction depends upon
• Efficient large scale technology is not yet developed to stoichiometry of the electrode reaction.”
produce hydrogen on large scale, e.g. from electrolysis w ∝Q , w = ZQ = Zit
using solar power electricity, photovoltaic power system,
wind turbines or hydroelectric power. ! Charge (Q) = Current (i) × time (t)
• Although water is cheap and plentiful, it requires expensive 1 Faraday = 96500 C mol −1
electrical energy to electrolyse water to split it into
hydrogen and oxygen.
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 647

Second Law of Electrolysis e.g. Zn + 2HCl Æ ZnCl 2 + H 2

It states that the masses of the resulting separated elements The metals placed above are good reducing agent and
are directly proportional to the atomic masses of the reduces the metal oxides of the metal placed below them.
elements, when an appropriate integral divisor is applied.
W ∝E or
W1 E1
=
CORROSION
W2 E2 It is the process of oxidative deterioration of a metal
surface by the action of environment to form unwanted
Electrochemical Series corrosive products. e.g. conversion of iron into rust
When metals are arranged in the (Fe 2O 3 ⋅ xH 2O). Corrosion of iron is called rusting.
K Tarnishing of silver (due to the formation of Ag 2 S),
increasing order of their Ca Highly reactive
standard reduction electrode Na metals never development of green coating [of Cu (OH)2 ⋅ CuCO 3 (basic
potential, a series is obtained, Mg found in free state copper carbonate)] on copper and bronze. It is basically an
Metals Al
which is called electrochemical above Zn electrochemical process.
series. It is also called hydrogen Cr
Moderately It is accelerated by the presence of impurities, H + , electrolytes
Fe
reactivity series (as reactivity Ni reactive such as NaCl and gases such as CO 2 , SO 2 , NO, NO 2 etc.
follows the reverse order). Sn metals
Lower is the value of reduction Pb
H
Prevention of Corrosion
potential, greater would be its Cu Less reactive • By coating with a suitable material (barrier protection
reducing power. Metals Hg
below Ag
metals viz paint, grease, metals (like Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, Sn),
Depending upon the reactivity, hydrogen Pd adherent film of iron phosphate, adherent coating of
Least reactive
the occurrence of metals in the Pt
magnetic oxide (Fe 3O 4 ).
Au metals (found
reactivity series may be in the free state)
represented as shown in the • By alloying with suitable metals.
figure. • By cathodic protection–the metal is made cathode by
Thus, gold is the least reactive metal and hence, found in application of external circuit.
native state. The more reactive metals of the series can • By using artificial anode (sacrificial protection), more
displace the less reactive metals from their salt solutions. anodic metal (like Zn, Mg, Al etc.,) is connected to iron
e.g. Cu + FeSO 4 Æ No reaction article by a wire. In such cases, current flows
towards more reactive metal and prevents iron from
but Fe + CuSO 4 Æ FeSO 4 + Cu corrosion.
Moreover, metal placed before H can evolve H 2 from • By galvanisation (covering of iron article with zinc).
dilute acids.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS Atomic and ionic size, electron affinity, ionisation
• In 1896, Mendeleev gave a periodic law. According to potential, electronegativity, electropositive character,
which ‘‘the properties of elements are the periodic acidic or basic character, metallic nature, etc., are some
function of their atomic masses’’. important periodic properties.
There were seven periods (horizontal rows) and eight
•
groups (vertical columns) in the periodic table of
Characteristics of Periods
Mendeleev having 63 known elements at that time. • The number of valence electrons in elements increases
• Moseley modified Mendeleev’s periodic law and from 1 to 8 on moving from left to right in a period.
proposed modern periodic law. According to modern • The elements in a period have consecutive atomic
periodic law, ‘‘the properties of elements are periodic numbers.
function of their atomic numbers.’’ • The valency of the element increases from 1 to 4 and
• There are eighteen vertical columns, known as groups then decreases to 0 (zero) on moving from left to right
in a period, with respect to hydrogen.
and seven horizontal rows, known as periods, in the
long form of periodic table. • Atomic size, electropositive character, metallic character,
reducing nature of elements and basic nature of oxides
• Periodic Properties The properties which are repeated
all decrease from left to right in a period.
at regular intervals are known as periodic properties.
648 CDS Pathfinder

• Electronegative nature, non-metallic nature, acidic nature of Removal of Hardness of Water

oxides, ionisation potential increases from left to right in a
• Temporary hardness is removed by boiling or by
period. In a period, electronegativity and electron affinity
adding lime water (Clark’s process).
also increases from left to right.
• Permanent hardness is removed by adding sodium
Characteristics of Groups carbonate (washing soda,Na 2 CO 3 ) or calgon (sodium
hexa metaphosphate, Na 6 P6O18 or zeolite which is also
• All the elements of a group of the periodic table have the called permutit (hydrated sodium aluminium silicate,
same number of valence electrons and hence, have almost Na 2 Al 2 Si 2 O8 ⋅ xH 2 O).
similar chemical properties. • From sea water, pure water is obtained by a process,
• Atomic radius, electropositive nature, metallic nature, called reverse osmosis, i.e. by applying pressure higher
reducing nature of elements and the basic nature of oxides than the osmotic pressure towards the solution side.
increase from top to bottom in a group. This process is also called desalination of sea water.
• Electronegative nature, ionisation potential, electron affinity, • Boiling, chlorination and treatment with UV irradiation all
electronegativity, non-metallic nature and acidic nature of kill the microorganisms present in water.
oxides decrease down a group with increasing atomic
number. Heavy Water
• Heavy water (D 2 O, molecular weight = 20) is the
HYDROGEN oxide of heavy hydrogen. It is used as a moderator in
• Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table with nuclear reactors.
atomic number 1 and mass number 1. • In hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) oxygen is in
• Hydrogen has three isotopes-protium or ordinary
−1 oxidation state, which is the intermediate oxidation
state of oxygen. H 2O 2 behaves as an oxidising,
hydrogen ( 1 H 1 ) , deuterium or heavy hydrogen ( 1 H 2 or reducing and bleaching agent.
2 3 3
1 D ), tritium ( 1 H or 1 T ). Tritium is the radioactive • Lead painting becomes blacken in air due to the
isotope of hydrogen. formation of PbS by the action of H 2 S present in air,
• Hydrogen is a non-supporter of combustion and burns H 2 O 2 is used to wash it. H 2 O 2 oxidises PbS to
with ‘pop’ sound. It is an inflammable gas. PbSO 4 .

Compounds of Hydrogen Aquifers

Water is one of the most important compound of hydrogen. An aquifer is an underground layer of water bearing
permeable rock, i.e. they have opening through which
Water only liquids and gases can pass.
• Water is the neutral oxide of hydrogen. Pure water freezes Clay layers although are poor aquifers. This is because
at 0 °C and boils at 100°C. This abnormal high boiling clay minerals are dense impermeable materials. They act
point is due to the association of H 2 O molecules through as aquiferal, i.e. a layer of material that is almost
hydrogen bonding. impenetrable to water.
• Water is a polar compound (dipole moment 1.85 D) and
possesses a high dielectric constant, i.e. 81. Its presence is Metallurgy
tested by using anhydrous copper sulphate which turns It is the process of extraction of metals from their ores is
blue in the presence of water. called metallurgy.
• Water is a universal solvent because of its tendency to
form H-bond and polar nature. Terminology Related with Metallurgy
• Water has very high specific heat and thus, widely used as • Metals occur in the form of minerals in nature.
a coolant. • Gangue or matrix are the impurities associated with
• Water which form lather with soap is called soft and ore.
which does not form lather is called hard water as the • Roasting is the process of heating ore (mainly sulphide
ions present in it form scum (precipitate) with the soap. ore) in the excess of air whereas calcination is heating
the ore (carbonate or hydroxide ore) in the absence or
Hardness of Water limited supply of air.
• Hardness of water may be due to the presence of • Flux is added to gangue to convert it into slag.
bicarbonates of calcium or magnesium (temporary • Ores are the minerals from which metal is extracted
hardness) or due to the presence of chlorides or sulphates conveniently and beneficially.
of Ca or Mg (permanent hardness).
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 649

Some Important Ores and their Uses Alloys Composition Important uses
Brass Copper, zinc Utensils, condenser, tubes,
Metal Ores/minerals Chemical composition cartridge caps, etc.
Sodium Rock salt NaCl Aluminium Copper and aluminium Coins, picture, cheap jewellery,
Chile salt petre NaNO 3 bronze flames
Borax, tincal Na 2B 4O 7 ⋅ 10H2O
German silver Copper, zinc, nickel Utensils, resistance wires
or suhaga carnallite
Constantan Copper, nickel Electrical apparatus
Magnesium Magnesite KCl, MgCl 2, 6 H2O, MgCO 3 Dental alloy Silver, mercury, tin, zinc For filling teeth
Asbestos CaSiO 3 ⋅ 3MgSiO 3
Stainless steel Iron, chromium. nickel Utensils, bicycle parts, etc.
Carnallite KCl ⋅ MgCl 2 ⋅ 6H 2O
Magnalium Magnesium and aluminium Automobile and aeroplane
Calcium Lime stone CaCO 3 parts
Gypsum CaSO 4 ⋅ 2H 2O
Nichrome Nickel, iron, chromium, In making coils of heater
Fluorspar CaF 2 manganese
Aluminium Bauxite Al 2O 3 ⋅2H2O Misch metal Cerium, lanthanum, In making cigarette lighters
Cryolite Na 3AIF 6 neodymium, praseodymium
Feldspar KAISi 3O 8 and other lanthanoids
Mica KAISi 2O10(OH) 2
Granite SiO2 and Al2O3 (73 : 14) Elements of IA Group (Alkali Metals)
Iron Haematite Fe 2 O 3 • Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium are
Magnetite Fe 3O 4
Iron pyrites FeS 2
alkali metals and are s-block elements.
Siderite FeCO 3 • These metals are soft and can be cut with knife.
Copper Copper glance Cu 2S • Lithium is the lightest metal.
Copper pyrites CuFeS 2 • Alkali metals are stored under kerosene or paraffins to
Malachite Cu(OH) 2⋅CuCO 3 protect them from the action of air.
Azurite 2CuCO 3⋅ Cu(OH) 2
• Lithium shows diagonal relationship with magnesium.
Silver Silver glance Ag 2S
Horn silver AgCl • In Castner’s process, metallic sodium is prepared by
Ruby silver Ag 2S ⋅ Sb 2S 3 electrolysis of molten NaOH.
Gold Sylvanite AuAgTe 4
• Sodium is used in yellow light lamps.
• Sodium chloride (NaCl) or common salt or table salt is used
Zinc Zinc blende ZnS
Calamine ZnCO 3
in our daily diet, as a preservative for pickles, meat and fish.
Zincite ZnO It is also used in the manufacture of NaOH, Cl 2 gas and soap.
Mercury Cinnabar HgS
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or caustic soda is used in the
soap, dyes and artificial silk industries and in the refining
Tin Cassiterite SnO 2
of bauxite mineral.
Lead Galena PbS
• Sodium bicarbonate is used in the kitchen for making food
Cerrusite PbCO 3
Anglesite PbSO 4
tasty and crispy.
– Sodium bicarbonate (Sodium hydrogen carbonate or
Potassium Nitre KNO 3
baking soda) is used for making baking powder, which is
Sylvine KCl
a mixture of baking soda and a mild edible acid such as
tartaric acid.
Alloy – It is also an ingredient of antacids. Being alkaline, it
• An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more neutralises excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
metals or a metal and a non-metal : – It is also used in soda acid fire extinguishers.

Some Important Alloys and their Uses • Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na 2 CO 3⋅10 H 2 O) or
Alloys Composition Important uses washing soda is used in the manufacture of glass, soap,
Solder Tin and lead Soldering
washing powder and for softening hard water.
Bronze Copper and tin Making utensils, statues, • Sodium sulphate (Na 2 SO 4⋅10H 2 O) is Glauber’s salt. It is
coins, etc. used as purgative.
Type metal Tin, lead and antimony Used in printing • Sodium thiosulphate (Na 2 S 2 O 3 ⋅5H 2 O) is also known as
Bell metal Copper, tin Making bells hypo. It is used in photography as a fixing agent because it
Gun metal Copper, tin and zinc Gears and bearing removes the undecomposed AgBr as soluble silver
thiosulphate salt.
650 CDS Pathfinder

• Gypsum is used in the preparation of building’s plaster

Elements of IB Group and anhydrous, CaSO 4 .
• 29 Cu, 47 Ag, 79 Au are the elements of I B group.
• Anhydrous CaSO 4 is a dehydrating agent and is used for
These elements are called coinage or currency metals. the manufacture of ammonium sulphate (Sindri fertiliser)
Their important properties are as follow: and sulphuric acid.
– They are d-block, transition elements.
• Plaster of Paris is a white powder, which sets into hard
– These are very hard, malleable and ductile metals.
mass called gypsum on hydration with water, so it is used
– They have high density and high melting and boiling in making casting for statues, toys, for plastering
points. fractured bones, etc.
• CuSO 4 is used as a mordant in dyeing. Copper • Cement has the following composition: Calcium oxide
sulphate pentahydrate is blue in colour and is called (CaO, 50-60%), alumina (Al 2 O3 , 5-10%) and magnesium
blue vitriol. CuSO4 is used to test the presence of water. oxide (MgO, 2-3%). Raw materials used for its
• Copper is alloyed with gold and silver for making preparation are limestone and clay. When cement mixed
ornaments. with water, the setting of cement takes place to give a
• AgNO3 is called lunar caustic. It is stored in dark hard mass.
brown bottles because it is photosensitive. This is due to the hydration of the molecules of the
constituents and their rearrangement.
• Au, Ag, Pt, etc., metals which remain unaffected by the
action of other strong acids dissolve in aqua-regia • Adding gypsum is only to slow down the process of
(which is a mixture of HCl and HNO 3 in 3 : 1). setting time of the cement.
• Portland cement is a mixture of silicates and aluminates of
Elements of IIA Group calcium with small amount of gypsum. The chemical
composition of portland are CaO,SiO2 ,Al 2 O3 ,
(Alkaline Earth Metals) SO3 MgO,Fe 2 O3 , silica SiO2 imparts strength to the cement
• II A subgroup elements are Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra. due to the formation of dicalcium and tricalcium silicates.
They are called alkaline earth metals and are s-block • Alumina (Al 2 O3 ) imparts quick setting property to the
elements. cement. It acts as a flux and lowers the clinkering
• Calcium of this family is most abundant element in the temperature.
earth’s crust while magnesium is present in chlorophyll,
the green pigment of the leaf. Elements of IIB Group
• Beryllium shows diagonal relationship with aluminium. • Zinc ( 30 Zn), cadmium ( 48 Cd) and mercury (80 Hg) are the
three elements present in II B subgroup. These are
• Mg(OH) 2 is called milk of magnesia. Being a mild
d-block elements.
base, it is used as an antacid to neutralise the excess • Their properties are as follow:
acid present in the stomach. – Zinc is used in making alloys like brass, bronze,
• MgSO 4 is used as a mordant in dyeing and tanning German silver, etc.
industry. It is also used as a purgative. – Zinc is deposited on the surface of iron articles by the
• Calcium oxide (CaO), also called quicklime, gives process called galvanisation.
hissing sound when dissolved in water. It is used in the – Mercury, Hg is a liquid at room temperature and is
manufacture of glass, calcium chloride, cement, mortar, filled in CFL lamps.
bleaching powder, calcium carbide, slaked lime, etc. It – Mercurous chloride or calomel(Hg 2Cl 2 ) is used for
is also used in the extraction of iron and as a drying making calomel electrode which is a reference electrode.
agent for ammonia and alcohol.
• Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) [Ca(OH) 2 ], is used in Elements of III A Group (Boron Family)
the manufacturing of bleaching powder, caustic soda • Elements are 5 B, 13 Al, 31 Ga, 49 In and 81 TI.
and soda lime and for softening of hard water. • Boron is a semi-metal. Rest of elements are metals.
• When CaCO 3 is dipped in water, the bubbles evolve • Aluminium is the most abundant metal (and third most
due to the evolution of carbon dioxide. adundant element) in the earth’s crust.
• Calcium sulphate is gypsum (CaSO 4 ⋅ 2H 2 O). It loses a • Boron halides are Lewis acids. The order of acidity is BBr 3 >
 2 BCl 3 > BF 3 .
  rd part of its water of crystallisation when heated at
 3 • Being lighter, all alloys are used in making aeroplanes.
120°C to form (CaSO 4 ) 2 ⋅ H 2 O which is known as • Aluminium sulphate is used as a mordant in dyeing.
Plaster of Paris.
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 651

Elements of IVA Group (Carbon Family) Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 )

• Air contains CO 2 to an extent of 0.03%-0.05% by
• The IVA group consists of elements C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb.
the volume. CO 2 is an acidic oxide of carbon.
• All are p-block elements.
• Solid CO 2 is technically known as dry ice (dricold).
• The stability and volatility of tetrahalide of carbon decrease
• It produces very low temperature (− 100°C) with
with increasing molecular weight of the tetrahalide
ether, hence gives an excellent freezing mixture.
e.g. CF 4 > CCl 4 > CBr 4 > CI 4 .
• It is a non-supporter of combustion so generally used
Carbon as fire extinguisher.
This is the element which forms highest number of • When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, it
compounds (except hydrogen) due to its catenation power turns milky due to the formation of calcium carbonate
(tendency of self linking) and tetravalency. It has two (which is milky white in colour). However, in excess
crystalline allotropes : Diamond and graphite. of the gas, the precipitate dissolves because of the
formation of soluble calcium bicarbonate.
Diamond CO 2 + Ca (OH )2 Æ CaCO 3 + H 2O
• It is the purest form of carbon and has rigid three Lime water White
dimensional network structure in which each carbon CaCO 3 + CO 2 + H 2O Æ Ca(HCO 3 )2
atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in tetrahedral Excess Soluble
fashion. • Carbon dioxide is the product of calcination and
• It is hardest substance and is a bad conductor of respiration processes.
electricity.
• It is used in making jewellery. Silicon
• It is used as an abbrasive for sharpening hard tools, i.e. in • It is the second most abundant element in the earth’s
making rock drilling machines , glass cutting etc. crust.
• Crystalline form of SiO 2 (silica) is quartz. SiO 2 is the
Graphite major component of glass and is soluble in HF. That’s
• It has layered two dimensional hexagonal structure. why HF cannot be stored in glass bottles.
• Large amounts of graphite are prepared artificially by
Glass
Acheson process.
Glass is an amorphous and transparent solid, obtained
• Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
by solidification of various silicates and borates.
• It is used as dry lubricant and in nuclear reactor as a
• Various varieties of glass are : Coloured glass, hard
moderator. glass, high refractive index glass, pyrex glass, Crook’s
➨ Note Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes. The first one glass.
to be identified was C-60 which has carbon atoms arranged in the Types of Glasses and their Uses
shape of football.
Types of Glasses Uses
Coal and Charcoal Soft glass Window panes, bottles, test tubes, etc.
• Coal is the amorphous variety of carbon. It is used as fuel.
Hard glass Combustion tubes, etc.
Coals are of following types :
Crook’s glass Absorbs UV rays, used for making lenses
(a) Peat (60% carbon).
Pyrex glass Cooking utensils
(b) Lignite or brown coal (70% carbon).
High refractive index glass Lenses, cut glasses
(c) Bituminous (78-83% carbon). It is the most
common variety. Glass laminates Bullet proof materials
(d) Anthracite (90% carbon). • Coloured glass can be obtained by adding following
• Charcoal can be animal charcoal, wood charcoal, sugar compounds.
charcoal and activated charcoal.
Compound added Colour imparted
• It is used in the manufacture of fuel gases like-water gas,
Cobalt oxide Blue
producer gas and semi-water gas.
Cuprous oxide Red
• Water gas (CO + H 2 ), semiwater gas (water gas +
producer gas), producer gas (N 2 + CO) are obtained Cadmium sulphide Lemon yellow
from CO. Chromium oxide Green
• Charcoal (animal charcoal) is used as a fuel and also as a Auric chloride Ruby
deodorant in the purification of water, decolourising sugar Manganese dioxide Purple
solution and in gas masks.
652 CDS Pathfinder

Glass Wool • Order of reactivity of halogens, F 2 > Cl 2 > Br 2 > I 2 .

It is an insulating material, obtained from fibre glass • Order of electronegativity, F > Cl > Br > I.
arranged into a texture similar to wood. It is produced or • Order of acidic strength, HI > HBr > HCl > HF.
rolled in slabs with different thermal and mechanical
• Iodine is a powerful antiseptic and used as a tincture
properties.
of iodine (a solution of iodine in alcohol).
Elements of VA Group Elements of VIIIth Group
• Elements present in this group are 7 N, 15 P, 33 As, 51 Sb and
• Elements present in this group are 26 Fe, 27 Co, 28 Ni
83 Bi.
• Phosphorus is the most abundant element of this family in
(Ferrous metals)
the earth’s crust. 44 Ru, 45 Rh, 46 Pd (Light platinum metals)

• Nitrogen is an essential component of explosives. It is 76 Os, 77 Ir, 78 Pt (High platinum metals)

generally filled in chips packets or electric bulbs to • All of these are d-block elements. Pig iron is obtained
increase their life because of its inert nature. from blast furnace. It is most impure form of iron. It
• Ammonia NH 3 is an alkaline gas, extremely soluble in is very hard, but brittle. It cannot be welded. It
water and is dried over quicklime. contains maximum amount of carbon (2.5% to 4.3%).
• Oxides of nitrogen when dissolve in water give oxyacids, • Wrought iron is the purest form of iron. It contains
e.g. NO 2 when dissolves in water, gives HNO 3 (nitric acid). 0.1 to 0.25% carbon. Wrought iron is soft, ductile and
malleable, so it can be welded.
• Nitric acid is a strong acid and used in the synthesis of
fertilisers and explosives.
• Steel is the most important form of iron. It contains
0.2 to 1.5% carbon.
• Red phosphorus is largely used in match industry and in
the manufacture of phosphor bronze-an alloy of Cu, Sn
• Iron is present in haemoglobin (blood) and its
and P. oxidation state in haemoglobin is +2.
• Fe 2 O 3 is called jeweller's rough.
• The ignition temperature (543K) is much higher than that
of white phosphorus (303K). Hence, it does not catch fire • Vitamin B12 is also called cobalamine and contains
easily. CO 3+ ion. Its deficiency in diet causes pernicious anaemia.

Elements of VIA Group Elements of Zero Group

• Elements present in this group are 2 He, 10 Ne, 18 Ar,
(Oxygen Family-Chalcogens)
36 Kr, 54 Xe and 86 Rn which are called nobel or inert
• Elements in this group are 8 O, 16 S, 34 Se, 52 Te and 84 Po. gases.
• Most abundant element of the family is oxygen.
• Argon is the most abundant inert gas in air.
• Common oxidation state of oxygen is (− 2). In gaseous
• Helium was discovered by Frankland and Lockyer.
form oxygen is a supporter of combustion.
He-III is abundant on the lunar surface and holds the
• Oil of vitriol or king of chemicals is H 2 SO 4 . potential to put an end to the energy crisis of the
• Sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) is a dibasic acid and is a earth.
dehydrating agent. It is used in making explosives. • Argon was discovered by Rayleigh and Ramsay.
• Ozone (O 3 ) is an allotrope of oxygen. It is diamagnetic • Ne, Kr and Xe were discovered by Ramsay and Traverse.
gas. • Radon was discovered by Dorn and is not present in air.
• SO 2 is a bleaching agent. Its bleaching action is due to • All of these elements are colourless monoatomic gases.
reduction and is temporary. • Their electronegativity and electron affinity are zero.
• Oxides of sulphur causes acid rain in the atmosphere.
Gas Uses
Elements of VIIth Group (Halogens) Helium With oxygen for respiration in case of
deep seadives, filling balloons and in
• Elements present in this group are 9 F, 17 Cl, 35 Br, 53 I and low temperature applications.
85 At. Out of these, bromine (Br2 ) exists in liquid state and Neon In advertising signs.
iodine (I2 ) in solid state.
Argon Light bulbs
• Fluorine ‘F’ has maximum electronegativity.
• Chlorine is prepared by oxidation of HCl with Krypton/Xenon Photographic flash, TV tubes

MnO 2 , KMnO 4 , K 2 Cr 2 O 7 etc.

• Chlorine has maximum electron affinity in the halogens.
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 653

Some Important Compounds

Common name Chemical name Formula Uses
Aqua-fortis Nitric acid HNO 3 It is used especially in the production of fertilisers and explosives and rocket fuels.
Aqua-regia Nitric acid + Conc. HNO 3 + conc. HCl It is used for testing metals and dissolving platinum and gold.
hydrochloric acid (in 1 : 3 ratio)
Baking soda Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO 3 It is sodium bicarbonate that is added to baked goods to make them rise.
Brine Sodium chloride NaCl solution The electrolysis of brine is a large-scale process used to manufacture chlorine from
solution salt.
Blue vitriol Copper sulphate CuSO 4⋅ 5H 2O It is used as antiseptic agent, dyes, treatment of copper deficiency etc.
Bone ash Calcium phosphate Ca 3(PO 4 )2 Bone ash can be used alone as an organic fertiliser. It can be treated with sulphuric
acid to form a ‘‘single superphosphetic’’ fertiliser which is more water soluble.
Bleaching powder Calcium oxy-chloride CaOCl 2 It is used as disinfectant and germicide in the sterilization of drinking water.
Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide NaOH It is used as a cleansing agent and in the manufacturing of washing soda.
Chile salt petre Sodium nitrate NaNO 3 It is used in solid propellants, explosives, fertilizers etc.
Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide CO 2 It is the solid form of CO 2. It is used primarily as a cooling agent.
Epsom salt Heptahydrate MgSO 4 ⋅ 7H2O This is used as an antacid or as a mineral supplement to maintain the body's
magnesium sulphate magnesium balance and laxative.
Foul air Nitrogen N2 It is used in food processing, in purging air conditioning and refrigeration.
Grain alcohol Ethyl alcohol C 2H5OH It is used as a solvent, in the synthesis of other organic chemicals. as an additive to
automotive gasoline,
Grape sugar Dextrose C 6H12O 6 Dextrose is a type of sugar better known today as glucose. It is used for treatment of
hypoglycemia.
Gypsum Calcium sulphate CaSO 4 ⋅ 2H2O It is widely used as fertilizer and the main constituent in many forms of plaster,
dihydrate blackboard chalk and wallboard.
Green vitriol Ferrous sulphate FeSO 4 ⋅ 7H2O It is also used in medicine to treat iron deficiency.
heptahydrate
Gammexane Benzene C 6H6Cl 6 It is also known as lindane. It is used as an agricultural inseticide and as
hexachloride (BHC) pharmaceutical treatment for lice and scabies.
Heavy water Deuterium oxide D 2O It is used in certain types of nuclear reactors. It acts as a neutron moderator to slow
down neutrons.
Halite or table salt Sodium chloride NaCl It is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative.
Lime stone (pearl) Calcium carbonate CaCO 3 It is a chemical or biolozical sedimentary rock that has many uses in agriculture and
industry.
Laughing gas Nitrous oxide N 2O This gas used as anaesthetic, as a propellant in whipped cream cans and as an
oxidizing agent in racing cars.
Milk of magnesia Magnesium Mg(OH) 2 It is used as a laxative to relieve occasional constipation and as an antacid to relieve
hydroxide indigestion.
Milk of lime Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 It is used as lubricant carrier in wire drawing.
(slaked lime)
Oil of vitriol Sulphuric acid H 2SO 4 It uses in the production of fertilizers, manufacture of chemicals in petrolium refining etc.
Plaster of Paris Calcium sulphate 1 It is used for casts to hold broken limbs in place, modeling casts, sculptures and in
CaSO 4 ⋅ H 2O
hemihydrate 2 plasterboard walls and ceilings etc.
Phosgene Carbonyl chloride COCl 2 It is a major industrial chemical used to make chemicals and pesticides.
Paris green Double salt Cu(AsO 2 )2 ⋅ Cu(C 2H3O 2 )2 It is used as a pigment and insecticide. It is used as preservative also.
Pearl white Bismuthoxychloride BiOCl It is used as a yellow pigment for cosmetics and paints.
Quartz or sand Silicon dioxide SiO 2 Common uses of silica (quartz) is the manufacture of glass.
Quick silver Mercury Hg It is the chemical element of mercury. It is used in batteries, fluorescent lights,
thermometers etc.
Quicklime Calcium oxide CaO It is used in the petroleum industry as an alkali in biodiesel production.
Red lead Lead tetraoxide Pb 3O 4 It is used in the manufacture of batteries, lead glass and rust-proof primer paints.
Stranger gas Xenon Xe Xenon is used in photographic flash lamps, stroboscopic lamps, bactericidal lamps,
high intensive arc lamps for motion picture protection etc.
Spirit of salt Hydrochloric acid HCl An old fashioned name for hydrochloric acid. It is used in production of batteries.
photoflash bulbs and fireworks etc.
Soda ash Sodium carbonate Na 2CO 3 It is used in the manufacturing of glass, detergents, chemicals and other industrial
products.
654 CDS Pathfinder

Common name Chemical name Formula Uses

Salt cake Sodium sulphate Na 2SO 4 It used in the manufacture of glass, ceramic glazes, soaps and sodium salts.
Tear gas Chloropicrin CCl 3NO 2 (or chloro It is used as a riot control agent.
compounds or NH 3)
Vinegar Acetic acid CH 3COOH It is mainly used as cooking ingredient or in pickling.
Washing soda Sodium carbonate Na 2CO 3 ⋅ 10 H 2O (i) It is used in manufacturing of glass borax, paper etc. (ii) To remove parmanent
decahydrate hardness of water.
Water glass Sodium silicate Na 2SiO 3. It is used as coagulant/deflocculant agent in wastewater treatment places.
White vitriol Zinc sulphate ZnSO 4 ⋅ 7 H 2O It is used for preserving skins and wood, in the electro deposition of zinc etc.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS – First member is C 2 H 4 , (CH 2 == CH 2 ) known as
• Chemistry of hydrocarbons and their derivatives are called ethylene or ethene.
organic compounds which deal with an organic chemistry. – Ethene is used in the manufacture of plastics, for
• Urea (NH 2 CONH 2 ) was the first organic compound artificial ripening of fruits (banana, apple and
orange), as an anaesthesia etc.
prepared in laboratory. It was prepared by Wohler.
• Acetic acid (CH 3 COOH) was the first organic compound (ii ) Alkynes or Acetylenes (—C ≡≡ C—)
synthesised from its elements by Kolbe. – General formula Cn H 2 n − 2
• Main sources of organic compounds are plants, animals, Type formula R—C ≡≡ C—H
coal and petroleum.
– Common name Acetylene, IUPAC name
Alkynes.
HYDROCARBONS – Acetylene (C 2 H 2 ) is the first member of the
Hydrocarbons are the compounds made up of carbon and series.
hydrogen only. These are of two types: – It is used in oxyacetylene torch and for welding
in acetylene lamps.
[Link] Hydrocarbons or Paraffins or – Alkynes can be distinguished from alkenes by
Alkanes (Contain C—C Bond) the reaction with Tollen’s reagent (ammoniacal
silver nitrate).
• General formula C n H 2 n + 2 where, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
• All the carbon atoms in alkanes are sp 3 -hybridised. They Aromatic Hydrocarbons
show chain isomerism. • General formula C nH 2 n − 6
• Methane, CH 4 is the first and least reactive member of the
• Common name Arenes
series. Its source is wet and marshy land. It is also present
in the air exhaled by animals whose food contains cellulose. • Most of these compounds contain benzene ring. e.g.
• Cavities in coal contains 90% methane. It is called benzene, toluene, naphthalene, etc.
fire-damp. It is responsible for the explosions occurring in • Benzene (C 6 H 6 ) was first synthesised by Berthelot. It
coal mines. is used in the production of various organic
• It is used as a gaseous fuel, for preparing carbon black and compounds, as a solvent and fuel in motor vehicle
in the preparation of variety of organic compounds. when mixed with petrol, etc.

2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbon Derivatives

Contains C C or C C Bond 1. Haloalkanes



These further are of two types : • General formula C n H 2 n + 1⋅ X (where, X = Cl, Br, I)
Type formula These are of three types:
(i ) Alkenes or Olefins C C




Primary alkyl halide, R—CH 2 —X

– General formula CnH 2 n
R2
Type formula R CH == CH 2
– Common name Alkylene, IUPAC name Alkenes. Secondary alkyl halide, R1 CH X
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 655

R2 • Ethanol changes the colour of sodium or potassium

dichromate from orange to green. It is also used in the
Tertiary alkyl halide, R1 C X manufacture of paints, varnishes, in making transparent soop
in the preparation of chloroform, as a fuel in internal
R3 combustion engines. It is used in alcoholic drinks, whisky,
wine, beer, etc.
• Common name Alkyl halide;
IUPAC name Haloalkane. 3. Ethers
• Trihalo methane are called haloforms, e.g. • General formula Cn H 2 n + 2 ⋅ O
chloroform (CHCl 3 ), iodoform (CHI 3 ), etc.
• Common name Dialkyl ether
• Chloroform oxidises to COCl 2 (carbonyl chloride
or phosgene gas) in the presence of air and light.
• IUPAC name Alkoxy alkane
So, it is kept in closed dark coloured bottles and • Ethers behave like Lewis bases.
mixed with ethyl alcohol which acts as negative • Diethyl ether (C2H5OC2H5 ) is used as an industrial solvent
catalyst and form non-poisonous, ethyl carbonate and also as an anaesthesia.
with COCl 2 .
• Chloroform is used as a general anaesthetic. 4. Aldehydes
• Chloropicrin (CCl 3 ⋅ NO2 ) is used as an insecticide • General formula Cn H 2 n + 1CHO or Cn H 2 nO ;
and also called tear gas. Carbon tetrachloride • IUPAC name Alkanal
(CCl 4 ) is used for extinguishing fire under the name • 40% solution of formaldehyde is called formalin and used in
pyrene. the preservation of dead animals.
• Ethylene dibromide is added to petrol in place of • Benzaldehyde is almond extract.
tetraethyl lead to save the environment from lead • Paraldehyde (a carbonyl compound) is used as a hypnotic.
pollution.
• Eugenol is an active component of clove oil.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (freons or CFC) are used as
refrigerants. They contain carbon, chlorine, 5. Ketones
hydrogen and fluorine and destroy the ozone layer. • General formula C nH 2 nO or (C nH 2 n+1 )2 O
2. Alcohols • IUPAC name Alkanone.
• Ketones containing — COCH 3 (methyl ketonic group) gives
• General formula C nH 2 n + 1 ⋅ OH
yellow colour (iodoform) in iodoform test.
• Common name Alkyl alcohol; • Acetone (CH 3COCH 3 ) is the first member of this class.
IUPAC name Alkanol. • Acetone is used as nail polish remover. However, now-a-days,
• Primary alcohol is R—CH 2 OH, secondary alcohol acetone free removers are in common use. Its main ingredient
is R2 CH  OH and tertiary alcohol is R 3 C—OH. is ethyl acetate or butyl acetate.
• Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) is used as paint stripper.
• Lucas reagent (conc. HCl + anhydrous ZnCl 2 ) is
• Aldehydes and ketones having α-hydrogen atom
used to distinguish between primary, sec and
tert-alcohols. give aldol condensation. Such carbonyl compounds which
have α-hydrogen atom undergo condensation in the presence
• CH 3 OH is produced by the destructive distillation of dilute base to form aldol.
of wood, hence also known as, wood spirit, methyl
alcohol, methanol or carbinol. It is used as a 6. Carboxylic Acids
solvent for paints and varnishes, in making dyes,
drugs, perfumes and also used as motor fuel with • General formula C n H 2 n + 1 ⋅ COOH or Cn H 2 nO2 ;
petrol. IUPAC name Alkanoic acid.
• The destructive distillation of wood yields wood • First member of the carboxylic acid series is formic acid,
gas (gaseous), tar (liquid), charcoal (solid residue), HCOOH, which is present in ant’s or bee’s sting.
methyl alcohol (liquid) and acetic acid (vinegar). • HCOOH is the strongest acid among the carboxylic acids.
• Various products obtained by the destructive • CH 3 COOH is the ethanoic or acetic acid (vinegar).
distillation of coal are coal gas (H 2 + CH 4 + CO),
• Vinegar contains 6-10 % acetic acid. Acetic acid is used in the
ammoniacal liquor, coal tar and coke.
manufacture of rubber from latex and casein from milk. It is
• CH3 CH2 OH is ethyl alcohol or ethanol or grain used for coagulation.
alcohol. It is made unfit for drinking purpose by
adding methanol or pyridine. Such alcohol is called • Lactic acid is α-hydroxy propanoic acid. It is present in milk
methylated spirit or denatured alcohol. and provides it sour taste.
656 CDS Pathfinder

• Citric acid is a hydroxy tricarboxylic acid. It is present in • These are used in making artificial perfumes,
citrus fruits. flavours and essence used in cold drinks,
• Oxalic acid removes rust stains. ice-creams, etc.
• Sodium benzoate is used as a food preservative.
• Salicylic acid is used to prepare aspirin (o-acetyl salicylic acid).
• These have characteristic sweet fruity smell.
7. Esters Ester Flavour Ester Flavour
• General formula CnH 2 n+1COOR or CnH 2 nO 2 Amyl acetate Banana Isoamyl valerate Apple
• IUPAC name Alkyl alkanoate. Octyl acetate Orange Methyl butyrate Pineapple

MAN-MADE MATERIALS
SOAPS 3. Semi-synthetic Polymers These are synthesised by
Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of long chain man from natural substances, e.g. rayon (a polymer of
cellulose nitrate) is also called artificial silk due to its
carboxylic (fatty) acids (RCOONa) e.g. sodium palmitate
silk like appearance.
(C15H 31COONa), sodium stearate (C17H 35COONa ) and
sodium oleate (C17H 33COONa) etc. Animal fat or On the basis of intermolecular forces, these are classified as:
vegetable oil, sodium hydroxide, sodium chloride act as the 1. Elastomers In these polymers, the polymer chains
raw materials for the manufacture of ordinary soap. The are held together by weak van der Waals’ forces, e.g.
process of making soap is called saponification. vulcanised rubber.
• Soaps do not form lather with hard water due to the 2. Fibres In this type, polymer chains are attached with
formation of scum. one another through H-bonds, e.g. nylon-6,6.
• When the medium is acidic, soaps form insoluble long 3. Thermoplastics In these, the intermolecular forces
chain fatty acids and hence, lost their cleansing action. are intermediate of elastomers and fibres. These are
soften on heating and become hard on cooling, e.g.
polystyrene, polythene, PVC, etc.
DETERGENTS 4. Thermosetting These are highly cross-linked, hard,
• These are also called “soap-less” soaps as they do not non-fusible and insoluble polymers. These can only be
contain any soap. moulded into desired shape on heating once. e.g.
• These are the long chain benzene sulphonic acid or the
bakelite (phenol-formaldehyde resin), melamine, etc.
sodium salt of the long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
Some Important Synthetic Polymers
• Long chain hydrocarbons, sulphuric acid and sodium
• Polyethylene (polythene) The monomer units are
hydroxide are the raw materials for the manufacturing of
ethylene molecules. It is frequently used in making
detergents.
• These are non-biodegradable and cause water pollution
coats, milk cartons and electrical insulation.
However, straight chain detergents are biodegradable. • Polystyrene The monomer units are styrene molecules.
• They form lather with soft as well as hard water. It is a white thermoplastic material and is used for
making toys, combs, lining material for refrigerators and
Polymers TV cabinets.
• Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene) The monomer unit is
A polymer is a compound of high molecular weight
formed by the union of a large number of molecules of tetrafluoroethylene molecule. It is very tough material. It
one or two types of low molecular weight (known as is a bad conductor of electricity and is used in coating
monomers) and the process involving the formation of a utensils, making seals, baskets, pipes, flooring, etc.
polymer is called polymerisation. • Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) The monomer units are
vinyl chloride molecules. PVC is a hard, horny material.
Types of Polymers It is resistant to chemicals as well as heat. It is used for
On the basis of their origin, the polymers are classified in making raincoats, hand bags, electrical insulators and floor
the following manner: covering.
1. Natural Polymers These are found in nature, e.g. • Nylon or Nylon-6, 6 It was first fully synthetic fibre
cellulose, starch, rubber, wool ,silk etc. and has good elasticity, low water absorption and
2. Synthetic Polymers These are prepared in the wrinkle resistant. It has also high tensile strength. It is
laboratory by synthetic means, e.g. polythene, nylon, used in making fishing nets, tyre cord, parachute fabrics,
orlon, dacron, etc. ropes, etc.
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 657

• Phenol-formaldehyde Resins (Bakelite) These are Some Important Fertilisers

made by the reaction of phenol and formaldehyde in the • Basic Calcium Nitrate (Nitrate of lime)
basic medium. Bakelite is a cross-linked thermosetting
[CaO ⋅ Ca(NO3 )2 ] It is a good nitrogeneous fertiliser, used
polymer. It is used for making combs, fountain pen
in acidic soil.
barrels, electrical goods making electrical appliances,
• Ammonium Sulphate [(NH4 )2 SO4 ] It contains 21.2%
handles of crockery, etc. Sulphonated bakelites are used
as ion-exchange resins for softening of hard water. nitrogen. Its repeated use makes the soil acidic and
• Rubber It is a polymer of isoprene (2-methyl buta-1, unfit for the germination of seeds. Hence, addition of
3-diene). It is insoluble in water, dilute acids and alkalis, lime to the soil becomes necessary.
absorbs a large amount of water, has low tensile strength • Calcium Cynamide [CaCN 2 ] (Nitrolim) It is black in
and elasticity. colour because of the presence of carbon. It contains
• Neoprene It is a synthetic rubber which resembles 19% nitrogen.
natural rubber in its properties. It is obtained by the • Urea [NH 2 CONH 2 ](Carbamide) It contains 46.6%
polymerisation of chloroprene (2-chlorobuta-1, 3-diene). nitrogen. It is the best nitrogeneous fertiliser as it leaves
It is superior to natural rubber in its stability. only carbon dioxide after ammonia has been assimilated
Easy availability of raw materials from products of by plants. Its repeated use does not change the pH of
petroleum refining industries lead to growth of synthetic the soil.
rubber. It is generally used for making hoses, shoe heels, • Superphosphate of Lime
stoppers, etc. [Ca(H 2 PO4 )2 + 2CaSO4 ⋅ H 2 O] It is phosphatic fertiliser.
• Buna-S It is a copolymer of 1, 3-butadiene and • Vermicompost It is the product or process of
styrene. It is also known as SBR (Styrene-Butadiene composting by using various species of worms, usually
Rubber). It has slightly less tensile strength than natural red wigglers, white worms and earthworms to create a
rubber. It is used in the manufacturing of automobile heterogeneous mixture of decomposing vegetables or
tyres, rubber soles, etc. food, bedding material and vermicant containing water
• Terylene or dacron or phthalate It is a polymer of soluble nutrients. Vermicompost is an excellent, nutrient
ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid, i.e. it is a rich organic fertiliser and soil conditioner.
polyester. It is used for making wash and wear fabrics, • Magnesium, manganese and sulphur are the
tyre cords, safety belts, tents, etc. macronutrients which are provided by the inorganic
fertilisers.
• Vulcanisation of Rubber It is the process of heating of
rubber with sulphur. It makes the rubber hard, strong
and more elastic. FUELS
• Kevlar It is a polymer of terephthalic acid and The substances which on combustion produces energy in
1,4-diaminobenzene so, it is a polyamide. It is used for the form of heat, is called a fuel, e.g. coal, wood, kerosene,
making bulletproof vests. petrol, diesel, cooking gas, etc. Fuel efficiency is expressed
• Lexan or polycarbonate It is a polymer of diethyl in terms of calorific value (kJg −1 ).
carbonate and bi-phenol. It is used in making • Sulphur compound (ethyl mercaptan or thioethanol) is
bulletproof windows and safety helmets. added to odourless LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) for
imparting a detectable smell to the gas.
• Polyurethanes It is a polymer of toluene diisocyanate
• LPG contains mainly butane alongwith some propane.
and ethylene glycol. It is used for making washable and
long lasting mattresses, cushions, pillows , etc. CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) contains mainly
methane and is used as a fuel in many vehicles because it
• Lucite It is a polymer of methyl methacrylate. It is used produces less pollutants therefore , it is a better fuel than
for making contact lenses. Plexiglass, acrylite or perspex petrol or diesel.
are other terms used for lucite. • Petrol is used as a fuel to run cars and aeroplanes
• Orlon or Acrilon Polyvinyl Cyanide It is a polymer whereas diesel is used to run trucks, buses, trains and
of vinyl cyanide or acrylonitrile. It is used as a substitute ships.
for wool in making synthetic blankets (acrylic fibres). • Quality of petrol or gasoline is expressed in terms of
octane number and of diesel in terms of cetane number.
FERTILISERS • Synthetic rubber, liquid ammonia, liquid hydrogen are
used as propellants.
Repeated cultivation of crops makes the soil deficient in • Acetylene is a fuel used in gas welding. It is used to
some elements, mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and weld and cut the metals that have a temperature of
potassium. The substances which are added to the soil to 300 °C of a flame.
make up the loss of these elements are called fertilisers.
658 CDS Pathfinder

Renewable and Non-renewable black because of the presence of unburned carbon particles.
Middle region is yellow luminous due to partial combustion.
Resources Outermost region is blue due to complete combustion of fuel
• Natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural which is the hottest part of the flame.
gas take thousands of years to from naturally and
cannot be replaced as fast as they are being Paint
consumed. It is a non-renewable resource.
It is a mixture of four ingredients, viz, binder, solvent,
• Natural resources such as solar energy, water and pigment and additives (like driers, plasticisers, emulsifiers,
fisheries are renewable resources. corrosion inhibitors, etc).
• Binders are polymers (resins) forming a continuous film on
Petroleum the surface of the substrate. These are responsible for good
It is dark oily liquid also called rock oil, mineral adhesion. Resins, chlorinated rubber, latex (PVA) are the
oil, crude oil or black gold. On fractional distillation, it examples of binders.
gives different substances at different temperatures.
• Solvent (water or organic solvents like toluene, ketone,

Biogas or Gobar Gas alcohol, etc.,) is a medium where all other ingredients of
paint are dispersed in molecular form (true solutions) or as
The gaseous mixture obtained by the degradation of
animal and plant wastes by anaerobic microorganisms colloidal dispersion (emulsions).
in the presence of water is called biogas. It is a • Pigments are responsible for imparting colour to the paint.
convenient fuel for domestic use. It is used for street It may also protect the substrate from UV light.
lighting.
• Ultramarine blue is the natural pigment made up of
• Constituents of biogas are methane (45-70%), carbon
semiprecious mineral lapis lazuli. It is resistant towards
dioxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide.
fading.
• Gobar gas is produced by the fermentation of cow
dung. It contains CH 4 (main component), CO 2 and H 2 . Pigment added Colour of paint
Chromium oxide Green
➨ Note Bagasse is the fibrous matter remains after sugarcane
stacks are crushed to extract their juice. It is used as a biofuel Vermillion or cuprous oxide Red
and as a substitute for wood in many tropical and subtropical Cobalt oxide Blue
countries for the production of pulp, paper, board, etc.
Titanium dioxide White

Flame Benzidine yellow Yellow to red

A flame is a region where combustion of gaseous Iron (II) oxide Black

substances take place. Innermost region of flame is

ENVIRONMENT AND ITS POLLUTION

Air Air Pollution
• Composition of air is nitrogen (78.084%), oxygen It is due to the presence of foreign undesirable substances in
(20.946%), argon (0.934%), carbon dioxide (0.033%) air. The substance which causes pollution is known as
and small amount of other gases. Region of air present pollutant. Main air pollutants are SO 2 , CO, nitrogen oxides,
around the earth is called atmosphere. particulates, etc.
• Main layers from the surface of earth towards upward Carbon monoxide CO combines with the haemoglobin of the
(a) Troposphere (b) Stratosphere blood about 300 times more readily as compared to oxygen
(c) Mesosphere (d) Thermosphere and forms a stable carboxyhaemoglobin complex due to which
• Most of the atmospheric air is present in troposphere. supply of oxygen is restricted which results in headache,
• Ozone layer present in the stratospheric region nervousness, asphyxia and even death in some cases.
(at a height of about 20 to 40 km) protects the living Major gaseous air pollutants:
beings from the harmful UV radiations coming from (a) Oxides of carbon
the sun. Due to high concentration of ozone, this (b) Oxides of nitrogen
region is also known as ozonosphere.
(c) Oxides of sulphur
• In 1775, French scientist Lavoisier performed (d) Hydrocarbon (esp CH 4 )
experiments on composition of air.
GENERAL SCIENCE Chemistry 659

Methyl isocyanate (CH 3NC) is responsible for the Bhopal – Burning of sulphur alongwith coal results in the
gas tragedy (in 1984). In which thousands of people were formation of oxides of sulphur as
killed. It was a case of serious air pollution in which MIC S + O 2 Æ SO 2
(Methyl Isocyanate) gas released from a pesticide 1
SO 2 + O 2 Æ SO 3
manufacturing plant of union carbide. 2
when sulphur trioxide (SO 3 ) reacts with water of douds
Smog it forms acid, hence causes acid rain
The word smog is derived from smoke and fog. It is of SO 3 + H 2O Æ H 2SO 4
two types : – Acid rain damages the marble buildings (Taj Mahal) and
1. Classical Smog It is also called London smog. It is monuments, corrodes metal pipes and results in several
formed in cool humid climate and is reducing in diseases.
nature. Acid rain reacts which buildings made from limestone
and causes its decomposition
2. Photochemical Smog It is also called Los Angeles
smog. It is formed in warm, dry and sunny climate CaCO 3 + H 2SO 4 Æ CaSO 4 + CO 2 + H 2O
and is oxidising in nature. • Ozone Layer Depletion Thinning of ozone layer
because of its reaction with chlorine free radicals usually
Particulates generated by chlorofluorocarbons is called ozone layer
These are minute solid particles and liquid droplets depletion.
dispersed in air such as mists, dusts, smoke , etc. – Hypochlorous acid and chlorine on photochemical

Diseases Caused by Particulates decomposition also produce nascent chlorine

(Cl • or chlorine free radical) which causes ozone
Disease Cause
depletion in the following manner:
Pneumoconiosis Coal dust hν
Silicosis Silica (from ceramics, HOCl ( g ) Æ • OH ( g ) + Cl • ( g )
glass and pottery
industry) hν
Cl 2 ( g ) Æ 2 Cl •( g )
Black lung Coal mines
disease CF2Cl 2 Æ •CF2 + Cl •
White lung Textile industries – The released chlorine free radical reacts with ozone
disease
breaking it into molecular oxygen.
Asbestosis Asbestos
Cl • + O 3 Æ ClO • + O 2
Byssinosis Cotton fibre dust
Melanosis Hyperpigmentation due 2ClO • + O 2 Æ 2Cl • + 2O 2
to increased
concentration of melanin Water Pollution
Water pollution is due to the presence of foreign substances,
Consequences of Air Pollution i.e water pollutants in water.
• Greenhouse effect It is the heating up of earth and its • Cholera, dysentery, typhoid, etc., are water-borne diseases
objects due to trapping of infrared radiations (IR) by caused by bacteria.
greenhouse gases present in atmosphere like CO 2 , CH 4 ,
• Mercury causes minimata disease, chromium and arsenic
NO, O 3 , chlorofluorocarbon and water vapours.
causes cancer and cadmium causes itai-itai disease.
• Global Warming It is due to increased concentration
• Presence of excessive fluoride leads to dental fluorosis, i.e.
of greenhouse gases. It may lead to melting of ice caps
developmental disturbance of dental enamel.
and glaciers, spreading of several infectious diseases like
malaria, sleeping sickness, etc. • The usual effect of agricultural run off due to the
excessive increase of nutrients such as nitrogen,
• Since, the late 19th century, the temperature of
phosphorus etc., in an ecosystem like ponds or results in
atmosphere increases due to the increase in
excessive algal growth in affected water bodies. It is called
CO 2 concentration which is responsible for the
eutrophication.
expansion of water in the ocean.
• For clean water, DO (Dissolved Oxygen) is 5-6 ppm and
• Acid Rain The pH of normal rain water is 5.6-6.5 due
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) is less than 5 ppm.
to the dissolution of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. When the pH of rain water is below 5, it • Recycling, sewage treatment, incineration are some
is called acid rain (by Robert Augus). strategy to control water pollution.
– The main cause of acid rain is oxides of sulphur and ➨ Presbycusis is gradual hearing loss in both ears that commonly
nitrogen (H2 SO4 and HNO 3 ). occurs in aged people but noise pollution also lead to it.
GENERAL STUDIES History

01
HISTORY
After analysing the previous year question papers, we have noticed that around 12-15 questions are asked
from the History section. From Ancient India, questions are asked from topics like Harappan civilization,
Rig Vedic age, Mauryan age, Six Indian philosophies, Gupta age, Literature during Ancient era. Questions
from Medieval India covers the topics like Delhi Sultanate, Mughal empire, Foreign travellers during
medieval age, Maratha empire, Vijayanagar empire, Art, Architecture and Literature. From Modern India,
questions are mainly asked from the Indian National Movement. Topics from World History asked in the
paper includes American war of Independence, Russian revolution, French revolution, World Wars I and II.

PART I ANCIENT INDIA

THE PRE-HISTORY OR STONE AGE
The age, when the pre-historic man began to use stones for utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone age.
The Stone age is divided into four category—the Paleolithic age or the Old Stone age, the Mesolithic age or
the Middle Stone age, the Neolithic age or the New stone age and the Chalcolithic age.

1. The Paleolithic Age

• The Paleolithic culture of India developed in the pleistocene period or the Ice age. The Paleolithic men
belonged to the Negrito race. Homo Sapiens first appeared in the last phase of this age.
• Paleolithic men were hunters and food gatherers. They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery,
they used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones and lived in cave rock shelters. They are also called
Quartzite men. In India, Uttar Bahini in the Jammu area has revealed early paleolithic artifacts in the
upper Shiwaliks.
• According to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and change in the climate. This age
is divided into three phases, like Early or Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic.
754 CDS Pathfinder

• The people of Chalcolithic culture were the first to use

2. The Mesolithic Age painted pottery. Black and red pottery painted with
• It is a transition phase between the Paleolithic age and white line design was most popular. The ceramics
the Neolithic age. The Mesolithic people lived on obtained from malwa is considered the richest among the
hunting, fishing and food gathering. At a later stage they Chalcolithic ceramics.
also domesticated animals. • Important sites of this phase are spread in Rajasthan,
• The characteristics tools of the Mesolithic age are Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh etc.
microliths, pointed cresconic blades, scrapers etc made
up of stones.
• Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
provide the earliest evidence for the domestication of
animals. Indus Valley Civilisation is one of the four earliest
civilisations of the world along with the civilisations of
• The people of Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages practiced
Mesopotamia, Egypt and China.
painting. Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a striking site
• The civilisation forms part of the Protohistory of India
of Pre-historic painting.
and belongs to the Bronze age. Also called Harappan
civilisation because, first excavated site is Harappa.
3. The Neolithic Age – Time Period According to Radio Carbon dating
• The people of this age used tools and improved approximately 2350 BC, according to Wheeler 2500
implements of polished stone. They particularly used BC-1500 BC.
stone axes. – Extension From W-E (1550 km) Sutkagen dor in
• The neolithic settlers were the earliest farming Balochistan (Pakistan) to Alamgirpur in Meerut (Uttar
communities. They produced ragi and horse-gram Pradesh). From N-S (1100 km) Manda (Jammu and
(kulathi). They domesticated cattle, sheeps and goats. Kashmir) in North to Daimabad (Maharashtra) in
They wove cotton and wool to make clothes. Hand South.
made pottery and use of potter wheel first appears • In Indus Valley Civilisation basic administration
during the Neolithic age.
decisions were taken by group of people.
• Neolithic men lived in caves and decorated their walls with
hunting and dancing scenes. They knew the art of making
boats. In the later phase, people lived a more settled life
Town Planning
and lived in circular and rectangular houses made of mud • It was not uniform. A unique feature was the grid
and reed. It is interesting that in Burzahom domestic system i.e. streets cutting across one another at right
dogs were buried with their masters in their graves. angles, dividing the town into large rectangular blocks.
• Koldihwa in Uttar Pradesh revealed a three fold cultural • The towns were divided into two parts: upper part or
sequence i.e. Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron age. citadel and lower part.
Mehrgarh in Balochistan is the oldest Neolithic site in • The fortified citadel on the Western side housed public
Pakistan (7000 BC). buildings and members of ruling class.
• Important sites include Chotanagpur region, Central • Below the citadel on the Eastern side, lay the lower
India and South of the Krishna river. Belan valley of town inhabited by the common people.
Vindhays and middle part of the Narmada valley shows • Underground Drainage System connected all houses to
all the three phases of Stone age. the street drains.
The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) It was used for
4. The Chalcolithic Age •
religious bathing. Steps at either end leads to the surface.
• The end of the Neolithic period saw the use of metals. There were changing rooms alongside.
Copper was the first metal to be used. Chalcolithic • The Granaries (Harappa) Six granaries in a row were
culture refers to the stone-copper phase. People also found in the citadel at Harappa.
used hand-axes and other objects made up of
copperware.
• Houses were made up of burnt bricks. They were often
two or more storeyed, varied in size, with a square
• Chalcolithic people were primarily rural communities. courtyard around, which had a number of rooms.
They domesticated animals and practised agriculture. Windows did not face the main streets. They had tiled
They were not acquainted with burnt bricks and lived in bathrooms.
thatched houses. They venerated the mother Goddess
and worshipped the bull.
• Lamp-posts were erected at regular intervals. It indicates
the existence of street lighting.
GENERAL STUDIES History 755

Major Harappan Sites, their Excavators and Findings Social Life

Name of • It was a highly developed urban way of life.
Excavator(s) Region/River Excavational Findings
Sites
Society principally consisted of middle class
Harappa Dayaram Montgomery district Rows of six granaries, stone urban people. Presence of various classes like
Sahni (1921) of Punjab lingam and yoni figurines, virgin priests, merchants, craftsmen, peasants and
(Pakistan) on the goddess seal, wheat and barley in
left bank of the river wooden mortar, nude dancing labourers can be seen.
Ravi male and female made of stone, • The dress of the men consisted of two
dancing Nataraja
garments, the upper and the lower cotton
Mohenjodaro RD Banerjee Larkana district in Pashupati seal, bronze image of a garments, which were generally used. Wool
(1922) Sindh on the right dancing girl, three cylindrical
bank of Indus seals, mother goddess figurines, was also used. Different kinds of necklaces
(Pakistan) seated male sculpture of the have been discovered. Bracelets were used quite
Priest King, the Great Granary and commonly. The vanity case found at Harappa
the Great Bath
reveals, that the Harappan women knew the art
Chanhudaro M Gopal Situated in Sindh Shops of shell ornament makers, of wall painting.
Majumdar, on the bank of the bead makers, metal workers
Mackey (1931) Indus river (metals so, discovered were gold, • They domesticated buffaloes, bulls, oxens,
silver, tin, copper etc.) sheeps, asses, goats, elephants, pigs and dogs.
Kalibangan A Ghosh Situated in Seven fire altars, a ploughed field, • Harappans produced wheat, barley, pulses etc.
(1953-60) Rajasthan on the cylindrical seals, wheels of toy In some areas evidence of rice have been found.
left bank of the river carts, houses with their own wells,
Ghaggar black bangles
Rangpur Rangnath Rao Situated on the left Rice was cultivated
Trade and Commerce
(1953-54) bank of Mahi river Internal (in India) as well as external (foreign)
(Gujarat)
trade prevailed during Harappan Civilisation.
Ropar YD Sharma Situated in Punjab Evidence of burying a dog with a No metallic money but barter system was
(1953-54) on the banks of the human burial
river Sutlej practised.
Surkotada JP Joshi Situated in Kutch Provides the first actual remains
• Agriculture, industry and forest produce
(1954) (Bhuj) (Gujarat) of horse bones, bead making provided the basis for internal and external
shops trade.
Lothal Rangnath Rao Situated in Gujarat Only site with an artificial brick • Weights and measure of Harappa were made of
(1957) on the confluence dockyard, Persian Gulf seal, limestone, steatite etc. They were in the
of the Sabarmati terracotta model of Egyptian
and Bhargava mummies, sacrificial fire altar, multiples of 16.
rivers near the Gulf remains of rice husk, the only • The inter-civilisational trade is evident from the
of Cambay other site with remains of rice
husk being Rangpur (Ahmedabad) mention of word ‘Meluha’ (probably Indus
valley) in the Sumerian literature.
Banawali RS Bisht Situated on the left Terracotta model of the plough,
(1973) bank of the river good quality of barley
Mesopotamian cylindrical seals have been
Saraswati found from Mohenjodaro.
Dholavira BB Lal (1959), Situated in Gujarat Giant reservoirs, dams and
RS Bisht in the Rann of embankments unique water Art and Craft
(1990-91) Kutch management systems,
10-alphabet sign board, • Harappans used stone tools and were well
Megalithic burials acquainted with bronze. Bronze was made by
mixing copper (from Khetri) with tin.
Religion • Bead Making and jewellery of gold, silver
precious stone were made. Cotton fabrics were
The chief male deity was Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto shiva), which used in summers and woollen in winters.
is represented on a seal surrounded by elephant, tiger, rhino and
buffalo (all facing in different direction) and two deers appear at his
• Both men and women were very fond of
ornaments and dressing up.
feet.
• Pottery both plain (red) or painted (red and
• Female deity i.e. Mother Goddess—depicted in various style.
black) pottery was made. Pots were decorated
Symbolic worship was also there—Phallus worship, Yoni worship. with human figures, plants, animals and
• Evidence of fire worship was also found at Lothal, Kalibangan geometrical patterns and ochre was painted
and Harappa. Animal (Unicorn Bull) and tree worship (Pipal) also over it.
found there. • Seals were made of steatite pictures of one
• The harappans also believed in evil-powers and might have used horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinocerous, goat
amulets as protection against them. and elephant are found on the seals. They
marked ownership of property.
756 CDS Pathfinder

Script and Language The Aryans

• Script and language is undeciphered, script is The word Aryan is derived from Arya, which mean
pictographic in nature. Fish symbol is most favourably disposed towards new corners and later it implied
represented. high birth, but generally, it refers to a language and not race.
• Overlapping of the letters show that it was • There are many theories about the origin of these people.
written from right to left in the first line and then left The most accepted view is that they lived in the great
to right in the second line. The style is called steppe land which stretches from Poland to Central Asia.
boustrophedon. A signboard inscription bearing 10 They were semi-nomadic people. In 2nd millennium BC,
pictographs has been found from Dholavira in Gujarat. they started moving from their original home and
migrated Eastwards and Southwards.
Decline of • The Boghaz Koi inscriptions dated to 1400 BC gives the
information about peace treaty between the Hittites and
Indus Valley Civilisation the Mittanis rulers of the Hittani, in which the names of
It is believed by historians many factors contributed to the Vedic Gods Indra, Mitra, Nasatya and Varuna are
decline of this ancient civilisation. mentioned. This supports the view, of the Central Asian
homeland theory that Central Asia being the homeland, of
Decline of Indus Civilisation : Different Views Aryan. Vedic age was divided into two parts
Cause of Declines Thinkers
External Aggression Wheeler, Piggot, Gordan-childe Early Vedic or Rigvedic Age
Inundation MR Sahani • The main source of information for the study of early
Epidemic KVR Kennedy Vedic age people is the Rigveda. The founders of the
Vedic culture, were the Aryans, probably immigrant
Tectonic Disturbances (e.g. Dholavira) Marshall and Raikes
people whose first arrival in India is dated around
Sudden Decline Wheeler 2000-1500 BC.
Climatic Change RL Stein, AN Ghosh • The Rig Veda gives us information that Aryans first
Deforestation, scarcity of resources, Walter Fairservis settled at the region called ‘Sapta Sindhu or the land of
ecological imbalances seven rivers’ (Presently that region is — East Afghanistan,
Flood (e.g., Mohenjodaro) Marshal, SR Rao, Maickey Punjab and West Uttar Pradesh)-Indus, Jhelum, Ravi,
The destruction due to change in GF Holes
Chenab, Beas, Sutlej and Saraswati.
course of river Ghaggar
The Rig Vedic Economy
• Early Aryans were semi-nomadic and later on, they became
Contribution of cultivator. They gave great preference to the cattle, so the
Indus Valley Civilisation ruling class was warriors, who were able to fight for cattle.
• The Harappan Civilisation which flourished between • In cattle, ‘cow’ was preferable. The word ‘Gauri’ (cow) is
2600 BC and 1900 BC had major contributions. Some mentioned 176 times in Rig Veda. Many more terms
of them include standardised weight and measures, related with the word ‘Gau’ like Gavishti means search for
planned city construction, public buildings like Great cows, Godhuli for daughter are found. The term Aghanya
Bath. The Harappans worshipped fire, Mother goddess, (not to be killed) has been used for cows.
tree, phallus which was carried forward by the Aryans.
• The agricultural practise, use of seals for trade,
The Rig Vedic Society
ornaments and dresses were also great contribution of • The Rig vedic society was based on kinship. The early
Harappans. Hence, the impact of Harappan civilisation Aryans were essentially tribal and egalitarians. Tribe was
could be seen on socio, economic, political and called Jana. Society was patriarchal, male child (who
religious life of the people. fought for the cattle) was preferred.
• Existence of joint family pattern. Eldest male member of
the family was known as Kulapa.
THE VEDIC AGE • ‘Varna’ was the term used for colour and it seems that the
Aryan language speakers were fair and the indigenous
The history of Vedic Age is known largely through its inhabitants were dark in complexion.
religious texts, the vedas, which gave the period its name. • No evidence of caste system is found. Members of same
The vedas recorded not only the religion of the vedic family indulged in different occupation. This is well
people, but also details of their lives that give us a look illustrated in a hymn of 9th mandala. Non-Aryans were
at their Political, Social and Economic pattern. called Dasas or Shudras.
GENERAL STUDIES History 757

• Women possessed respectable status in the society, took

part in tribal assemblies, in religious sacrifices along with
The Later Vedic Age
their husbands. Child marriage was not in existence. The The expression later Vedic age comprises the far reaching
marriageable age was 16 or 17 years for girls. Polygamy changes and developments that took place in the religion,
and polyandry both existed, but monogamy was in social, economic and political conditions of the people
fashion. There was no Purdah system. during the period when the later Sanhitas Sama Veda,
• Widow remarriage and Niyoga prevailed in society. Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda and the Brahmanas, Arayank
and Upanishads were composed. The age is also known as
The Rig Vedic Polity Painted Grey Ware (PGW) iron phase.
• The head was the supreme of the tribe or Jana. He
Geographical Extent
worked on the collective response of the tribal
assemblies. Tribal assemblies were Sabha, Samiti, Gana • During the later Vedic period, Aryans moved into
and Vidhata. Vidhata was the oldest one. These Eastward and Southward areas. A study of the literature
assemblies upheld every important activity (like social, reveals that moving from Punjab, the Aryans settled in
military, religious, etc). Delhi and upper gangetic doab.
• The samitis were comprising the whole clan. The sabha • The story of Agni and Videha Madhava moving
was a selected group of elderly people. Vidhata was Eastward, as narrated in Satapatha Brahmana, gives a
engaged in redistributive functions. Chief was called proof of the Eastward march.
Gopati. Women were allowed in Sabha and Vidhata.
Social Life
• Vajrapati was the officer of pasture, led by Kulapa (the
• The four-fold division of society became clear-initially
family head) and Gramini in war. Senani was another
important functionary after Purohita. Military functions based on occupation, which later became hereditary
were performed by tribal units like rata, gana, grama. Brahmins (Priests), Kshatriyas (Warriors), Vaishyas
Tax known as Bali was voluntary. (Agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders) and Sudras (servers
of the upper three).
The Rig Vedic Religion • Women enjoyed freedom and respect, but their status
• The early vedic people were nature worshippers. Neither deteriorated compared to earlier time. The institution of
they had temples nor idols. They prayed by the means gotra appeared in this age first time. Gotra signified
of recitation of Mantra. descent from common ancestors.
• The motive of worship was to get Praja (children), Pasu • Concept of four Ashrams came into being it consisted
(cattle) and Dhana (wealth), till that time they didn’t four stages of life– Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
aspire for spiritual upliftment. Vanaprastha and Sanyas. Chariot racing was main sport
Rivers Mentioned in the Rig Veda and gambling was the main past time.

Rig Vedic Name Modern Name

Sindhus Indus
PURUSHASUKTA THEORY
Vitasta Jhelum
Purushasukta is a late hymn of 10th Mandal of Rigveda.
The hymn says that four persons originated from the
Askini Chenab
body of the Purusha or the primeval creator. The
Parushni Ravi Brahmana (mouth), the Kshatriya (arms), the Vaishya
Vipasa Beas (thighs) and the Shudra (feet).
Shatudri Sutlej
Gomal Gomati Political Organisation
Krumu Kurram • Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong
Drishadvati Ghaggar kingdoms. A regular army was maintained for the
Suvasthu Swat protection of kingdom.
Kubha Kabul • Powers of the king (Samrat) was increased. Importance of
Naditarna Saraswati assemblies declined. Women were no longer permitted to
Sadanira Gandak attend assemblies. The term ‘rashtra’ indicating territory
first appeared in this period.
Gods • References of priest (Purohita), Commander in chief
During Rig vedic period Agni, Indra, Varuna, Soma, (Senapati), Charioteer (Suta), Treasurer (Sangrahita), Tax
Dyaus, Ashwin, Pushan and Surya were the prominent collector (Bhagdugha), Chief queen (Mahisi) and the
gods. Usha, Aditi, Ratri and Sandhya were the worshipped game companion (Aksavapa).
goddess.
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Religion The Rig Veda

Rise of Vishnu alongside Rudra new Gods (Vishnu, It is divided into 10 books or mandalas. Mandala II to VII
Rudra, Prajapati etc) came into prominence. Rig Vedic are considered the oldest and known as family mandalas.
Gods (Indra, Varuna etc) lost prominence. Sacrifices Book I, VIII and X seem to be added later.
became more elaborate. Increase in the prestige and It dated 1500 BC-1000 BC. It has 1028 hymns written by
importance of priestly class. Emergence of new number of priestly families. The Rig Veda was written
philosophical concepts. when Aryans were still in Punjab. Book II to VII are
Sacrifices Performed in Later Vedic Period earliest and are attributed to Gritsamada, Vishvamitra,
Vasudeva, Atri, Bhardwaj, Vashishtha, Kanva and Angiras.
• Rajasuya Consecration Ceremony This conferred
Rig Veda is recited by Hotri. Gayatri mantri is in 3rd
supreme power on the king. The Rajasuya sacrifice
mandal of Rig Veda.
consists of five major ritual or ceremonies. Asvamedha
horse sacrifice which was meant to establish kings
supremacy over his neighbours. The Aitareya and
The Yajur Veda
Shatapatha Brahmana mention the names of some It is a ritualistic Veda. Written in prose, it deals with
monarchs, who performed the sacrifice. procedure for performance of sacrifices and contain rituals
as well as hymns. It is divided into Shukla Yajur Veda
• Ratnahanimasi Ceremony The king had to approach
(poetry) (including Vajasneyi samhita) and Krishna Yajur
dignitaries who lived in permanent dwellings. Vajapeya
Veda (prose and poetry) (Katha, Matriyani and Taittiriya,
chariot race which was meant to re-establish his
Vapisthal samhita in which mantra and Brahamanas part are
supremacy over his own people within the kingdom.
not separated). Yajur Veda is recited by Adhvaryu.
Pottery The Sama Veda
The later Vedic people used black and redware,
Word Sama derived from the root word saman means
black-strippedware, painted greyware pottery. Redware
melody/music. It has 1603 verses, but except 99, all the rest
was most popular with them and has been found almost
of the hymns have been borrowed from the Rig Veda. It
all over Western Uttar Pradesh. However, the most
contains Dhrupada Raga. The Sama Veda shows that the
distinctive pottery of the period is known as Painted
Aryans loved music and were not merely puritans. Sama
Greyware, which comprised bowls and dishes, used either
Veda is recited by udgatri.
for rituals or for eating by the upper classes.

Economic Life The Atharva Veda

The Atharva Veda is entirely different from the other three
• The shift towards Gangetic valley with the use of iron
Vedas and is the last of the four Vedas. The Satapatha
and fire made possible the growth of agriculture.
Brahmana used the term trayi, i.e. the Rig Veda, Yajur
Pastoralism was no longer the main subsistence activity
Veda and Sama Veda.
of the people, though cattle rearing was also practised.
Atharva Veda mentions beliefs and practices of non-Aryans.
• Shatapatha Brahmana describes the various stages of
It contains magical mantra etc. In it, the sabha and the
agriculture such as ploughing, sowing, reaping and
Samiti are described as sisters and the two daughters of
threshing. Both kharif and rabi crops were grown.
prajapati. This Veda is also known as Brahma Veda.
• Rice (Vrihi) and wheat (Godhuma) become the chief
crops of the later Vedic Aryans, though they continued Smriti Literature
to produce barley (Yava).
The Smriti literature contains following
The Brahamanas
VEDIC LITERATURE These are the prose commentaries on various Vedic hymns.
They explain the vedas in an orthodox way. They explain
• The word ‘Veda’ is derived from Sanskrit word vid,
the hidden meanings behind the hymns of Brahamans. They
meaning to know, signifying knowledge par excellence. are expressions of the cause (hetu). Shatapatha
The Vedic text are shruti i.e. directly revealed to authors Brahamana is the largest Brahamana book. It has the story
by God. of Madhav.
• Smritis are remembered and collected parts of literature
of later period. They are also called samhitas in the The Aranyakas
sense that they represent oral tradition of the time. The authors of the Aranyakas were sages dwelling in the
• Four vedas and their Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the forest and explained vedic texts for their pupils in the form
Aranyakas and the Upanishads form a class of literature of Aranyakas. So, these Aranyakas are known as forest
known as shruti. books. They form the concluding part of Brahamanas.
GENERAL STUDIES History 759

Upavedas SHAD DARSHAN

These are subsidiary Vedas dealing with secular subjects. (Six Systems of Philosophy)
Four important upavedas are as follow ●
Nyaya (Analysis) Gautam
i. Ayur Veda Pertains to medicine. ●
Vaisesika (Atomic characteristic) Kanada
ii. Dhanur Veda Pertains to art of warfare. ●
Sankhya (Enumeration) Kapil
iii. Gandharva Veda Pertains to music. ●
Yoga (Application) Patanjali
iv. Shilpa Veda Pertains to art and literature. ●
Purva Mimansa (Enquiry) Jaimini
Uttar Mimansa (Vedanta) Vyasa
The Upanishads
●

The term Upanishads indicates knowledge acquired

by sitting close to the teacher. Mahajanapadas
• Under it, many metaphysical topics were discussed, such During the age of Buddha, we find 16 large states called
as the origin of universe, the nature of God, the origin Mahajanapadas mentioned in Buddhist text Angkuttar
and death of mankind etc. Nikaya. These Mahajanapadas were either monarchical or
• They do not believe in orthodox rituals and sacrifices. republican in character.
On the contrary, they are the followers of Karma The sixteen Mahajanapadas are as follow
(Action), Atma (Soul) and God (Brahma). They are
spiritual and philosophical in nature. Also known as Mahajanapada Capital Mahajanapada Capital
Vedanta or the end of Vedas. They always preaches the Kashi Varanasi Kuru Hastinapur,
Indraprastha
Jnana marga (knowledge path). and Isukara
• Upanishads are 108 in number. Satyamev Jayate is Kosala Shravasti Panchala Ahichhatra
extracted from Mundako Upanishad. Brihadaranyaka and Kampilya
Upanishad provides the first reference of the idea of Anga Champa Matsya Viratnagar
rebirth. Later, this idea appears in full form in the Magadh Girivraj or Rajgriha Surasena Mathura
Chandogya upanishad.
Vajji Vaishali Ashmaka Pratisthana

Vedangas (Limbs of Vedas) Malla Kushinagar and

Pavapuri
Avanti Mahismati

• These are treatises on Science and Arts. The six vedangas Chedi Shuktamati Gandhara Taxila
are as follow Vatsa Kausambi Kamboja Rajpur ot
– Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarna Hataka
(grammar), Chanda (metrics), Nirukta (etymology),
Jyotisha (astronomy). Yaska’s Nirukta (5th century
BC) is the oldest linguistic text. RISE OF JAINISM AND
Epics BUDDHISM
Mahabharata It is believed to be written by Ved Vyas
During 5th-6th centuries BC two new religion emerged in
and is older than ‘Ramayana’. Originally Mahabharata
consisted of 880 verses then it was raised to 24000 the form of Jainism and Buddhism.
verses. The final compilation brought the number of
verses to 100000. Razmnama is translation of Jainism
Mahabharata in Persian language. • The founder of Jainism was Mahavira. He was born in
Ramayana It is known as Aadikavya, written by Valmiki 540 BC as Vardhamana (childhood name) at
in Sanskrit. In it, capital of Kaushal Mahajanapad, Kundagrama near Vaishali. His father Siddhartha was
Ayodhya (Saket) has been mentioned. Persian the head of a famous Kshatriya clan, and his mother,
translation of Ramayana is written by Badayuni. named Trishala, was the sister of Chetaka, the king of
Tamil translation of Ramayana is written by Kamban. Vaishali. He was also related to Bimbisara, the ruler of
It is also known as Bible of South India. Presently, Magadha, who had married Chellana, the daughter of
Ramayana have 24000 shlokas. Ramcharitmanas was
Chetaka.
written by Tulsidas in Awadhi language.
• During the early stages Mahavira joined a group of
Puranas The word ‘Purana’ means old. Writer of Puranas
is Lomharsh’s son Ugrvarsh. It was written in AD 4th ascetics called Nirgranthas. Parsa was the founder of this
century in Gupta age. Number of Puranas are 18. sect. Mahavira attained Kaivalya (perfect knowledge)
Oldest Purana is Matasya Purana. It tells about under sal tree, near village Jimbhikagrama, on the bank
Satvahana dynasty. In Purana, 10 avtar of Vishnu has of the river Rijupalika and died at the age of 72 at
been mentioned. Vayu Puran gives details about Gupta Pavapuri near modern Rajgir in 468 BC.
dynasty.
760 CDS Pathfinder

• After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of king • Second council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in the AD
Chandragupta Maurya (the founder Mauryan empire), a 512 under the leadership of Devardhi and resulted in
severe famine led to the migration of some Jains under final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
Bhadrabahu to the Deccan. Sthula bhadra remained in
North and allowed wearing white garments. Bhadrabahu Jain Literature
maintained nudity leading to division as Digambaras The sacred books of the Jainas are known as Siddhartha
(sky clad or naked) and Svetambaras (white clad). or Agama, it include
• There are 24 Tirthankaras in the history of Jainism. i. Twelve Angas ii. Twelve Upangas
Mahavir Swami was the last and the 24th Tirthankara of iii. Ten Prikarnas iv. Six Chhedasutras
Jainism.
v. Four Mulasutras vi. Two Sutra Granthas
Preachings of Mahavira They are written in Prakrit language. Among the Jaina
• Rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Vedic writers, the most important were Bhadrabahu
rituals. Did not believe in the existence of God. (Kalpa-Sutra), Siddhasena, Divakara, Manibhadra, Siddha,
Hemachandra (Parisistha Parvan), Nayachandra and
• Attainment of salvation (Moksha) by believing penance
Mallinath. The Jainas wrote narrative literature, kavyas,
and dying of starvation. Laid great emphasis on equality
novels, dramas and hymns.
or universal brotherhood.
• In Jainism, there are three Ratnas and they are called
the Way of Nirvana.
Buddhism
i. Right faith—Samyak Vishwas Founded by Gautam Buddha (Sakyamuni or Tathagat)
known originally as Siddhartha (childhood name).
ii. Right knowledge—Samyak Gyan
iii. Right conduct—Samyak Karma Buddha’s Life
• There are five main teachings of Jainism • He was born in 563 BC (widely accepted) in a sal
i. Non-injury (Ahimsa) groove of Lumbini garden in Kapilavastu. His mother
ii. Non-lying (Satya) was Mahamaya (a Kosalan princess) and his father was
iii. Non-possession (Aparigraha) Sudhodhana (of Sakya tribe).
iv. Non-stealing (Asteya) • Buddha’s name was Siddhartha and gotra was Gautama.
v. Observe continence (Brahmacharya) His mother died after 7 days of his birth and he was
brought up by his Step-mother Mahaprajapati Gautami.
• The first four principles were given by Parsavanath and
Devadutta was his cousin. Buddha’s wife was Yashodhara
fifth one i.e. Brahmacharya was added by Mahavira.
and she gave birth to their son Rahul. Buddha’s charioteer
Tirthankaras and their Symbols was Channa and favourite horse was Kanthak.
Name Symbol Name Symbol • He was moved by the misery, which people suffered in
Rishabha Bull Vimalnath Boar the world and looked for its solution. He left home at
Ajitnath Elephant Ananthnath Falcon the age of 29. This incident became famous as
Mahabhinishkramana– ‘great going forth’.
Sambharanath Horse Dharamnath Vajra
• He first became a disciple of Alara Kalam. Kalam was
Abhinandan Swami Monkey Shantinath Deer
the specialist of Samakhya philosophy. After sometime,
Sumathinath Curlew Kunthunath He-Goat
he left Alara and joined Rudraka. From there, he went
Padamprabhu Red Lotus Arnath Fish
to Uruvela and practised great penance. His conception
Suparshvanatha Swastik Mallinath Jar (Kalash) of religion was purely ethical.
Chandraji Prabhu Moon Muniswasth Tortoise • Buddha got enlightenment under the pipal tree known as
Suvidhinath Crocodile Naminath Blue Lotus Bodhi tree at Gaya in Bihar. He gave his first sermon at
Shitalnath Kalpa-Vriksha Neminath Conch Shell Sarnath (ancient name was Rishipattan) first sermon
Shreyansnath Rhinoceros Parsavanath Serpent (Snake) became famous by the name of Dharma Chakrapravartan
Vasupujya Buffalo Mahavira Lion
(or the turning of wheel of law).
• He spent his last days near Vaishali. At Pava, a man
Jain Councils named Chunda fed him pork, after eating it Buddha died
of dysentery at the age of 80 in 483 BC in Kushinagar,
• First council was held at Pataliputra (Bihar) by
the capital of Mallas. His death is known
Sthulbhadra, in the beginning of the 3rd century BC and
resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace 14 Mahaparinirvana i.e. final blowing out. His favourite
Purvas. disciple was Ananda.
GENERAL STUDIES History 761

Teachings of Buddha Buddhist Texts

• His four noble truths (Arya Satyas) Tripitakas refers to Buddhists scriptures, it includes Vinay
–The world is full of sorrows (Sabbam Dukham). Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
– The cause of sorrow is desire (Dwadash • Vinaya Pitaka It contains the rules and regulations of
Nidan/Pratitya Samutpada). monastic discipline for monks. An account of the life
– If desires are conquered, all sorrows can be removed and teaching of the Buddha is also given.
(Nirvana). • Sutta Pitaka Few discourses delivered by many
– This can be achieved by following the 8-fold path Buddhist scholars like Sariputta, Ananda and others are
(Ashtangika Marga). given in it. It lays down the principles of Buddhism. It
is a collection of Buddha’s sermon and is divided into
The second truth, is based on Buddha’s doctrine of
five groups.
Paticheha samutpada or Pratitya samutpada i.e. law of
dependent origination or causation. • Abhidhamma Pitaka Having the philosophy of
Buddha’s teachings. It investigates mind and matter to
• Eight-Fold Path (Ashtangika marga) help the understanding of things as they truly are
i. Right understanding ii. Right thought – Jatak Stories It tells about 550 previous births of
iii. Right speech iv. Right action Buddha.
v. Right livelihood vi. Right effort – Milindapanho A conversation among Greco-Bactrian
vii. Right mindfulness viii. Right concentration king, Menander and a Buddhist monk, Nagasena. It is
• Three Jewels (Triratnas) written in the form of question and answer type.
i. Buddha (the enlightened) ii. Dhamma (doctrine) – Kathavastu It is hinayana granth. It is the first book

iii. Sangha (order) written in Sanskrit language in Buddhist religion.

– Mahavibhashashastra Written by Vasumitra,
• Code of Conduct
encyclopedia of Buddhist religion.
i. Do not convert the property of others
– Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha In Pali language, it
ii. Do not commit violence
tells about the history of Sri Lanka.
iii. Do not use intoxicants
iv. Do not speak a lie Buddhist Councils
v. Do not indulge in corrupt practices • The First Council (483 BC) It was held at Sattapanni
• Belief in Nirvana Also known as moksha or salvation. It (Saptaparni) cave near Rajagriha under the chairmanship
refers to belief in the concept of ultimate bliss, whereby of Mahakassapa. Here Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka
the person gets freedom from the cycle of birth and were compiled by Upali and Ananda respectively.
death. Ajatashatru was the king at that time.
• Belief in Ahimsa Law of Karma and Madhya • The Second Council (383 BC) It was held at Vaishali
Marga/Madhyama Pratipada (the middle path). during the reign of Kalashoka, the king of Shishunaga
• Kutagorshala It is a place where Buddhist monks dynasty. The chairman was Sabakami. The monk of
discusses religious issues. Vaishali wanted some changes in the rites. It resulted in
division of sect into Sthavirvadins and Mahasamghikas.
Division of Buddhism • The Third Council (250 BC) It was held at
The Buddhism was divided into following sects Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka (the Mauryan
i. Hinayana or Lesser Wheel The followers of ruler). This council was held under the Presidentship of
Hinayana believed in the original teachings of Buddha. Mogaliputta Tissa, to revise the Buddhist texts.
They believed in individual salvation. They do not • The Fourth Council (AD 72) It was held during the
believe in idol-worship. reign of Kanishka (the Kushana ruler) in Kashmir under
ii. Mahayana or Greater Wheel The follower of the presidentship of Vasumitra and Ashwaghosha.
Mahayana sect believed in the heavenliness of Buddha Buddhism got divided into Hinayana and Mahayana.
and sought the salvation through the grace and help
of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. It came into existence Stupa and Vihara
during the reign of Kanishka. • Stupas are doomed monuments containing relies of the
iii. Vajrayana or Vehicle of Thunderbolt The followers Buddha. The stupas are carved with symbols of Buddha
of Vajrayana believed that salvation could be attained foot print, bodhi tree, vase.
by acquiring the magical powers i.e. Vajra. The chief • Viharas are monastery halls, which the monks would
divinities of their sect were Taras. Vajrayana became originally have used for study, solitary, meditation and
popular in Eastern part of India, particularly in Bengal communal worship.
and Bihar.
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• Nandas were fabulously rich and enormously

MAGADHA EMPIRE powerful. Maintained 200000 infantry, 60000 cavalry
and 6000 war elephants. This is supposed to have
The period from 6th to 4th centuries BC saw the struggle for check on Alexander’s army from advancing towards
supremacy among four Mahajanapadas-Magadha, Kosala, Magadha.
Vatsa and Avanti. The founder of Magadha was Jarasandha
and Brihadratha. But the growth started under the Haryankas. ALEXANDER’S INVASION
Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, Gaya and
●
Alexander (356 BC-323 BC) was the son of Philip of
parts of Shahabad and grew to be the leading state of the
Macedonia (Greece) who invaded India in 326 BC. At
time.
that time North-West India was split up into a number
Following are the causes for rise of Magadha of small independent states like Taxila, Punjab (kingdom
• Magadha become prominent under the leadership of of Porus), Gandharas etc.
Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty. Advantageous ●
Porus fought the famous Battle of Hydaspes (on bank
geographical location with both Rajgriha and Pataliputra of Jhelum) with Alexander. When Alexander reached
situated at strategic locations. Beas, his soldiers refused to go further, so he was
forced to retreat.
• Abundance of natural resources, such as iron enabled
●
He erected 12 huge stone altars on the Northern bank
Magadha rulers to equip with effective weapons. Use of
of Beas to mark the farthest point of his advance.
elephants on large scale in war. The alluvial soil of the Remained in India for 19 months and died in 323 BC
Gangetic valley and sufficient rainfall were very conducive at Babylon.
for agriculture.

Haryanka Dynasty The Mauryan Empire

Originally founded in 566 BC by the grandfather of The most immediate and unexpected by product of
Bimbisara, but actual foundation was laid by Bimbisara. Alexander’s invasion of North-West was that it hastened
Bimbisara He was contemporary of Buddha. He conquered the Mauryan conquest of the whole country.
Anga (East-Bihar) to gain control over trade route with
the Southern states. His capital was Rajgriha (Girivraja).
Chandragupta Maurya (321-298 BC)
He strengthened his position by matrimonial alliance • The founder of the Mauryan empire was Chandragupta
with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaishali and Madra. Maurya. He overthrew the last Nanda ruler,
His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings in Dhanananda with the help of Kautilya also known as
which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This Chanakya.
made Rajgir impregnable. • In 305 BC Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nicator
Ajatshatru Son of Bimbisara, killed his father and seized (the Greek ambassador), who surrendered a big
the throne. Annexed Vaishali and Kosala (annexed territorial part to him including Kabul, Afghanistan,
Vaishali with the help of a war engine, which was used Baluchistan and Herat also received a Greek
to throw stones.) Kosala was ruled by Prasenajit at that ambassador i.e. Megasthenese (wrote Indica having the
time. Buddha died during his reign; arranged the first description of Mauryan administration, society etc.)
Buddhist Council. • Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to
Udayin He founded the new capital at Pataliputra, situated Sravanabelagola with Bhadrabahu where he died by
at the confluence of the Ganga and Son. Starvation (Sallekhana Santhara) at Chandragiri hill.

Shishunaga Dynasty Bindusara (298-273 BC)

• Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was succeeded by
The son and successor of Chandragupta Maurya. Called
Kalasoka (II Buddhist Council held during his period). Amitraghata (slayer of foes) by Greek writers. He is
Dynasty lasted for two generations only. said to have conquered “the land between the two seas,”
i.e. the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. At the time of his
• Greatest achievement was the destruction of power of
death, almost the entire sub-continent came under the
Avanti. Last Ruler was Nandivardhan.
Mauryan rule. Greek Ambassador, Deimachus visited the
court sent by Antiochus.
Nanda Dynasty
• It is considered as first of the non-Kshatriya dynasties. Ashoka (273-232 BC)
Founder was Mahapadma Nanda. He added Kalinga to his • The son and successor of Bindusara. It is said that he
empire. He claimed to be the ekarat, the sole sovereign became king by killing his 99 brothers. When he
who destroyed all the other ruling princes. Alexander
became the king, Radhagupta, a Minister of Bindusara
attacked India in the reign of Dhana Nanda-the last ruler.
also helped him.
GENERAL STUDIES History 763

• Under Ashoka the empire reached its Zenith. And in Major Pillar Edicts
the history first time the entire Indian sub-continent These are a set of 7 edicts found at Allahabad, Meerut, Sopara,
came under a single umbrella (except extreme Lauriya Areraj, Lauriya Nandangarh and Rampurva. These
Southern India). He fought a battle known as Kalinga edicts are engraved on Monolithic pillars. Kausambi edicts are
War in 261 BC in the 8th year of his coronation, in known as Queen’s Edict. They indicate about donations given
which one lakh people died. by queen Karuvaki.
• Ashoka sent peace missionaries inside India as well Minor Pillar Edicts
as abroad. Ashoka Dhamma was made up of tenets
• Rummindei Pillar Inscription It mentions the exemption
of most of famous sect of that time though tenets
from Buddhism were predominant. of Lumbini (birth place of Buddha) from tax.
• Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription It is located in Kapilvastu. It
• Ashoka used his policy of Dhamma to promote
religious tolerance in society. He also used Dhamma informs about Ashoka increasing the size of stupa of
based policy to promote Buddhism in foreign land Buddha Konakamana to double of its former size.
and Dhamma as a foreign policy to promote peace. • Scheism Edict It is located at Kausambi, Sanchi and
• A stone portrait of Emperor Ashoka has been found Sarnath. It appeals for maintaining unity in Buddhist order.
at Kanaganahalli. This is situated near Bhima river in • Barabara Cave Inscriptions It is located in Bihar. They
Gulbarga district of Karnataka. speak about Ashoka’s donation of cave to the Ajivikas.
Ashoka’s Edicts
Ashokan edicts are inscribed either on pillars of stone
Later Mauryas
or on rocks. They consists of major and minor group. According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka ruled for 27 years.
They give information on the life and reign of the The disintegration of the Mauryan empire seemed to have set
king. in immediately after Ashoka’s death. The tenth and the last of
the Mauryas was Brihadratha, who was murdered by his
Major Rock Edicts General Pushyamitra Shunga. This was the end of Mauryan
• They are a set of 14 inscriptions found at 8 places– dynasty.
Dhauli, Girnar, Jauguda, Kalsi, Mansehra,
Shahbazgarhi, Sopara and Yerragudi. Mauryan Administration
• The major rock edicts also include two separate • The Mauryan state was a welfare state with highly
edicts found at Kalinga. They deal with Centralised Government. King was the Nucleus, assisted by
administration and ethics. Mantri Parishad, which included
i. Yuvaraj The crown prince.
Some Important Rock Edicts
ii. Gopa The Purohit Chief Priest.
Major Rock Edicts Content iii. Senapati Commander-in-Chief of army and other
MRE I Prohibition of animal sacrifice ministers.
MRE II Refers to Cholas, Pandyas, Satya putras and • Coins of Mauryan Empire was called Pana and it was made
Kerala putra (kingdom of South) and care for up of silver and copper.
man and animals
• The later Maurya’s and Post Maurya Kingdom started votive
MRE III Liberality to Brahmins inscription to record the religious offering made to
MRE IV Non-violence; courtesy to relations institutions and land grants made to official or any other
MRE V Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras citizen.
MRE VII Tolerance among all sects Facts about Mauryans by Megasthenese
MRE VIII Dhammayatras • According to Megasthenese, the administration of army was
MRE IX Charity, kinship, Dhamma carried by a board of 30 officers divided into six committees,
MRE XII Religious tolerance each consisting of five members. They are as follow
i. Army ii. Cavalry iii. Elephants
MRE XIII Kalinga war; Bheri Ghosha to Dhamma Ghosha
iv. Chariot v. Navy vi. Transport.
Minor Rock Edicts • Though, Megasthenese said that there was no slavery in
These are spread over 13 places i.e. Bairat, Brahmagiri, India, yet according to Indian sources slavery was a
Gavimath, Gujarra, Jatinga-Rameshwar, Maski, recognised institution during Mauryans reign.
Palkigunda, Maadagiri, Rupanath, Sasaram, Siddhapur, • Tamralipti in the Gangetic delta was the most prosperous
Suvarnagiri and Yerragudi. Bhabru Inscriptions is part on the East coast of India.
located at Bairat in Rajasthan and deals with Ashoka’s • Megasthenese in his Indica had mentioned 7 castes in Mauryan
conversion to Buddhism. society.
764 CDS Pathfinder

Art and Architecture • First evidence of land grants to Brahmins was found
(started by Satavahanas). Satavahanas built Nagarjuna
• Mauryan art is classified into two groups
Konda stupa and Amravati Stupa.
i. Popular/Folk Art Sculpture of Yaksha and Yakshini
• Mostly issued lead coins (apart from copper and
e.g. Yaksha of Parkham (Mathura), Yakshini from
bronze). Acted as a bridge between North and South
Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh) and Didarganj (Patna).
India. Satavahana rulers called themselves Brahmins.
ii. Royal/Court Art Royal Palace of Chandragupta They performed Vedic rituals and worshipped Gods
Maurya at Kumharar, Patna (Fa-hien referred it as the like Krishna, Vasudeva and others. However, they
creation of God), city of Patliputra, Ashokan pillars, also promoted Buddhism by granting land to the
stupas and caves. monks.
• Mauryans introduced stone masonry on large scale. Pillars • The two common religious constructions were the
represent the masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture, e.g. Buddhist temple that was called Chaitya and the
– Single lion capital at Rampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh. monastries, which was called Vihara. The most
– Four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi. famous Chaitya is that of Karle in West Deccan.
– Carved elephant at Dhauli and engraved elephant at • Their provinces were called Ahara, as it was in
Kalsi. Ashoka’s time. Their officials were known as amatyas
• Stupas were built throughout the empire to enshrine the and mahamatyas, as they were known in Mauryan
relics of Buddha e.g. Sanchi and Bharhut. times.
• Varanasi was the best producer of silk.
Chedis
• Chedis capital was Kalinganagara.
POST MAURYAN PERIOD • The greatest and the most powerful king of the
dynasty was Kharvela. His capital was Kalinganagara.
Mauryans were succeeded by many ruling dynasties from • The only source of information about the king
Central Asia in North-West India and by native rulers
Kharvela is the Hathigumpha inscription written in
(Sungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas) in the Eastern, Central and
Prakrit language and Brahmi script. In the 9th year of
Deccan region of India.
his reign Kharvela built Mahavijaya Prasad (place of
Great Victory) on both the banks of the river Prachi,
The Shunga Dynasty (185 BC-73 BC) in order to commemorate his victories in the North.
• Pushyamitra founded this dynasty. His dominions extended
• In the 13th year of his reign, Kharvela undertook
to South as far as the Narmada river and included cities of
many welfare schemes like building caves for the Jaina
Patliputra, Ayodhya and Vidisha.
monks in the Udaigiri hills i.e. Hathigumpha and
• The fifth king was Bhagabhadra, to whose court Ranigumpha caves.
Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador visited. A Shunga king,
Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram. Ikshavaku
• This period saw the revival of Bhagvatism. Patanjali’s classic The Ikshavaku dynasty was founded by the legendary
Mahabhashya was written during this time. The famous king Ikshavaku. The important personalities belonging to
book on Hindu Law, Manusmriti was compiled during this this royal house are Bharata, Harish Chandra, Dilipa,
period. Sagara, Raghu, Rama and Paseuadi.
The Kanva Dynasty Kingdoms After the Mauryas
The founder of this short-lived dynasty was Vasudeva, who
killed the last Shunga king Devabhuti. They were swept away The Indo-Greeks
by Satavahanas of the Deccan. • A number of invasions took place around 200 BC.
The first to invade India were the Greeks, who
The Satavahanas were also called the Indo-Greeks or Bactrian Greeks
• Founder of Satavahanas was Simuka. They were the (because they ruled Bactria).
successors of the Mauryans in the Deccan and the Central • The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander
India. Important king was Gautamiputra Satakarni (165-145 BC), also known as Milinda. He had his
(AD 106-130) who raised the power and prestige of capital at Sankala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab. He was
Satavahanas to greater heights. He set-up his capital at
converted to Buddhism by Nagasena or Nagarjuna
Paithan on the bank of river Godavari in Aurangabad
(described in Milindapanho or the Question of Milinda).
district.
Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.
GENERAL STUDIES History 765

The Shakas or Scythians (90 BC) The Pandyas

• The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who controlled First mentioned by Megasthenese, who says that their
a larger part of India than the Greeks did. There were 5 kingdom was famous for pearls and was ruled by a
branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in woman. Their capital was Madurai. Important king was
different parts of India and Afghanistan. Nedunjeliyan.
• The most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman
I (AD 130-150). He is famous for the repairs of The Cholas
Sudarshana lake in Kathiawar. His inscription was The kingdom was called Cholamandalam or Coromandal.
Junagarh inscription.
The chief centre was Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton
• A king of Ujjain, who called himself Vikramaditya trade. Capital was Kaveripattanam/Puhar. A Chola king
defeated Shakas in 58 BC and started Vikram era (58 BC). named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled it over for 50
years. Karikala was their famous king.
The Parthians/Pahalvas (AD 1st-3rd Century)
Originally, they lived in Iran, invaded at the beginning of The Cheras
Christian era, from where they moved to India. In Their capital was Vanji (also called Kerala country). It
comparison to Greeks and Shakas, they occupied only a owed its importance to trade with the Romans. The Romans
small portion in North-West India in the 1st century. The
set-up two regiments at Vanji to protect their interests.
most famous Parthian King was Gondophernes
Greatest king was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera. Fought
(AD 19-45), in whose reign St Thomas is said to have come
against the Cholas about
to India for the propagation of Christianity.
AD 150.
The Kushans (AD 45)
Other Aspects of Sangam Age
• Came from North Central Asia near China. Their
empire included a good part of Central Asia, a portion All the gathered information is based on Sangam literature.
of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan and almost Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets held
the whole of North India. probably under Royal patronage (especially Pandyas).
• Kanishka was the most famous king. He patronised the Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal (story of a married couple)
following scholars and Manimekalai by sattanar are the famous epics of this time.
– Ashvaghosha (wrote Buddhacharita, which is the
biography of Buddha and ‘Sutralankar’). Nagarjuna
(wrote Madhyamik Sutra). Charaka (a physician, THE GUPTA PERIOD
wrote Charakhsamhita).
After the decline of Mauryas, Guptas came into existence.
• Kanishka is known in history because of two reasons Actually, we found two names related with Gupta dynasty,
i. He started an era in AD 78 , which is now known as before Chandragupta I. These are Sri Gupta and
Saka era and is used by the Government of India. Ghatotkacha.
ii. He extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism
(held a Buddhist council in Kashmir). Some of the Chandragupta I
successors of Kanishka bore typical Indian names as
Vasudeva. He was the first prominent ruler of Gupta dynasty and
assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. He made his empire
• During Kanishka’s rule, foreign trade fluorished and it
stronger by his own efforts and also by making marriage
was at peak. Trade flourished through silk routes and
with Lichchavi princess. Lichchavi were a very powerful
oceanic routes. During Kanishka reign, Gandhara School
family or ruling class of Mithila at that time.
of Art and Mathura School of Art flourished and
developed.
Samudragupta (AD 335-375)
Sangam Age (300 BC-AD 600) • Samudragupta has been called the ‘Indian Napoleon’ by

The age of 3 Southern kingdoms Cheras, Pandyas, Cholas VA Smith because of his extensive military conquests.
was known as Sangam Age. The word ‘Sangam’ means He assumed the titles of Vikramanka and Kaviraja.
assembly. It was an assembly of Tamil poets and scholars. • Virasen was his commander-in-chief during Southern
campaign. Vasubandhu, a famous Buddhist scholar was
The Three Sangam Kingdom his minister.
Kingdom Capital Royal Emblem • He subjugated 5 kingdoms in lower Bengal, upper
Cholas Uraiyur later Puhar Tiger Assam, Nepal and the territories farther West as well as
Cheras Vanji or Karur Bow number of republican clans.
Pandyas Madurai Carp (fish)
766 CDS Pathfinder

• Samudragupta also advanced through the forest tract

of Madhya Pradesh to the coast of Orissa and then
Kumaragupta I
moved upto Kanchi, the capital of Pallavas. Kumaragupta adopted the title of Mahendraditya. Founded
• Some coins of the Samudragupta represent him as Nalanda University (a renowned university of ancient India).
playing on the Veena. He also performed Asvamedha Kalidas (The Shakespeare of India) flourished in the reign of
sacrifice. both Chandragupta II and Kumargupta I. Kumaragupta was the
worshipper of Lord Kartikeya (son of Lord Shiva, his vehicle
• He was a devotee of Vishnu though a follower of the
is peacock).
Brahmanical religion, he was tolerant of other faiths
he granted permission to the Buddhist king of
Ceylon, Meghavarman, to build a monastery at Bodh Skandagupta (Fall of Gupta Empire)
Gaya. He faced Hunas (a fierce nomads of Central Asia) effectively.
The weak successors of Skandagupta could not check the
Chandragupta II (AD 380-412) growing Huna power. Feudatories rose in Bihar, Bengal,
Madhya Pradesh, Vallabhi etc.
(Chandragupta Vikramaditya)
• Samudra Gupta was succeeded by Chandra Gupta II Administration
around AD 375. However, some historians put • Kings were called Parameshwara/Maharajadhiraja/
Ramagupta between Samudra Gupta and Chandra Parambhattaraka. They issued the largest number of gold
Gupta II. coins in Ancient India, which were called Dinars.
• In the play Devichandraguptam of Visakhadatta, • The most important officer in the Gupta Empire was
Ramagupta is the elder brother of Chandra Gupta II. Kumaramatyas and they were appointed by the king in
It was during the rule of Ramagupta that Shakas home province and they were mostly paid in cash. The
attacked Gupta Empire. Finding his position Guptas has system of provincial and local administration
precarious, Ramagupta agreed to surrender Queen empire was divided into bhukti and each bhukti was under
Dhruvadevi to a Shaka ruler. charge of uparika. Bhukti was divided into district (vishyas)
• Chandra Gupta II objected to it and saved the and it was placed under vishyapati. Village headman was
honour of the family by killing the Shaka chief and very important during Gupta period.
rescuing Dhruvadevi. He later on married her.
• Lands were gifted to brahmanas by the Gupta kings and
However, the Gupta records do not refer to
such grants were known as Agraharas.
Ramagupta.
• Political marriages occupied a prominent place in Social Development
the foreign policy of the Guptas. Chandra Gupta II
The castes were further divided into sub-castes. The practice of
followed the same policy when he conciliated the
untouchability intensed (especially hatred for Chandalas).
Naga chieftains of the upper and central provinces
Fa-hien mentions that the Chandalas lived outside the village
by accepting the hand of the princess Kubernaga
and were distanced by the upper class. Varna-Shankar became
and allied himself with the powerful family of the
highlighted during this era.
Vakatakas of the Deccan by marrying his daughter
Prabhavati with Rudrasena II. Religion
• He issued silver coins (first Gupta ruler to issue
The Bhagwad Gita was written and Buddhism declined during
silver coins) and adopted the title Vikramaditya and
this period. Vishnu temple at Deogarh (near Jhansi), a small
Sakari in memory of his victory.
temple near Sanchi and a brick temple at Bhitargaon (near
• The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription near Qutub Kanpur) belong to the Gupta architecture.
Minar enumerates the exploits of a king called
Chandra. Gupta Art and Crafts
• During his reign the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hein • In art, architecture, sculpture, painting and terracotta
(399-414) visited India. figurines, the Gupta period witnessed unprecedented
activities and development all over India. That is why, the
NAVRATNAS IN period is also referred to as the Golden Age of Ancient
CHANDRAGUPTA II’S COURT India.
Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining in his • The brick temples of the Gupta period include those of
court 9 Luminaries or great scholars viz., Kalidas, Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur and Deogarh in
Amarsimha, Dhanvantri, Varahamihira, Vararuchi Jhansi. The Buddhist University at Nalanda was set-up in
(Vartika-a comment on Ashtadhyayi), Ghatakarna, the 5th century.
Kshapranak, Velabhatt and Shanku.
GENERAL STUDIES History 767

• The rock-cut architecture of the period is represented • Lilavati of Bhaskara is written as standard text of
by the two conventional types - the Chaityas and the mathematics.
Vihara. They are mostly found at Ajanta, Ellora, • Varahamihira wrote the Panchasidhantika and the
Bagh and Udaigiri caves of Orissa. Brihatsamhita. He said that the Moon moves around the
• Gupta age marks the beginning of the main style of Earth and the Earth, together with the Moon, move round
temples architecture in India namely the Nagara style the Sun.
and Dravida style. The finest example of temple • Brahmagupta was a great Mathematician. He wrote the
architecture is the Dasavatara temple at Deogarh. It is Brahma-sphutic Siddhanta in which he hinted at the ‘Law
also an example of early stone temple with a Shikara. of Gravitation.’
It has a square grabhagriha with exquisitely carved • University of Nalanda was set-up during the rule of
doorway. Other examples of temple architecture are Kumaragupta I, who become king in AD 415. This
Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara, Shiva temple at University of Nalanda is called Oxford of Mahayan
Koh, Cave temple at Udaigiri etc. Buddhism.
Famous Temples of the Gupta Age • Palakapya wrote the Hastyagarveda, a treatise on the
disease of elephants. Kamandaka’s Nitasara was written on
Temple Location the political morality.
Vishnu Temple Tigawa (Jabalpur) • Court language was Sanskrit. Dhanvantri was a physician
Shiva Temple Bhumara (Nagaud) famous for Ayurveda knowledge.
Parvati Temple Nachna Kuthara
Dasavtar Temple
Shiva Temple
Deogarh (Jhansi)
Koh (Nagaud)
POST GUPTAS
Bhitargaon Temple Bhitargaon
With the decline of the imperial Guptas at the end of 5th or
Lakshman Temple Kanpur (Brick made) the beginning of 6th century, Magadha and its capital
Lakshman Temple Sirpur (Raipur) Pataliputra, lost their importance. After the fall of the
Mukund Darra Temple Kota Guptas, five major centres of power and their centres
Jarasangh’s Sitting emerged in North India.
Rajgriha (Bihar)
The Age of Smaller Kingdoms
Literature The disintegration of the Gupta empire gradually paved the
Kalidas, the great Sanskrit dramatist, belonged to this way for the growth of many smaller kingdoms. The
period. His books are Abhigyanashakuntalam, Maukharis started gaining political power towards the end of
Bhagwad Gita, Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, 5th century and hold over modern Uttar Pradesh and parts of
Kumarsambhavam, Malvikagnimitram, Raghuvamsa, Magadha. From the middle of 6th century till about AD 675
Vikramovarshiyam etc. the kings who ruled Magadha were known as Later Guptas.
Other Literary Works
Author Book
VARDHAN DYNASTY
Sudraka Mrichchakatikam Founder of Vardhan dynasty was Pushyabhuti Vardhan.
Bharavi Kiratarjuniya
Dandin Dasa Kumar Charita and Kavyadarshan Harshavardhana (AD 606-647)
Bhasa Svapnavasavadattam, Charudatta • Harshavardhana was the younger son of
Vishakhadatta Mudrarakshasa Devichandraguptam Prabhakaravardhana. Hiuen Tsang gave account of his
reign, in his book, Si-Yu-Ki. Bana’s Harshacharita,
Science and Technology inscriptions, coins and Harsha’s own writings i.e.,
Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda, are other
• Aryabhatt the great Mathematician wrote the authentic sources of Harsha’s era.
Aryabhattiya and the Suryasiddhanta. In the
• Shashanka, the ruler of Gauda killed Grahavarman
Aryabhattiya, he described the place value of the
(Maukhari ruler) in alliance with Devagupta and
first nine numbers and the use of zero. He also imprisoned his wife Rajyasri (Harsha’s sister). Later
calculated the value of π and invented Algebra. In Rajyavardhana killed Devagupta, but he was assassinated by
the Suryasiddhanta, he proved that the Earth Shashanka in AD 606.
revolves around the Sun and rotates on its axis.
• The news of the death of Rajyavardhan reached his
• In this way, he discovered the cause of the solar and younger brother Harshavardhana, who now coronated
lunar eclipses and the methods for calculating the himself in AD 606 and proceeded to avenge his brother’s
timings of their occurrence. He also said that the death and release his sister. From this year started the
heavenly bodies, like the Moon, were spherical. Harsha era.
768 CDS Pathfinder

• The Gopuram style of art developed under Cholas.

Later Southern Indian Kingdoms Local self-government was practiced during the reign
The Vakatakas of Cholas (concept of Panchayati Raj has been
borrowed from it).
• Beginning of the 7th century, the Chalukyas of Badami, the
Vakatakas and the Ikshavakus emerged as the three major The Rashtrakutas
states in Deccan. While in South India after the fall of
• The Rashtrakutas rose up against the Chalukyas
Satavahanas, the Pallavas established a powerful kingdom.
under Dantidurga. Dantidurga founded this dynasty
• The kingdom was founded by Vindhyasakti, basically
in AD 753 and made Manyakheta his capital.
Brahmins. Most important king was Pravarsena-I who
• King Krishna-I further expanded the kingdom, but is
performed Ashwamedha Yajnas.
best remembered in history as the builder of the
• Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati to a
rock-cut Kailash temple at Ellora.
Vakataka king Rudrasenar-II and with his support
• Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I (814-880 AD) is
succeeded in conquering Gujarat.
compared to Vikramaditya in giving patronage to men
• It is said that the magnificent caves of Ajanta, Vihara caves
of letters. He wrote the first Kannada poetry Kaviraj
and Chaitya caves belong to the Vakataka age. marg and Prashnottar Mallika.
The Chalukyas of Badami • The King Krishna-III set-up a pillar of victory and a
temple at Rameshvaram.
• The Chalukyas grew powerful in Deccan in the middle of
the AD 6th century. The dynasty had two branches viz. Bhakti Movement
Vatapi (Badami) and Kalyani.
During AD 7th century, Bhakti Movement started in
• Pulakesin-I was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty, but
South India. Two prominent saints came to fore
the most important ruler of the dynasty was Pulakesin-II (i) Alvars and (ii) Nayanars.
who ruled from AD 610-642. He sent an ambassador to the
i. Alvars These saints were worshipper of Vishnu.
Persian king Khusro II. The greatest achievement of They venerated vaishnavism and regard vishnu as
Pulakesin II was that, he inflicted a defeat on supreme. Collection of their hymns are called
Harshavardhana. Divya Prabandha.
ii. Nayanars These saints were bhakti saints who
The Pallavas (Kanchi) worshipped the Hindu god Shiva. Women’s
Simha Vishnu was founder of Pallavas dynasty. They set up participation was prominent in Nayanar. Both
their capital at Kanchi (identical with modern Kanchipuram). above bhakti movement started in present day
Pallava temples were usually free-standing. But one example Tamil Nadu.
of temple cut out of large rocks are the seven ratha temple
(seven pagodas) at Mahabalipuram. Northern Indian Kingdoms
The Gangas (AD 750-1200)
First and famous king of Gangas of Odissa was Ananta The powerful kingdom arose between AD 750-1000.
Varman (1076-1147) who established his power over the The Rashtrakutas were ruling Northern Deccan, the
whole territory between the Ganga and the Godavari. He Pratiharas in Avanti and parts of Southern Rajasthan
built the famous temple of Lord Jagannath at Puri. Kesari and the Palas in Bengal. All three were engaged in a
who used to rule Odissa before Gangas, built the famous continual tripartite struggle.
Lingaraja temple at Bhubhaneswar.
The Rajputs
The Cholas • Rajputs came into prominence in 9th and 10th
centuries.
• Founder of Cholas was Vijayalya with Capital-Tanjore
Cholas were feudal of Pallavas. Important king was Rajaraj • There is also a body of opinion claiming that some of
I. He built Brihadeshwar temple at Tanjore devoted to them were foreign immigrants assimilated into Hindu
Shiva. This temple is also known as Rajrajeshwar Temple. fold over the centuries. Lastly there were the
Agnikulas, the fire family. They were as follow
• His son Rajendra I annexed the whole of Sri Lanka. In the
– The Pratiharas or Parihars, not the same as the main
Pala king Mahipala, he took title of Gangaikonda after
that. The empire was divided into 6 mandalas or province Pratiharas but with whom they had connections.
– The Chahamanas or (Chauhans)
administered by Governors. Mandalams were further
divided into Valanadus, Valanadus into Nadus and Nadus – The Chalukayas (or Solankis)

into Taniyars. – The Paramaras (or Pawars)

GENERAL STUDIES History 769

The Pratiharas (or Gurjara Pratihara) • Bhoja (1910-1055) is the best king of the Paramara rulers,
also called as Kaviraj. He wrote the Samaraganasutradhar
• The foundation of one branch of Pratiharas was laid
(a rare work on architecture) and the Ayurvedasaravasva
down by Harichandra, a Brahaman near modern
Jodhpur in the middle of the AD 6th century. Bhoj (work on medicine).
was the greatest ruler of this vast empire from
Kannauj. He was also known as Adivaraha and Mihira. Kingdoms in Bengal
• Mahendrapala is believed to have started his reign The Palas of Bengal
about 893. His teacher was Rajashekhara a celebrated
• In the middle of the AD 8th century, the Pala dynasty
poet, dramatist and critic author. Rajashekhara has the
literary work like Bal-Bharata, Bal Ramayan came into power. Its founder was Gopal (AD 750) who
Bhuvanosh, Harvilas, Karpuramanjari, Kavya Mimansa, was elected to the throne as he had proved his valour and
Prapanch Pandav, Vidhsaal etc. capability as a leader.
• He was a Buddhist. He was succeeded by Dharmapala
The Chandellas
(AD 770-810) who won Kannauj.
• The Chandellas became rulers in Southern
• Dharmapala was succeeded by Devapala who won Orissa
Bundelkhand under Nannuka early in the 9th century.
and Assam and was followed by Mahipala I. Mahipala was
• They had their capital at Kharjuravahaka (modern
attacked and defeated by Rajendra Chola.
Khajuraho).
• Suleiman (an Arab merchant) visited them and was
• They were a patron of learning and fine arts and built
Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho in AD 1000. impressed. The Palas were patrons of Buddhism.
Dharmapala founded the University of Vikramashila and
Chauhan revived Nalanda University.
• Ruled over Shakambri (modern Sambhar–Rajasthan).
Founder of Chauhan was Semharaja. Important king The Senas
was Prithviraj Chauhan. • After the Palas, the Senas established an empire in Bengal.
• First Battle of Tarain, 1191 Prithviraj Chauhan The earliest member of the Sena dynasty was Samanta
defeated Mohammad Ghori. Second Battle of Tarain, Sena.
1192 Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan. • The greatest ruler of this dynasty was his grandson
• His court Poet was Chandbardai who composed Vijayasena. Vijayasena was a devotee of Shiva. The muslim
Prithviraj Raso. ruler Muhammad Bakhtyar Khilji attacked its capital
Gahadavals Nadia and captured it.
They ruled over Kannauj. Important king was Jai Chand,
he was defeated by Mohammad Ghori in 1194 in Battle Kingdoms in Kashmir
of Chandawar. Following were the two important dynasties of Kashmir
The Chalukayas (Anhilwara)
Karkota Dynasty
• The Chalukayas or Solankis were rulers of Gujarat and
The Karkota dynasty was founded by Durlabh Vardhan in
Kathiawar for about three and a half centuries.
7th century. Lalitaditya Muktapid was the most important
• Important ruler—Pulakesin II, Aihole inscription is
ruler of this dynasty. He constructed the Martand temple in
associated with him, composed by his court poet Kashmir.
Ravikirti.
The Paramaras Lohar Dynasty
• The dynasty was founded by Upendra or Krishnaraja. Sangramraj was the founder of Lohar dynasty. Kalhan was
The main branch of the Paramaras comprised the court poet of Harsha, Lohara king. He wrote
descendants of the Rashtrakutas who ruled Malwa. ‘Rajtarangiri’ which contains the history of Kashmir.
780 CDS Pathfinder

PART II MEDIEVAL INDIA

MUSLIM INVASION • Fall of Delhi and Ajmer laid the foundation of Muslim Rule
in India. Ghori also defeated Jaichand (Ruler of Kannauj) at
Arab Conquest of Sind Battle of Chandawar in 1194. Bakhtiyar Khilji, his general,
annexed East India and destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila
• As Harshvardhana and Pulakesin II were struggling University. Ghori died in 1206, leaving Qutub-ud-din
for supremacy in India, a revolutionary change was Aibak as incharge.
taking place, i.e. the emergence of Islam in Arabia.
• Sufi Saint Khawaja Moin-ud-din Chisti came with him from
• The Arabs, for long the carriers of Indian trade with Afghanistan. Tomb of Moin-ud-din Chisti is in Ajmer also
Europe, were attracted by rich sea-ports of Sind. known as Ajmer Sharif. He founded Chisti Silsila.
However, two expeditions sent by Al-Hajjaj the
Governor of Iraq failed.
• The third expedition under his nephew and THE DELHI SULTANATE
son-in-law Mohammed-bin-Qasim, managed to
acquire control over Sind in AD 712. Multan was • Qutub-ud-din Aibak was Turkish slave by origin. He was
conquered in AD 713. purchased by Mohammad Ghori who later made him his
Governor. After the death of Ghori, Aibak became the
Mahmud of Ghazni master of Hindustan and founded the slave dynasty in 1206.
The Delhi Sultanate (AD 1206-1526) had five ruling
• Mahmud came to the throne of Ghazni in AD 997. dynasties
He moved towards India in AD 1001 by attacking
i. The Ilbari (Slave) ii. The Khilji
and killing Jaipala, the King of Punjab in the First
Battle of Waihind. The first attack was made against iii. The Tughlaq iv. The Sayyid
frontier post and many forts and districts were v. Lodhis
captured. • Of these five dynasties the first three were of Turkish
• The sixth expedition (the Second Battle of Waihind) origin and the Lodhis were Afghans.
was against Anandapala (Hindu shahi ruler of
Punjab) in AD 1008. The expedition in AD 1009 was The Slave or Ilbari Dynasty
against Nagarkot in the Kangra hills. The first dynasty of the Sultanate has been designated by
• Ghazni led 17 expeditions between AD 1001 and various scholars as the Slave dynasty or the Mamluq dynasty
AD 1027. He plundered Thaneshwar, Mathura, or the Ilbari dynasty.
Kannauj and Somnath. The temple of Somnath
dedicated to Shiva was plundered in 1025 situated on Qutub-ud-din Aibak
the sea coast of Kathiawar (Gujarat). • He was the founder of the Sultanate of Delhi.
• Utbi regarded as a great literary figure at that time, Qutub-ud-din Aibak was the first Muslim King of India.
he was Mahmud’s court historian. His He began his reign with the modest little Malik and
Kitab-ul-Yamini or Tarikh-I-Yamini is a book on Sipahsalar, which had been conferred upon him by
Mahmud’s life and times. Mohammed Ghori. Lahore and later Delhi were his capitals.
• Firdausi (Persian poet) known as the immortal • He was famous for his generosity and earned the sobriquet
Homer of the East wrote the Shahanama, Al Beruni of lakh-baksh (giver of lakhs).
a brilliant scholar from Central Asia wrote • He laid the foundation of Qutub Minar in Delhi after the
Tahqiq-i-hind. Farukhi was also court poet of name of the famous Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutub-ud-din
Ghazni. Bakhtiyar Khilji. Aibak constructed the first mosque in
India Quwat-ul-Islam (Delhi) and Adhai Din Ka Jhopara
Mohammed Ghori (At Ajmer).
• Muizzuddin Mohammed-bin-Sam (known as • Hasan Nizami and Fakhr-ud-din (whom Aibak patronised)
Mohammed Ghori), the last Turkish conqueror of were all praised for the qualities of head and heart of Aibak
North India, had no son. and sense of justice in their works Taj-ul Massir and
• The King of Delhi Prithviraj Chauhan completely Tarikhi Mubarik Shahi respectively.
routed the Ghori’s forces in AD 1191 at Tarain (First • His task was only half done, when he died of a sudden fall
Battle of Tarain). But Prithviraj was defeated in the from a horse at Lahore in 1210 while playing Chaugan
Second Battle of Tarain (AD 1192), Delhi and Ajmer (Polo).
were captured by Mohammed Ghori.
GENERAL STUDIES History 781

Shams-ud-din Iltutmish • He impressed upon the people that kingship was the vice
regency of God on Earth (Niyabat-i-Khudai) and its
• He was the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate. He
dignity was next only to prophethood. The King was the
made Delhi as the capital of the empire. He suppressed
shadow of God (Zil-i-Ilahi). Balban abandoned the chalisa.
the revolts of ambitious nobles, fought with the sons
of Aibak and sent expeditions against the Rajputs in • Balban introduced Sijdah or Paibos and started Nauroz
Ranthambore, Jalor, Mewar. festival. Balban took strong measures to safeguard the
North-West frontier against the Mongol invasions.
• His governing class was entirely of foreign origin. It
consisted of two groups, Turkish slave officers and • His son Mohammed’s death was a mashing blow to Balban
Tazik. He introduced the silver coin (tanka) and the and the death-knell to his dynasty. He was deeply racist
copper coin (jital). He organised the Iqta system and and excluded non-Turks from the administration. The last
introduced reforms in civil administration and army, ruler of dynasty was Kaiqubad, he was killed by
which was now paid and recruited. Jalal-ud-din Khilji, who established Khilji dynasty.
• He set-up official nobility of slaves known as
Turkan-i-Chalgani or Chalisa (a group of forty The Khiljis
powerful turkish nobles). • The coming of the Khiljis to power was more than a
• On 18th February, 1229 the Khalifa sent emissaries dynastic change. Their ascendancy is known as Khilji
from Baghdad with a decree registering the Revolution, because it marked the end of monopolisation
independent status of the Delhi Sultanate. Iltutmish of power by the Turkish nobility and racial dictatorship.
was called the father of Tomb building (built Sultan • The accession of Jalal-ud-din, Firoz Khilji marked the end
Garhi). He completed Qutub Minar. of an epoch and signified a ‘revolution’ in the political and
• He saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Chengiz cultural history of medieval India.
Khan, the Mongol leader, by refusing shelter to
Khwarizm Shah, whom Chengiz Khan was chasing. Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji
• He was an old man of 70, when he came to the throne
Razia Sultan and was unable to deal firmly with the problem of those
• She was the first and the last Muslim woman ruler of troubled times.
medieval India. The first rebellion against her was • In order to win goodwill of Mongols, the Sultan married
raised by Kabir Khan, the Governor of Lahore. one of his daughter to the Mongol leader Ulugh Khan, a
• Altunia the Governor of Bhatinda was also a descendant of Chengiz Khan.
revolutionary. So, she moved straight towards Bhatinda, • One of the most important events of Jalal-ud-din’s reign
but was defeated and taken as prisoner by Altunia, who was the invasion of Devagiri the capital of the Yadava
married her. kingdom in the Deccan by Ala-ud-din (his nephew) and
• Razia with her husband was moving towards Delhi. son-in-law of the Sultan and Governor of Kara.
She was defeated by Bahram Shah, a son of Iltutmish.
Deserted by her soldiers, she was murdered by Ala-ud-din Khilji
robbers. • His first major conquest was the rich kingdom of Gujarat,
• Razia succession continued, in which three rulers ruled which was then ruled by the Vaghela King Karna.
in continuity • In 1299, Ala-ud-din’s army under the joint command of
i. Bahram Shah (AD 1240-1242) Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan invaded Anhilwad, the
ii. Ala-ud-din Masud Shah (AD 1242-1246) capital of Gujarat.
• During plunder of the rich port of Cambay, Ala-ud-din’s
iii. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (AD 1246-1266)
Commander Nusrat Khan acquired a Hindu turned
• Nasir-ud-din was the grandson of Iltutmish. Muslim slave Kafur (also known as Hazar Dinari), who
later on rose to become a great Military General and the
Balban Malik Naib of Ala-ud-din.
• Balban ascended the throne in 1266-67 with host of
• After the conquest of Gujarat, Ala-ud-din moved to
problems. The first and foremost among these was the
Rajputana, where he conquered Ranthambore in 1300-1301
future relationship of the nobility with the king.
from Hamir Deva a descendant of Prithviraj III. In 1303
• He ordered the separation of the military department AD, he attacked Chittor the capital of Mewar, which was
from the Finance Department (Diwan-i-Wizarat) and being ruled by Gahlot King Ratan Singh, whose queen
the former was placed under a Minister for Military Padmini committed Jauhar when her husband was
Affairs (Diwan-i-Ariz). defeated.
782 CDS Pathfinder

• Ala-ud-din Khilji is known for his market reform policy. The value of token coin was equal to a silver coin.
He established four separate market in Delhi. Market was But, this experiment failed on account of the
put under control of officer called Shahna-i-Mandi. Price of circulation of counterfeit coins on a very large scale
commodities were fixed, merchants were registered with and rejected by foreign merchants. So, he withdrew
market. Separate department Diwani Riyasat was created the token currency. He offered to exchange all the
and Naib-i-Riyasat was officer responsible for new token coins for silver coins.
department. Secret agent ‘Munhiyas’ were appointed to – The Sultan planned an expedition for the conquest
inform Sultan about condition of market. of Khurasan and Iraq, but the scheme was
• Ala-ud-din Khilji started measurement of land and land abandoned, when the Sultan learnt that conditions
revenue were collected in cash also. He also introduced in Iraq had improved.
dagh system (branding of horse), huliya (list of soldier) and – The plan for the conquest of Quarachil (Kumaun
cash payment to soldier. Hills) met with a disastrous end. Quarachil has
• Hauz Khas, Mahal Hazar Satoon and Jamait Khana Mosque been identified with Rajput state in the
were built by Ala-ud-din. He adopted the title Kumaun-Garhwal region.
Sikandar-i-Sani. • He increased the revenue and set-up new department
• Added the entrance door to Qutab Minar, built Alai for agriculture Diwan-i-Amir Koh. Ibn Battuta (the
Darwaza and built his capital at Siri fort. Last Ruler was famous traveller) came to Delhi in 1334. He acted as
Qutub-ud-din Mubarak Khilji. Qazi of the capital for 8 years.
• He patronised the famous Persian poet Amir Khusrau, who • Ibn Battuta has recorded the contemporary Indian
was known as Tuti-i-Hind (Parrot of India). Khusrau also scene in his Safarnamah called Rehla. Battuta was a
invented sitar by modifying veena. moroccan explorer. His travel account tell us about
his journey through the Delhi Sultanate period.
The Tughlaqs • During his period, Vijayanagara empire was
established in AD 1336 by Harihara and Bukka, and
The Tughlaqs were a Muslim family of Turkish origin. They
Bahamani Kingdom AD 1346 by Hasan Gangu
provided three competent rulers- Ghiyas-ud-din,
Behman Shah.
Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Firoz Shah Tughlaq

• Firoz Shah Tughlaq, who became Sultan in AD 1351
• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (real name Ghazi Malik) founded
was a patron of arts and literature. He did not give
the third dynasty of the Sultanate. He also discarded
any harsh punishment and banned the inhuman
Ala-ud-din’s system of measurement of land for the
practices like cutting hands, nose etc.
assessment of land revenue.
He abolished as many as twenty-three taxes and
• He took keen interest in the construction of canals for
substituted them with only the following four taxes
irrigation and formulated a famine policy to provide relief
to peasants in the time of drought. i. Kharaj (a land tax equal to 1/10 of the produce of
the land)
• He built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and gave a new
touch to the architecture of the Sultanate period. ii. Jaziya (a tax paid by non-Muslims)
• He established his capital at Tughlaqabad. He came in
iii. Zakat (tax on property (2.5%))
conflict with Sufi Saint Nizam-ud-din Auliya. iv. Khams (1/5th of booty captured in war)
• He also made the civil and military post hereditary.
Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq One remarkable feature of his reign was his interest
• Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq (real name Jauna Khan) succeeded in civil works. He founded a number of new cities
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq under title Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq. and towns, three most famous being Hissar,
He was the most remarkable personality among the Sultans of Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Firozabad, Firoz Shah Kotla
Delhi. (in Delhi).
Few ambitious projects taken up by Mohammed during his • To beautify his new capital Firozabad in Delhi the
period are as follow Ashokan pillars were brought, one from Topara in
– Shifting the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) Ambala and the other from Meerut.
in 1327. He wanted to control South India better, from • He was very fond of collecting a large number of
Daulatabad but Daulatabad was found to be unsuitable slaves (about 180000 slaves) and had a separate
because it was not possible to control North India from department for it known as Diwan-i-Bandagan.
there. So, he decided to re-transfer the capital to Delhi. • He set-up a separate department, called the Diwan-i-
– Introduction of the token currency (1329-30).
Khairat, for the help of the poor and the needy. He
(introduction of bronze tankas in place of silver tankas). built Dar-ul-Shafa or a charitable hospital.
GENERAL STUDIES History 783

• Ziauddin Barani (the historian was in his court) • He founded Agra in 1504 and made it as his capital. He
wrote two well- known works of history the reimposed Jaziya. Women were prohibited to go on saint
Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and the Fatwa-i-Jahandari. graves during his reign. He imposed ban on any language
• He introduced two new coins Adha (50% jital) and
other than Persian.
Bikh (25% jital). He wrote his autobiography The Ibrahim Lodhi
Fatuhat-Firozshahi. Timur invaded India during his
reign. He was not ablest ruler. He was defeated and killed by Babur
in the first Battle of Panipat (1526) and sultanate period ended.
TIMUR INVASION
During Nasir-ud-din Mahmud’s (last ruler) reign, Timur
Administration under
the Mongol leader of Central Asia invaded India. Timur Delhi Sultanate
reached Delhi in December 1398 and ordered general
• Administration/Kingdom was divided into iqtas. The head of
massacre.
the civil administration was a Wazir (head of finance
department).
The Sayyids • The Wazir was assisted by a deputy or Naib Wazir, an
• Khizr Khan, the founder of the Sayyid dynasty, Accountant General (Mushrif-i-mumalik) and the Auditor
General (Maustauji-i-mumalik).
had collaborated with Timur and as a reward for
services to the invader and was given the • The chief justice was Qazi-i-mumalik (having both religious
governorship of Lahore and Multan. and secular functions). He was responsible for the
enforcement of the shariat.
• Khizr Khan’s three successors—Mubarak Shah
(1421-33), Mohammed Shah (1434-43) and • The officer-in-charge of the royal correspondence army head
Ala-ud-din Alam Shah (1443-51) assumed the royal was known by the name of Ariz-i-mumalik and he was
responsible for all military works like–recruitment, payment,
title of Sultan and ruled as sovereign rulers, but all
inspection of the troops.
were incapable rulers.
• Barid-i-Mumalik The officer-in-charge of royal post and
• During the 27 years of Sayyid dynasty the sultanate
news agency.
of Delhi remained in trouble due to external
invasions, internal intrigue, chaos and confusion. • The provinces were divided into ‘shiqs’ under the control of
These conditions provided an opportunity to Bahlol ‘Shiqdars’. The next unit was paraganas headed by munsifs.
Lodhi. • Iqta system prevailed under which land of the empire was
• Yahya-bin-Ahmed-bin-Abdullah Sirhindi wrote the
divided into several large and small tracts called Iqta and
were given to soldiers, officers and nobles.
Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi (a history of Sultans of
Important departments were as follow
Delhi from time of Muizz-ud-Din,
– Diwan-i-Insha Department of correspondence
Muhammad-bin-Sam).
– Diwan-i-Ariz Military department
– Diwan-i-Risalat Department of appeals
The Lodhis – Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mumalik Department of Justice
The Lodhis, who ruled for 75 years were Afghans by
– Diwan-i-Ishtikak Department of pensions
race. The Lodhis were ruling over Sirhind when
Sayyids, were in India.

Bahlol Lodhi Books Author Books Authors

Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of the Lodhi dynasty. Alberuni Tahkik-i-Hind Amir Khusrau Tarikh-i-Alai
He was one of the Afghan Sardars, who established Alberuni Qanun-i-Masudi Zia-ud-din Barani Fatwa-i-Jahandari
themselves in Punjab after the Timur’s invasion. He Alberuni Jawahar-i-Jawahar Zia-ud-din Barani Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi
introduced coins, he called his Sardar Masnad-i-Ali. Minhaj-us-Siraj Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Firoz Shah Fatwa-i-Firoz Shahi
Amir Khusrau Laila-Majnu, Firozabadi Qamus
Sikandar Lodhi Quran-us-Saadin
• He was the noblest and ablest ruler of the 3rd Lodhi Amir Khusrau Khazain-ul-Futuh Hassan Nizami Taj-ul-Maathir
rulers. He set-up an efficient coinage system, Amir Khusrau Tughlaqnama Abu Bakr Chach Namah
military, spy network and also introduced the Amir Khusrau Nuh-Siphir Fakhruddin Tarikh-i-Mubarak
system of auditing of accounts. Shahi
Amir Khusrau Miftah-ul-Futuh Shams-i-Shiraj Afif Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi
• He repaired Qutub Minar. He introduced the
Amir Khusrau Ayina-i-Sikandari Ibn Batutta Kitab-ul-Rehla
measuring scale ‘Gaz-i-Sikandari’ for measuring
cultivated fields. He wrote Persian verses with the Amir Khusrau Hasht Bihisht Isami Futuh-us-Salatin
name of the Gul-rukhi. Amir Khusrau Shirin Khusrau Firdausi Shahnamah
784 CDS Pathfinder

• This expansion was responsible for the alliance of the

Bahmani kingdom with Warangal, which lasted for
Structure Location Builder about 50 years and was a major factor in the inability of
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque Delhi Qutub-ud-din Aibak the Vijayanagara Empire to overrun the Tungabhadra
Adhai din ka Jhopra Ajmer Qutub-ud-din Aibak doab or to stem the Bahmani offensive in the area.
Qutub Minar Delhi IItutmish (Founded by
Qutub-ud-din Aibak) Deva Raya I
Tomb of Hazarat Nizamuddin Delhi Alauddin Khilji
• He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. The reign of
Auliya
Deva Raya I began with a renewed fight for the
Alai Darwaza Delhi Alauddin Khilji
Tungabhadra doab.
Jammat Khana Masjid Delhi Alauddin Khilji
• He was defeated by the Bahmani ruler, Firoz Shah and
Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Delhi Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
had to pay a huge indemnity. He also agreed to marry
Tughlaqabad Fort Delhi Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
his daughter to the Sultan Deva Raya I who undertook a
Moth ki Masjid Delhi Wazir Miya Bhoiya (Prime
Minister of Sikandar Lodhi)
number of schemes for the welfare of the people.
• In AD 1410, he got constructed a dam across the
Tungabhadra, with canals leading to the city. This
THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE greatly helped in agriculture. He was also a great patron
of the scholars.
• Vijayanagara kingdom was founded by Harihar I and • Nicolo De Conti, an Italian (Venetian), visited the
Bukka I (Sons of Sangama), who were feudatories of Vijayanagara empire under Deva Raya I. Conti describes
Kakatiyas and later became ministers in the court of the city of Vijayanagara as having a circumference of 96
Kampili. km and employing 90000 potential soldiers and also
• Harihara and Bukka were brought to the centre by mentions the festivals like Deepawali, Navratri etc.
Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq, converted to Islam and were
sent to South again to control rebellion. Few foreign travellers to India during Medieval Period
• Harihar and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara Empire in ●
Marco Polo was an Italian traveller from Venice, who
1336 on the advice of Vidyaranya, who converted them visited India in AD 1295.
back to Hindu. ●
Nicolo De Conti an Italian (Venetian) visited the
• Vijayanagara Empire ruler believed in divinity and said Vijayanagara empire in 1419, is author of India
they ruling by will of God Virupaksha. Idols of Recognita.
Vijayanagara rulers were also started to be kept in ●
Abdur Razzaq was an Uzbek Islamic scholar and
temples. Colonel Colin Mackenzie brought Hampi of ambassador of Shah Rukh, visited India from 1442-1445.
Vijayanagara Empire into light in the AD 19th century. ●
Duarte Barbosa was a missionary from Portugal and
visited India in 1560.
Sangama Dynasty ●
Fernao Nuniz Portuguese traveller visited Vijayanagara
Harihara I during reign of Achayuta Raya.
●
Nikitin Russian merchant visited Bahmani kingdom.
He made Anagundi his capital. He annexed the Hoyasala
State in AD 1364. When, the Muslim ruler of Mandurai
defeated and killed the Hoyasala ruler Vir Ballal III. Deva Raya II
• He was the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. In
Bukka I order to strengthen his army, he inducted more Muslims
• He made Gutti his capital. The war with Bahmanis and asked all his Hindu soldiers and officers to learn the
started in AD 1367, during the reign of Bukka I. The art of archery from them.
Bahmani Sultan defeated Bukka I and after a long war
• With his new army, he crossed the Tungabhadra river
concluded a treaty which restored the old positions.
and tried to recover Mudkal, Bankapur etc which were
• The empire saw expansion under Bukka I. His son
to the South of the Krishna river and had been lost to
Kumara Kampan successfully led an expedition against
the Bahmani Sultans. Three hard battles were fought, but
Madurai and annexed it. This is mentioned in Madura
at the end, the two sides had to agree to the existing
Vijayam written by Ganga Devi (Kampan’s wife).
frontiers.
Harihara II • Deva Raya II was called Immadi Devaraya and also
• Bukka I was succeeded by his son Harihara II, who Proudha Devaraya or the great Devaraya by his subjects.
embarked upon a policy of expansion towards the Some quarter varahas (gold coins of Vijayanagara) of
Eastern sea coast. This new policy of expansion Deva Raya II describe him as Gajabetakara (the elephant
consequently led the Vijayanagara Empire into fresh hunter).
conflicts.
GENERAL STUDIES History 785

• Deva Raya II was a great patron of literature and • Timma, who wrote Parijatapahara-vam.
himself an accomplished scholar in Sanskrit. He is • Madaya, who wrote Raja Shekarcharitam.
credited with the authorship of two Sanskrit works • Dhurjate, who wrote Kalahasti Mahatyam.
Mahanataka Sudhanidhi and a commentary on the
• Surona, who wrote Raghav Pandaviyam and Prabhavati
Brahma Sutras of Badarayana.
Pradyuman.
• The king had leaning for Vira Saivism, yet he showed
• Tenali Ramalingam, who wrote Ponduranga Mahatyam.
tolerance in religious views. He appointed people
belonging to different religions as his minister. He got • Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra, who wrote Sakalamata sara
constructed a mosque in the Vijayanagara and ordered Sangraha.
that a copy of Quran be placed before his throne. • Rama Raja Bhushan was the eighth poet.
After Krishnadeva Raya, there was a period of confusion,
The Saluva Dynasty following which Achayuta Rai ascended the throne and
ruled upto 1542. Sadasiva Raya followed Achyuta Ray and
• Vijayanagara witnessed chaos and disorder after 1465
ruled upto 1570.
due to weak rulers. However, the situation was saved by
the Governor of Chandragiri, Narasimha Suluva, who
seized the throne in about 1485 in what is known in The Aravidu Dynasty
history as the First Usurpation. The Aravidu Dynasty was founded by Thirumala II, the
brother of Rama Raja, who ruled in the name of Sadasiva
• Narasimha was succeeded by Timma and Imadi
Raya. On his failure to repopulate Vijayanagara, he shifted
Narasimha, who were minors at the time of their the capital to Penugonda. During his rule, the Nayaks
coronation. The real power was in the hands of Narsa became independents. Tirumala then divided his empire
Nayak, who was the Reagent. into three practically linguistic sections and placed them
under his sons.
The Tuluva Dynasty
Following the death of Narsa Nayak in 1505, his son Vira BAHAMANI KINGDOM
Narasimha, succeeded as the reagent. He deposed Imadi
Narasimha and laid the foundation of the Tuluva Dynasty • The Bahamani kingdom of Deccan was founded by
by what is known in history as the Second Usurpation. Hasan Gangu, whose original name was Ismail Mukh.
Babur referred Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1529) as the The capital was Gulbarga. Hasan Gangu took the title
greatest ruler of the Tuluva Dynasty. of Ala-ud-din Hasan, Bahaman Shah (AD 1347-58) and
became the first king of Bahamani in AD 1347.
Krishnadeva Raya • He renamed Gulbarga as Ahsanabad. At the time of his
• He maintained friendly relations with Albuquerque, the death his dominion had four provinces Gulbarga,
Portuguese Governor, whose Ambassador Friar Luis Daulatabad, Berar and Bidar.
was a resident in Vijayanagara. • Mahmud Shah I (1358-75) son of Bahaman Shah
• He gave Albuquerque permission to built a Fort of established a council consisting of eight ministers and
Bhatkal. He built the Vijaya Mahal (House of Victory) decentralised his provincial administration. He fought
and expanded the Hazara Rama temple and the Vithal with Vijayanagara.
Swami temple. • Firoz Shah (1397-1422) was the most remarkable figure
• He took the titles of Yavanaraja Sthapanacharya (restorer in Bahamani kingdom. He was determined to make
of the Yavana kingdom, i.e. Bahmani) and Deccan the cultural centre of India. He inducted Hindus
Abhinava-Bhoja. in his administration to large extent. He built an
observatory at Daulatabad. He founded city of
• He was also known as Andhra Pitamaha and Andhra
Firozabad on the bank of river Bhima. Firoz defeated
Bhoja. He was a gifted scholar in both Telugu and
Devaraya I.
Sanskrit of which only two works are extant.
• Firoz Shah was succeeded by his brother Ahmed Shah I
• The Telugu work on polity Amuktamalyada and the
(AD 1422-36). He shifted his capital from Gulbarga to
Sanskrit drama Jambavati Kalyanam is also written by Bidar, Ahmed Shah is known as Wali or saint due to his
him. Krishna Deva Rai was also a great patron of art association with Gesu Daraz.
and literature, and was known as Andhra Bhoj.
• Humayun was succeeded by his son Nizam Shah
Krishnadeva Raya’s Ashtadiggajas (1461-63) and then by Mohammed Shah III (AD
Krishnadeva Raya’s court was adorned by following 1463-82). Mahmud Gawan was the Prime Minister of
Ashtadiggajas (the eight celebrated poets) Mohammed. Bahamani kingdom saw a resurgence under
Mahmud Gawan’s guidance. His military conquests
• Peddana, who wrote Manucharitam and Harikathasaran- included Konkan, Goa and Krishna-Godavari Delta,
samu. Nikitin a Russian merchant, visited Bidar during his reign.
786 CDS Pathfinder

• Adilshahi of Bijapur (1490-1686) founded by Yusuf Adil Qadiri

Shah. Greatest ruler of the kingdom was Ibrahim Adil
• Founder was Sheikh Mohi-ud-din Qadir Zilani in
Shah. He introduced ‘Dakhini’ in place of Persian
India. It was popularised by Shah Nizamat Ullah,
language. Another ruler Mohammed Adil Shah built the
Makhdum Zilani Dara Shikoh (son of Shah Jahan) was
Gol Gumbaz. It was annexed by Aurangazeb.
the disciple of Mullah Shah Badakshi.
• Imad Shahis of Berar (1490-1574) founded by Fateullah
• He (Dara) wrote the Safinat-ul-Auliya, Sakinat-ul-Auliya.
Khan II Mad-ul-Mulk with Daulatabad as capital. Later, it
These are the biographies of the saints. Dara Shikoh also
was conquered and annexed by one of the Nizam Shahi
translated some books as Sir-e-Akbar, Sir-e-Asrar.
rulers of Ahmednagar.
• Qutub Shahis of Golconda (1518-1687) founded by Quli Naqshabandi
Qutub Shah. He built the famous Golconda fort and • Founder father Khwaza Baha-ud-din Naqshabandi in
made it his capital.
India. It was popularised by Khwaza Khwand Mahmud
Mohammed Quli Qutub Shah was the greatest of all. He
(his centre was in Kashmir).
founded the city of Hyderabad. He built the famous
Charminar. Most important port of Qutub Shahi kingdom • Other saints Baqi-Billah, Shahwali ullah, Khwaza Mir
was Masulipatnam. The kingdom was annexed by Dard Naqshaband. Mir Dard wrote the Dard-e-Dil, the
Aurangzeb (1687). Sham-e-Mahfil, the Ilm-ul-Khitab.
• Barid Shahis of Bidar (1528-1619) founded by Ali Barid. • Other famous silsilah were Firdausi, Quadiri, Satari etc.
Annexed by Adil Shahis of Bijapur.
Bhakti Movement
• Bhakti is a devotional worship of God with the
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS ultimate objective of attaining Moksha or Salvation.
• Initially, Bhakti Movement started in South India in
The Sufis the form of alvar and nayanar. Gradually Bhakti
• Sufism is a mystical Islamic belief and practice in which Movement spread to North. In North India, Bhakti
Muslim seeks the truth of divine love and knowledge Movement started to fluorish in 13th century.
through direct personal experience of God. Sufis are • Bhakti saint were against the casteism, ritualism,
against the orthodoxy and fanaticism of religion. religious sacrifices. Bhakti saints professed equal
• In India, Sufism appealed not only to Muslims but also to participation of women in religious practices. These
Hindus and these sufi saints became venerated figure for saints used the local dialect to promote their ideas and
all. communicate with masses.
• In Islam visiting pilgrimage site associated with Bhakti Movement is divided into two branches
Muhammad or other venerated figure such as sufi saints i. Nirguna ii. Saguna
etc is called Ziyarat. The abode of sufi was called
Khanqah. Nirguna Saints
• During 13th century, the Sufism was divided into 14
He was born at Talwandi in Lahore. He
silsilas. Sufis had many branches in India. propogated Monotheism, Hindu-Muslim unity and
denounced Idol worship. His disciple Mardana
The Chistis played Rabas. He established Sikh religion. His
Founder was Khwaza Abu-e-Chisti, but in India teachings are found in Guru Granth Sahib.
Moin-ud-din Chisti popularised it. His tomb is situated at He was born in Ahmedabad to Muslim
Ajmer in Rajasthan. parents, bought up by a Hindu. His teachings are
• Main disciple of Moin-ud-din was Khwaza Qutub-ud-din collected in a book called Bani. His disciples were
Bakhtiyar Kaki (after him Qutub Minar was named). Sundaradasa, Rajjab, Bakham and Warid. He founded
• Famous saint Nizam-ud-din Auliya saw the reign of seven Brahma sect or Param Brahma Sampradaya.
Delhi Sultans. He was also known as Mahboob-i-Ilahi He was opposed to caste, creed, idol worship and
(beloved of God) and Sultan-ul-Auliya (king of the saints). propogated Hindu-Muslim unity. His works are
His tomb is situated in Delhi. Sabada Doha, Holi, Rekhtal etc. Verses of Kabir
• Sheikh Nasir-ud-din (Chirag-i-Delhi) was also a disciple of Namdev, Ravidas, Dhanna, Pipa etc were included in
Mahboob-i-Illahi. Amir Khusrau and Al-Biruni were also Adi Granth.
follower of Chisti.
GENERAL STUDIES History 787

Saguna Saints Important Philosopher and

Tulsidas Contemporary to Akbar. Works- Bhakti Saints
Ramcharitamanas, Kavitawali, Gitawali, Parvati
Shankaracharya He was born at Kalodi, Kerala. He taught
Mangal, Janki Mangal, Vinay Patrika etc.
concepts of Maya (illusion), Advaita and importance of
Ramananda Propagated Bhakti in North India. Vedanta. He established four Mathas at Badrinath, Puri,
Organised a group of cadres called Bairagi. Sringeri and Dwarka. He wrote commentaries on
Surdas He was disciple of Vallabhacharya. He was a Upanishads, Bhagwad Gita and Brahmasutras of Badrayana.
blind poet from Agra. He sang the glory of He is also known as Pseudo-Buddhist as many of his
Krishna in his Sursagar. doctrines were similar to that of Buddhist doctrines.
Gorakhnath Founder of Nath Hindu monastic Abhinava Gupta He was a philosopher, mystic and aesthetican
movement in India. His followers are mostly from Kashmir. His most famous work is Tantraloka, a
found in Himalayan states. Followers are called treatise on all philosophical and practical aspects of Kashmir
yogis. Shaivism.
Mirabai Rathor princess of Merta and Ramanuja Acharya He was Tamil Vaishnavite saint. He gave
daughter-in-law of Rana Sanga of Mewar philosophy of Visist-advait. Wrote Vedanta Samgraha,
commentaries on Brahmasutras and Bhagwad Gita.
(husband-Bhoja Raja). She wrote the verse
Padavali. She believed in Krishna. Madhavacharya He was Kannada Vaishnavite saint. He gave
philosophy of Dvaita.
Chaitanya He was known as Gaudiya Mahaprabhu.
Nimbarka Telugu Vaishnavite saint, contemporary of Ramayana.
He was founder of Gaurang or Bengal Concept of Dvaitadvaita was promoted by him.
Vaishnavism. His teacher was Ishwapuri.
Vallabhacharya He was a Telugu Vaishnavite saint. He was
Shankara Deva He established EK Sharan born at Varanasi in 1479 and went to Vrindavan, where he
Sampradaya or Mahapurushiya Sampradaya. He resided permanently. He established the philosophy of
divided universe into two parts Aswatantra and Shuddhadvaita. Vallabhacharya’s teachings are also known as
Swatantra. Pushtimarga. He was the contemporary of Vijayanagara King
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu He was also a great saint. Krishna Deva Raya.
There had been Vaishnavism in Bengal long Raghunandan He belonged to Nabadwip (Nadia) in Bengal. He
before his birth, but Chaitanya accepted that was considered to be the most influential writer in the
Krishna alone is the most perfect God. ‘Kirtan’ Dharamashastras.
system was given by Chaitanya.

Bhakti Saints of Maharashtra The Sikh Gurus

Namdev By profession he was a tailor. Earlier he and Their Contribution
believed in Saguna stream, but later on diverted Guru Nanak First Guru of Sikhs, Founder of Sikhism.
towards Nirguna branch. He was poet saint of (1469-1539)
Maharashtra. Earlier he was influenced by Guru Angad Compiled the biography of Guru Nanak Dev, known as
Vaishnavism. He worshipped Vithoba. He (1504-1552) Janam Sakhi introduced Gurumukhi Script; 63 hymns of
formed a varkari sect of Hinduism. Guru Angad Dev included in Guru Granth Sahib.

Tukaram Tukaram was contemporary of Shivaji. He Guru Amar Das He promoted inter-caste dining at his kitchen. Akbar granted
(1479-1574) villages to finance the scheme, out of which grew Amritsar.
was part of varkari devotionalism tradition, he is
Guru Ram Das Son-in-law of Guru Amar Das.
also known for Abhanga devotional poetry. His (1534-1581)
poetry was devoted to vithoba (avatar of
Guru Arjun Son of Guru Ram Das died after torture in Mughal (Jahangir)
Vishnu). Dev (1563-1606) detention for sheltering rebellious Mughal prince Khusrau.
Ramdas A noted spiritual poet of Maharashtra. He Guru Hargobind Son of Guru Arjun Dev, put on two words–one signifying Miri
is famous for his Advaita vedantist text and (1595-1644) (secular power) and other Piri (spiritual power), Built the Akal
Takht in 1608.
Dashbodh. He was spiritual guru of Shivaji.
Guru Har Rai Son of Guru Hargobind supported Dara’s claim in the wars
Eknath He was famous religious Marathi poet of (1630-1661) of succession between Shah Jahan’s sons.
Varkari Sampradaya. He wrote Bhavarth Guru Harikishan Son of Guru Har Rai, Gurudwara Bangla Sahib in New Delhi,
Ramayan and a variant of Bhagvata Purana. (1656-1664) was constructed in his memory.
Taneshwara He was 13th century Marathi saint, Guru Tegh Bahadur Son of Guru Hargobind, Gurudwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in
poet, philosopher and yogi. He wrote (1621-1675) New Delhi, is where Guru’s body was cremated. He was
executed on Mughal orders.
Dnyaneshwari (commentary on Gita) and
Guru Govind Singh Son of Guru Tegh Bahadur, tenth and the last sikh guru.
Amrutobhava. His works are considered gem of (1666-1700) Guru Granth Sahib was finally completed.
Marathi language.
788 CDS Pathfinder

• Akbar then consolidated his empire through a series of

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE conquests, the most difficult and most memorable being
the campaign against Rana Pratap of Chittor, whom he
Babur defeated in the famous Battle of Haldighati in 1576.
• The Mughal empire was founded by Zahir-ud-din
• Akbar introduced Mansabdari system system, it means
rank or position. So rank of government official was
Muhammad Babur. He was a turk. In 1523, the
determined.
invitation came from Daulat Khan Lodhi, the Governor
of Punjab and Alam Khan, uncle of Sultan Ibrahim • He abolished the pilgrim tax. In 1564, he abolished
Lodhi of Delhi to invade India. Jaziya. Land revenue system during Akbar’s Rule was
known as Zabti. Todar Mal was the incharge of Revenue
• He defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the first Battle of Panipat
System.
in 1526. Babur possessed a large part of artillery, a new
• Akbar formulated an order known as Din-i-Ilahi (Divine
kind of weapon coming into use in Europe and Turkey.
Monotheism) in 1582. Birbal, Abul Fazal and Faizi
Babur introduced gunpowder and artillery in war in
joined the order. Akbar issued the ‘Decree of
India.
Infallibility’ in 1579. Abul Fazal wrote the Ain-i-Akbari.
• Defeated the Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar in the
• Navratna of his court were Birbal, Todar Mal, Abul
decisive Battle of Khanwa which took place on 16th Fazal, Tansen, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana, Mullado
March, 1527 at Khanwa. Defeated Rajput Chief Medini Pyaja, Hakim Hukkam, Faizi, Maan Singh.
Rai in the Battle of Chanderi in 1528. Defeated the
• Chand Bibi revolted during the reign of Akbar. Akbar
Afghan Chief under Mahmud Lodhi in the Battle of
built Buland Darwaza in 1601 AD in Fatehpur Sikri to
Ghaghra in Bihar in 1529. Tomb of Babur is situated in
communicate his victory over Gujarat. He also built
Kabul.
Ibadat Khana.
Father Monserrate wrote a commentary on his journey
Humayun •
to the court of Akbar. He wrote about personality of
• Babur’s eldest son Humayun divided the empire Akbar, lavishness, customs, rituals of the palace. He also
inherited from his father among his three brothers wrote about revenue and justice systems.
Kamran, Hindal and Askari.
• Humayun built the Dinpanah at Delhi as his second
capital. He was attacked by Sher Shah at Chausa (Battle Year Territory Specific
of Chausa) in 1539 and was defeated badly. In Battle of 1561 Malwa The ruler of Malwa was Baz Bahadur.
Kannauj (1540) he was defeated again by Sher Shah Suri. 1564 Garhkatanga Rani Durgawati and her minor son, Bir
• After wandering for 15 years and after the death of Sher (a kingdom in Narayan, died fighting Mughals. The Mughal
Gondwana) army was led by Asaf Khan.
Shah, Humayun regained his lost kingdom in 1555,
1567 Chittor The storming of the fortress of Chittor was
defeating Sikander Shah with the help of Bairam Khan. one of the most famous military feats of
• Humayun died in 1556, after an accidental fall from the Akbar. Rana Udai Singh was its ruler.
stairs of his library building (Sher Mandal, Delhi). 1572-73 Gujarat Akbar built the famous Buland Darwaza at
Fatehpur Sikri in commemoration of this
• Humayunnama is the account of Humayun’s life written victory.
by Gulbadan Begum (his half-sister). 1574-76 Bihar and Akbar personally marched against Bihar and
Bengal drove out Daud from Patna and Hajipur.
Akbar 1576 Battle of Rana Pratap, the son of Udai Singh of Mewar,
Haldighati was severely defeated by the Mughal army
• Akbar (AD 1556-1605) was undoubtedly the brightest under Maan Singh and Asaf Khan.
star of the Mughal empire. Jalal-ud-din Mohammed 1581 Kabul Mirza Hakim was defeated.
Akbar was born in 1542 at Amarkot when his father
1586 Kashmir and
Humayun and mother Hamida Banu were struggling. Baluchistan
• At the time of his father’s death Akbar was merely
1591 Sindh
13 years old and was in the guardianship of Bairam
1592 Orissa The Mughal army was led by Maan Singh.
Khan, who on hearing of Humayun’s death coronated
Akbar at Kalanaur. 1595 Qandhar The Mughal army in this battle was
commanded by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.
• In November 1556, the Mughal army under Bairam
Khan moved towards Delhi and defeated Hemu in the 1601 Asirgarh The capture of Asirgarh marked the climax of
Akbar’s career of conquest.
Second Battle of Panipat.
GENERAL STUDIES History 789

• Many foreign travellers visited India during the reign

Jahangir of Shah Jahan. Two Frenchman Bernier and Travenier
• Akbar’s eldest son Salim assumed the title ‘Nur-ud-din and an Italian adventurer Manucci, the author of the
Mohammed Jahangir’ and ascended the throne. He mostly Storio Dor Magor are specially noteworthy.
lived in Lahore, which he adorned with gardens and
buildings. A few months after his accession, his eldest son
Khusrau revolted against him.
Aurangzeb
• Aurangzeb ascended the throne with the title of
• Jahangir’s first political success was against the Mewar Alamgir (conqueror of the world) and ruled for almost
Rana Amar Singh (1615). In 1620, Prince Khurram 50 years.
conquered Kangra. Jahangir followed the policy of his • During his reign the Mughal empire reached territorial
father with regard to the Deccan. climax. He first defeated the Imperial army at
• In 1617, Ahmednagar fell and Khurram was rewarded Dharmatt and then defeated a force led by Dara in the
with the title ‘Shah-Jahan’. Jahangir married Mehr-u-nisa, Battle of Samugarh.
whom he gave the title ‘Nur-Jahan’. • He ordered the arrest and later executed the ninth Sikh
• Nur-Jahan was a politically shrewd and ambitious woman Guru, Guru Teg Bahadur. He discontinued the
who dominated the royal household especially when practice of inscribing the Kalima on the coins and
Jahangir fell ill. She had great influence on Jahangir’s life abolished the celebration of the new year’s day
as she had the status of Pad Shah Begum, coins were (Nauroz). He was constantly involved in trying to
struck in her name and on all farmans her name was curtail the rising maratha power, however he failed to
attached to the imperial signature. subdue them.
• Nur Jahan’s influence secured high positions for her father • Aurangzeb’s reign was marked by growing agrarian
I’timad-ud-Daulah and for her brother Asaf Khan. She crisis and popular rebellions, such as those of the Jats,
married Asaf’s daughter Mumtaz Mahal to Khurram. the Satnamis, the Sikhs and the Rajputs (when Jodhpur
was annexed).
• Problem arose, when Nur Jahan married her daughter Sher
Afghani to Jahangir’s youngest son, Shaharyar. Now, Nur • His religious policies were great setback to the
Jahan supported him for the heir-apparent. standards of tolerance and liberalism set by his
predecessors. Mulhitasib (regulator of moral conduct)
• The Mughal court was divided into Pro-Nur Jahan and
was appointed in the reign. Aurangzeb was called a
Anti-Nur Jahan. These events hampered the military
Darvesh or Zinda Pir. He also forbade Sati. He
operation for the recovery of Kandahar.
patronised the greatest digest of Muslim law in Indian
• Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615-19) Fatawa-i-Alamgiri. He was a diplomat and capable
visited his court to gain favourable concessions for English general.
trade with India. As a result of the efforts of Thomas Roe,
• He imposed Jaziya on the Hindus in 1679. He banned
English factories were established at Surat, Agra,
music and dancing. He died in 1707 in the Deccan.
Ahmedabad and Broach.

Shah Jahan Later Mughals

Bahadur Shah He was generous, learned and pious
• Shah Jahan, the third son of Jahangir, ascended the throne without any bigotry. He assumed the title of Shah
in AD 1628 and married Mumtaz in 1612. Alam and was known as Shah-i-Behkhabar.
• He was an able general and administrator. In the first year Jahandar Shah Jahandar Shah’s three brothers namely
of his reign Shah Jahan had to overcome the revolts of the Azim-us-Shan, Rafi-us-Shan and Jahan Shah lost
Bundela chief, Juzhar Singh and the Afghan noble named their lives in the Battle of successions. He became
Khan Jahan Lodhi an ex-viceroy of the Deccan. king with the help of Zulfikar Khan. He abolished
• Shah Jahan’s reign of 30 years is regarded as the Golden Jaziya.
age of Mughal in art and architecture during which Farrukhsiyar He had succeeded the throne with the help
monument like the famous Taj Mahal at Agra in the of Sayyid brothers Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali.
memory of his wife Mumtaz, the Red fort at Delhi with In 1717, Farrukhsiyar gave tax free trade permission
its Diwan-i-Khas and Diwan-i-Aam, the Jama Masjid and to British East India Company to trade through
the famous Jewel-studded peacock throne were built Bengal. This Royal farman became Magna Carta for
among other numerous pieces of architecture. British East India Company. In 1719, Sayyid Brothers
• At the time of Shah Jahan’s sickness in 1657 his eldest son killed him with the help of Maratha Peshwa Balaji
was in Agra, Shuja was Governor in Bengal, Aurangzeb Vishwanath.
was viceroy in the Deccan and the youngest Murad was Mohammed Shah Nadir Shah invaded India in 1738-39.
Governor in Gujarat. Nadir Shah defeated him in the Battle of Karnal
• Aurangzeb took control of the fort and crowned himself
(1739) and took away peacock throne and Kohinoor
diamond. He was the most pleasure loving ruler of
at Delhi, after defeating his brothers. Shah Jahan was kept loose morals and therefore, called Mohammed Shah
in strict confinement at Agra fort till his death in 1666. Rangeela.
790 CDS Pathfinder

Ahmed Shah Mohammed Shah was • Sipah Salar Commander of the • A civilian was to be head of entire
succeeded by his only son force. province and was given a small
Ahmed Shah, born through a • Kotwal was primarily the chief of army. In the field of central
dancing girl whom the emperor the city police. administration Sher Shah followed
had married. During this period, • The Mansabdari system introduced the Sultanate pattern.
Safdarjung the nawab of Awadh
by Akbar was a unique feature of There were four main central
was the Wazir of the empire.
the administrative system of the departments, which were as follow
During Ahmed Shah’s reign
Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded Mughal empire. i. Diwan-i-Wijarat This department
India twice in 1749 and 1752, • In Akbar’s reign the empire was was concerned with financial
when he marched upto Delhi. divided into 15 Subas. matter.
Alamgir II After the de-thronement • The territory of the empire was ii. Diwan-i-Ariz Headed by
of Ahmed Shah, Aziz-ud-din a divided into Khalisa, Jagirs and Ariz-i-mumalik. It was a military
grandson of Jahandar Shah was Inam. department.
placed on the throne with the • Zabti system was based on the iii. Diwan-i-Insha Working as a
title Alamgir II. secretariat.
measurement and assessment of
Shah Alam II Shah Alam II joined land. iv. Diwan-i-Rasalat Headed by
hands with Mir Qasim of Bengal Sadar, this department dealt with
• During Mughals Tins-i-Kamil refers
and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in foreign affair matter.
the Battle of Buxar against the to cash crop and earning from cash
crop. Diwan-i-Kaza headed by Qazi.
British in 1764. They were
The Qazi looked after the judicial
defeated.
Akbar II He gave the title of Raja to
Revenue System administration.
Ram Mohan Roy. He started the • Land was measured using the There were two important officials at
Hindu-Muslim unity festival Sikandari-gaz one-third of the the Sarkar level, which were as follow
Phool-Walon-Ki-Sair. average produce was fixed as tax. i. Shiqdari-i-Shiqadaran to maintain
Bahadur Shah II During the revolt • The peasant was given a Patta and law and order.
of 1857, he was proclaimed the a Qabuliyat, which fixed the ii. Munshif-i-Munshifan to supervise
emperor by the rebels. He was peasants rights and taxes. the revenue collection.
confined by the British to the Zamindars were removed and taxes • Sher Shah is known for the
Red Fort. were directly collected.
construction of the Grand Trunk
Road, that stretched from the river
Mughal THE AFGHAN Indus in the West to Sonargaon in
Administration INTERLUDE Bengal in East.
• Sarais (rest house) were built on
• Babur and Humayun had a Prime
roads. Markets developed around
Minister known as Vakil. After
Bairam Khan’s fall all important
Sher Shah Suri these and some of them were even
departments of finance were taken • He founded second Afghan dynasty used for new service as Dak-Chowki.
away from the Vakil. (1st Lodhi dynasty). Sher Shah’s • He introduced coins of unalloyed
• Wazir or Diwan was the head of original name was Farid. In AD gold, silver and copper of fixed
the revenue department. 1522, Farid took service under standards. The silver ‘Rupaya’ and
Babur Khan Lohani (Governor of the copper ‘Dam’ were also
• Mir Bakshi Military department.
Bihar) ruler in Bihar. available.
• Mir Saman Held independent
• Sher Shah was an Afghan, who
charge of the household department • He built a tomb at Sasaram (Bihar)
and the Karkhanas. ruled Agra and Delhi. Sher Shah for himself which is a masterpiece of
• Chief Qazi Judicial department. was particularly perturbed by architecture.
activities of Raja Maldev of Marwar.
• Sadr-us-Sadr Charitable and • He built a new city on the bank of
Sher Shah got better of him in the
religious endowments. Yamuna river (present day Purana
Battle of Sammel in 1544. Sher Shah
• Mustaufi Auditor-General. Qila).
divided his empire into 47 Sarkars.
• Amil Judicial officer in civil court. Each sarkar was divided into smaller • Abbas Khan Sarwani was the
• Kanungo Head accountant. units called parganas. Sher Shah died historian in the court of Sher Shah
• Lambardar Head of village. in 1545 in an explosion during his who wrote (The Tarikh-i-Sher
• Patwari Accountant of village. conquest of Kalinjar fort. Shahi).
GENERAL STUDIES History 791

Sambhaji’s son Shahu after his Prants) helped in establishing a

THE MARATHAS release from the Mughals in 1707 strong revenue system.
had to contend with his aunt Tara • The revenue system seemed to have
Shivaji, the son of Shahaji, was the Bai for the Maratha throne. been patterned on the Kathi system
creator of the Maratha nation. He of Malik Ambar, in which land was
united the Maratha chiefs from carefully measured with the help of
Malwa, Konkan and Desh regions to Pradhan Post/Responsibility a measuring rod or kathi.
carve out a small kingdom. Peshwa or the Prime Minister, he looked after • The assessment of revenue was
He took control of the hereditary Chief Minister/ general administration and later made after a careful survey and
Jagir after the death of his guardian Mukhya assumed great importance.
Pradhan
classification of the lands according
Konadev in 1647. to their quality and yield. The
• Shivaji was born in the hill fort of Pratinidhi Rajaram created the new post share of the state was fixed at
of Pratinidhi, thus, taking the
Shivner in 1627. Shivaji began his total number of Ministers to two-fifths of the gross produce.
military career at a young age. He nine. • The cultivator was given the option
captured the fort of Toran in 1656. Amatya or Accountant general, he later of paying either in cash or kind. A
From 1656, he started capturing Majumdar became Revenue and Finance new revenue assessment was
many other forts from the local Minister. completed by Annaji Datto in
officers of Bijapur. Sachiv or Also called Chitnis, he looked AD 1679.
• After sometime, Shivaji raided Surunavis after the royal correspondence.
(Surnis)
Bijapur. Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur
sent his General Afzal Khan to Sumant or Foreign affairs and the master
The Peshwas
Dabir of royal ceremonies. • The period of Peshwa domination
capture Shivaji. But Shivaji was too
clever for him and killed him with Senapati or Military Commander, he looked in Maratha history started during
Sar-i-Naubat after the recruitment, training Shahu’s reign with the appointment
a deadly weapon called Baghnakh and discipline of the army.
or tiger’s claw. of Balaji Vishwanath as the Peshwa
Mantri or Personal safety of the king, he of King Shahu in 1713.
• Shivaji now began to attack the Waqianavis looked after the intelligence,
Mughal territories. Aurangzeb sent posts and household affairs. • Balaji Vishwanath was an able
Shaista Khan, the Viceroy of the Nyayadhish Administration of justice. administrator as well as an excellent
Deccan, with a big army against Pundit Rao Looking after charitable and
diplomat. He was followed by Baji
Shivaji. Shaista Khan captured religious affairs of the state. He Rao I (son of Balaji Vishwanath)
Poona. But Shivaji managed to worked for the moral upliftment who was the Peshwa from 1720 to
of the people. 1740. During this period, the
outwit the Mughals in 1663.
• Aurangzeb sent his own son, Maratha kingdom was transformed
Prince Muazzam and then, on his into an empire.
failure, Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Kingdom Territory • Balaji Baji Rao succeeded Baji Rao
Amber was sent against Shivaji. Scindia Gwalior I and was formally made the head
Raja Jai Singh won a few victories Holkar Indore of the state after the death of King
against Shivaji and besieged him in Pawar Dhar
Shahu in 1749. During Balaji Baji
Purandhar in 1665. Rao reign, the Maratha empire
Gaekwad Baroda
• Shivaji visited the Mughal Court of further expanded and Maratha
Bhonsle Nagpur Army overran the whole of Delhi.
Agra at the persuasion of Jai Singh, Peshwa Puna
but he was put there in detention. • The Marathas came into conflict
However, Shivaji escaped in 1666 with Ahmed Shah Abdali of
and resumed his career of conquests.
Revenue Administration Afghanistan. The result was the
• Shivaji abolished the Jagirdari Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
• In 1674, Shivaji made Raigarh as
system and replaced it with The Maratha Army was completely
his capital and celebrated his Ryotwari system. Shivaji brought
•
coronation and assumed the title of routed and the Peshwa’s son,
about changes in the position of Vishwas Rao and Sadashiva Rao
‘Chhatrapati’. He died in 1680 at hereditary revenue officials,
the age of 53. Bhau were killed.
variously called Deshmukhs,
• Shivaji’s son Sambhaji ascended the Deshpandes, Patils and Kulkarnis. • The Peshwa ruled from Poona, but
throne in the face of a hostile Shivaji strictly supervised the four semi-independent Maratha
faction which supported his Mirasdars, i.e., those with states emerged. These states were
step-brother Rajaram. His raiding hereditary rights in land. Baroda ruled by Gaikwad, Nagpur
the Mughal territories and giving ruled by Bhonsle, Indore ruled by
• Though, he did not completely do
shelter to Akbar II the rebel son of Holkar and Gwalior ruled by
away with these officials, he Scindhia.
Aurangzeb, prompted the later to considerably reduced their powers
capture and execute Sambhaji in by close supervision and strict • Last Peshwa was Baji Rao II. He
1689. collection of revenue from them. signed Treaty of Bassein 1802,
• Rajaram was crowned the King under it he signed subsidiary alliance
• Appointment of revenue officials
but when he died, his widow Tara with British and thus, Maratha
(Subahdars or Karkuns, in charge kingdom slowly diminished.
Bai ascended the throne. of revenue administration of
GENERAL STUDIES History 803

PART III MODERN INDIA

ADVENT OF THE Danes
EUROPEANS IN INDIA Danes East India Company was founded in AD 1616. They
established their settlement at Bengal (Serampur),
In the AD 17th-18th centuries India became a centre of Tranqueber (Tamil Nadu). They were forced to sell their
attraction for many European nations, who were inspired settlements to the British in 1854.
by the new spirit of adventure and discovery. Following is
the order in which Europeans came to India French
• ‘Compagnie des Indes Orientales’ popularly known as the
The Portuguese French East India Company was formed by Colbert,
• Vasco da Gama was sent in 1498 from Lisbon to find under state patronage in AD 1664.
the direct sea-route from Europe to India. Francisco • In AD 1667, an expedition was sent under
Almeida was the first Governor of Portuguese in India Francois Caron, who established the first French factory
(1505-09). He introduced ‘The Policy of Blue Water’. India at Surat. In AD 1669, Marcara founded another
Albuquerque, the next Governor, built a great French factory at Masulipatam by securing patent from
territorial power in India. the Sultan of Golconda.
• They established trading settlements at Calicut, Cochin • In July 1672, French squadron under De La Haye
and Cannanore. Cochin was the early capital of the occupied San Thome near Madras.
Portuguese in India. The Portuguese maritime empire • In 1673, Francois Martin, director of the Masulipatam
acquired the name of Estado da India which intended factory, obtained from Sher Khan Lodi, Governor of
to monopolise the pepper and spice trade of the East. Valikondapuram, a site for a factory, which later
• The Portuguese were able to establish their settlements developed into Pondicherry and its first governor was
near the sea in Diu, Daman, Salsette, Bassein, Chaul Francois Martin.
and Bombay on the Western coast and San Thome near • In Bengal, the French laid the foundation of their famous
Madras and Hooghly in Bengal. settlement of Chandranagar in AD 1690 on a site granted
to them by Shaista Khan.
Dutch
• In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was formed by The European Commerce
the Dutch Parliament through a charter which gave India had maintained its trade relations with the foreign
them powers to fight wars. merchants even during the earlier centuries. There was a
• The Dutch gradually set-up factories at Masulipatnam, great difference between the foreign merchants who had
Pulicat, Surat, Bimilipatnam, Karikal, Chinsura, earlier settled in and conducted brisk trade from India and
Kasimbazar, Boranagore, Patna, Balasore, Nagapatnam the Europeans who came to India in the 16th and 17th
and Cochin. In 18th century, Dutch power in India centuries.
began to decline and finally, collapsed with their defeat
by English in the Battle of Bedara in 1759. GOVERNOR-GENERAL
English OF BENGAL
• English East India Company was founded in AD 1600 Warren Hastings (1773-85)
by the merchants of London, for trade with India. It • He became Governor of Bengal in 1772 and first
was chartered on 31st December, 1600 by Queen
Governor-General of Bengal in 1773, through the
Elizabeth and granted the monopoly of Eastern trade.
Regulating Act. He abolished the dual system of
• Jahangir permitted the East India Company to establish administration.
factories at several places in the empire. Gradually, the • He divided Bengal into districts and appointed collectors
company established factories at Agra, Ahmedabad, and other revenue officials. He established India’s first
Baroda, Broach, Bombay, Surat, Madras, Masulipatnam Supreme Court in Calcutta.
and different parts of Orissa, Bihar, Bengal.
• He founded Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones
• The Island of Bombay was acquired by the East India in 1784 and wrote introduction to the first English
Company from the British Government in 1668 and translation of the Gita by Charles Wilkins.
was immediately fortified. The first factory of English • Started Diwani and Faujdari adalats and the district level
was established at Surat (1608). Sadar diwani and Nizmat adalats (appellate courts).
804 CDS Pathfinder

• He redefined Hindu and Muslim • In 1800, he set-up Fort William College Lord Ellenborough
laws. A translation of code in in Calcutta. He was famous as Bengal
(1842-44)
Sanskrit appeared under the title Tiger. He brought the censorship of
‘Code of Gentoo laws’. Press Act, 1799. Brought an end to the Afghan
• First Anglo-Maratha War was
War (1842). The main events
fought during his period, which Sir George Barlow (1805-07) which took place during his
ended with Treaty of Salbai Vellore mutiny (1806, by soldiers) took tenure were as follow
(1776-82). Second Anglo-Mysore place. Second Anglo-Maratha War ended. • Annexation of Sindh to
War (1780-84), ended with Treaty British Empire (1843).
of Mangalore. Rohilla War (1774) Lord Minto I (1807-13) • Charles Napier was replaced
look place. Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with Ranjit Singh by Major Outram as the
• Pitts India Act, 1784 and Edmund was signed. Charter Act of 1813 ended the resident in Sindh.
Burke Bill, 1783 was passed. monopoly of East India Company in India.
Deprived Zamindars of their Lord Hardinge (1844-48)
judicial powers. Maintenance of Lord Hastings (1813-23) The main events during his
records was made compulsory. Adopted the policy of intervention and tenure were First Anglo-Sikh
• Impeachment proceedings started war. Anglo-Nepal War (1813-23) took War and the Treaty of Lahore.
against him in Britain on the place.
charges of taking bribe. After a Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)
trial of 7 years, he was finally GOVERNOR-GENERALS The main events during his
acquitted. tenure were Second Anglo-Sikh
OF INDIA War (1848-49) and annexation of
Lord Cornwallis (1786-93) Punjab. Abolished title and
• First person to codify laws (1793). Lord William Bentinck (1828-35) passed pensions. Widow
The code separated the revenue • Most liberal and enlightened among all Remarriage Act (1856).
administration from the Governor-General of India. Regarded as Introduced Doctrine of Lapse.
administration of justice. He the ‘Father of Modern Western Woods Educational Despatch of
introduced Izaredari System in Education in India’. Abolition of Sati in 1854 was passed. Introduction of
1773. He started the permanent 1829 by Regulation XVII. Thugi was the Railway, Telegraph and
settlement of Bengal. suppressed in 1830. Passed the Charter
the Postal System in 1853.
• He created the post of District Act, of 1833.
Second Anglo-Burmese War
Judge. He is called the father of • Deposition of Raja of Mysore and (1852) took place. Santhal
Civil Services in India. Third annexation of his territories (1831). uprisings (1855-56) took place.
Anglo-Mysore War and the Treaty Abolition of provincial court of appeal Charter Act of 1853 was passed.
of Seringapatam. He undertook and appointment of commissioners
police reforms. instead.
DOCTRINE OF LAPSE
• He was first Governor-General of India.
Sir John Shore (1793-98) First Medical College was opened in
●
The Doctrine of Lapse was
planned by Lord Dalhousie to
He played an important role in Calcutta in 1835. Signed Treaty of deal with questions of
planning the permanent settlement. Friendship with Ranjit Singh (1831). succession to princely states or
Introduced First Charter Act (1793). Annexed Coorg (1834) and Central Territory of India. According
Famous for his policy of Cachar (1831). to the doctrine, if ruler of any
non-interference. Battle of Kharla princely states under the
between Nizam and Marathas (1759). Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835-36) paramountry of the company
Passed the famous press law, which died without a natural heir, the
Lord Wellesey (1798-1803) liberated the press in India. He is known state would automatically be
• Introduced the system of as liberator of press. annexed to the British Empire.
Subsidiary alliance. Madras ●
The company took over the
presidency was formed during his Lord Auckland (1836-42) princely states of Satara
(1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur
tenure. Fourth Anglo-Mysore In 1839, Lord Auckland had started (1849), Nagpur and Jhansi
war in 1799, Tipu Sultan died. First construction of Grand Trunk Road from (1854), Tanjore and Arcot
subsidiary treaty with Nizam of Calcutta to Delhi. In his period, Sher Shah (1855), Udipur (Chhattisgarh)
Hyderabad. Second Anglo-Maratha Suri Marg was also renamed as the Grand and Oudh (1856) under the
War took place. Trunk Road (GT Road). terms of the Doctrine of
Lapse.
GENERAL STUDIES History 805

Commission under the Presidency • Appointment of Universities

VICEROYS of Richard Strachey in 1878. He Commission in 1902 and passing of
OF INDIA was also called as the Viceroy of
reverse characters.
Indian Universities Act in 1904.
• Establishment of Department of
Lord Canning (AD 1858-62) • Under his governorship, the Commerce and Industry. Passed
• The last Governor-General and the Vernacular Press Act was passed in the Indian Coinage and Paper
first Viceroy. Withdrew Doctrine 1878 to curtail the freedom of the Currency Act (1899) and put India
of Lapse. Transfer of control from Indian language press. The Act was on a gold standard.
East India Company to the crown, intended to prevent the vernacular
the Government of India Act, in press from expressing criticism of Lord Minto II (AD 1905-10)
1858. British policies. Establishment of Muslim League by
• ‘White Mutiny’ by European Aga Khan in 1906. Split of Congress
troops in 1859 took place. Indian Lord Ripon (AD 1880-84) in annual session of 1907 in Surat. The
Councils Act of 1861 was passed. The first Factory Act in 1881 to Indian Council Act of 1909 or the
improve labour conditions. Morley-Minto Reforms was passed.
Lord Elgin (AD 1862-63) Continuation of financial Popularisation of anti-partition and
Wahabi Movement, took place. decentralisation. Government Swadeshi Movement.
Inauguration of High Court resolution on local self-government in
judicature in Bengal. Transfer of 1882. Appointment of Education Lord Hardinge II (AD 1910-16)
Indian Navy to admiralty. Commission under chairmanship of • Annie Besant announced the Home
Sir William Hunter in 1882. Rule Movement. Coronation
Lord John Lawrence durbar of king George V held in
(AD 1864-69) Lord Dufferin (AD 1884-88) Delhi in 1911. Creation of Bengal
He created the Indian Forest Establishment of the Indian National Presidency (like Bombay and
Department. Bhutan War of 1865 Congress. He was Governor-General Madras) in 1911 or partition of
took place. Setting up of the High and Viceroy of India. Punjdeh Affair Bengal was cancelled (1911).
Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and (1884). He celebrated the silver jubilee Transfer of capital from Calcutta to
Madras in 1865. Opened the of Queen Victorica on 16th February, Delhi in 1911.
Telegraphic Communication with 1887. • Establishment of the Hindu
Europe.
Mahasabha in 1915 by Madan
Lord Lansdowne (AD 1888-94) Mohan Malaviya. Gandhiji came
Lord Mayo (AD 1869-72) • Second Factory Act of 1891 was back to India from South Africa
Opening of the Rajkot College in passed which, granted a weekly (1915).
Kathiawar and the Mayo College at holiday.
Ajmer for political training of Indian
Princes. Establishment of Statistical • Categorisation of civil services into Lord Chelmsford (AD 1916-21)
Survey of India. Establishment of imperial, provisional and • Formation of Home Rule Leagues
Department of Agriculture and subordinate. Indian Council Act of by Annie Besant and Tilak in 1916.
Commerce. Started the process of 1892, was passed. Lucknow Pact between the
financial decentralisation in India. • Setting up of Durand Commission Congress and Muslim League in
in 1893 to define the Durand Line 1916.
Lord Northbrook (AD 1872-76) between India and Afghanistan • Appointment of Saddler’s
Important events took place during (now between Pakistan and Commission in 1917 for reforms in
his rule are Kuka Movement, Trial of Afghanistan). educational policy. Jallianwalla
Gaekwad of Baroda and Bihar Bagh massacre of 1919. Launch of
Famine. He abolished income tax. Lord Elgin II (AD 1894-99) Non-cooperation and Khilafat
British officials assassinated by Movement.
Lord Lytton (AD 1876-80)
Chapekar brothers in 1897. Lyall • Appointment of SP Sinha as the
• Royal titles in 1876, Queen commission appointed after famine of Governor of Bihar (the first Indian
Victoria assuming the title of 1896-97. to become a governor). Death of
‘Kaiser-i-Hind’ or Queen Empress Tilak (1st August, 1920).
of India. The Arms Act of 1878 Lord Curzon (AD 1899-1905)
was passed. Lord Reading (AD 1921-26)
• Appointment of Police
• Famine of 1876-78 affecting Commission in 1902 under Sir • Moplah rebellion in Kerala in 1921.
Madras, Bombay, Mysore, Andrew Frazer to review police Communist Party was founded in
Hyderabad, parts of Central India administration. 1920 by MN Roy.
and Punjab, appointment of Famine
806 CDS Pathfinder

• Chauri Chaura incident on Lord Linlithgow (AD 1936-44)

5th February, 1922 and
• First general elections in 1936-37,
LAND REVENUE
subsequent withdrawal on
non-cooperation movement. Congress attained absolute majority SYSTEM
in 6 states.
• Vishwabharati University started
in 1922. Establishment of Swaraj • Resignation of the Congress Permanent Settlement
party by CR Das and Motilal ministries after the outbreak of the
World War II in 1939. • Introduced in Bengal, Bihar-Orissa,
Nehru in 1922.
districts of Banaras and Northern
• Decision to hold simultaneous • Escape of Subhash Chandra Bose
districts of Madras by Lord
examinations for the ICS both in from India in 1941 and organisation Cornwallis in 1793. Sir John Shore
Delhi and London, with effect of the Indian National Army. planned this settlement.
from 1923. Kakori train robbery • Cripps Mission and Cripps plan to • It declared zamindars as the
of 1925. offer dominion status to India and owners of the land. Hence, they
Lord Irwin (AD 1926-31) setting up of a Constituent could keep 1/11th of the revenue
Assembly, its rejection by the collected to themselves while the
• Appointment of the Harcourt British got a fixed share of 10/11th
Congress.
Butler Indian States Commission of the revenue collected. The
in 1927. Visit of Simon • Passing of the ‘Quit India
zamindars were free to fix the
Commission to India in 1928 and Resolution’ by the Congress in rate. Assured of their ownership,
boycott of the Commission by 1942. Outbreak of ‘August many zamindars stayed in towns
the Indians. Revolution’ or Revolt of 1942 after and exploited their tenants.
• An All-Parties Conference held at the arrest of national leaders. • The zamindars collected the rents of
Lucknow in 1928 for suggestions land through different intermediate
for the (future) Constitution of Lord Wavell (AD 1944-47) collectors. As a result of such
India, the report of which was • Wavell Plan and the Shimla practice there had been creation of
called the Nehru Report or the Conference in 1942. C multi-level ranks of collector under
Nehru Constitution. Rajagopalachari’s CR formula in the zamindar.
• Murder of Saunders, the assistant 1944, failure of Gandhi-Jinnah talks
superintendent of police of in 1944. End of World War II in Ryotwari Settlement
Lahore, bomb blast in the 1945. Proposals of the Cabinet • It was introduced in Bombay,
Assembly Hall of Delhi in 1929, Mission Plan in 1946 and its Madras and Assam. Munro and
the Lahore conspiracy case and acceptance by the Congress. Charles Reed recommended it. In
bomb accident in train in Delhi in this system, the direct settlement
• Observance of ‘Direct Action Day’
1929. was made between the Government
on 16th August, 1948 by the Muslim
and the Ryots. The revenue was
Lord Willingdon (AD 1931-36) League. Announcement of the end of
based on the basis of the quality of
British Rule in India by Clement the soil and the nature of the crop.
• Second Round Table Conference
Atlee (Prime Minister of England) on
in 1931 and failure of the • The revenue was fixed for a period
20th February, 1947.
conference, resumption of Civil not exceeding 30 years. It was
Disobedience Movement. based on the Scientific Rent Theory
Lord Mountbatten of Ricardo. The position of the
• Announcement of Communal
(AD March 1947-August 1947) cultivator became more secure.
Award in 1932 under which
separate communal electorates Last Governor-General of India.
were set-up. Introduction of Indian Independence Mahalwari System
• ‘Fast unto death’ by Gandhiji in Bill in the House of Commons. India • It was introduced in the area of
Yervada prison, broken after the Independence Act passed by the British Ganga valley NWFP, parts of
Poona Pact in 1932. Parliament on 4th July, 1947 by which Central India and Punjab. Revenue
India became independent on 15th settlement was to be made by
• Third Round Table Conference of village or estates with landlords.
1932. The Government of India August, 1947.
• In this system, a settlement was
Act of 1935. Burma separated
from India in 1935. C Rajagopalachari (AD 1948-50) made with the village which
maintained a form of common
• Establishment of All India Kisan The last Governor General of
ownership known as Bhai Chara or
Sabha in 1936 and Congress free India (The first being
with Mahals, which were group of
Socialist party by Acharya Mountbatten). The only Indian
villages. Revenue was periodically
Narendra Dev and Jaya Prakash Governor General, remained in office
revised.
Narayan in 1934. till January, 1950.
GENERAL STUDIES History 807

• Religious Discrimination The William Taylor and Edgre

Taluqdari System social reforms by British was against
•
suppressed the revolt at Arrah.
• The Mahalwari system did not the people’s will (widow remarriage, Tantia Tope was betrayed by a
cover the whole of the Uttar abolition of sati, school for girls, friend. He was captured and
Pradesh. In the district of Oudh, Christian missionaries etc). Soldiers executed on 15th April, 1859.
there existed another system were asked to use the Enfield Rifles
known as Taluqdari system. Under with greased (by pork or beef) Causes Behind the
it a number of villages were put cartridges. Failure of the Revolt
under the Taluqdari system. The • Economic Grievances Heavy
government entered into an • Lack of unity and poor
taxations, discriminatory tariff organisation of the revolt. All the
agreement with the Taluqdar for a policy; destruction of traditional
period of 30 years. classes of the society were not
handicrafts that hit peasants, effected or participated in the
• The Taluqdar collected the artisians and small zamindars. revolt. Lack of common motive for
stipulated revenues from different
participating in the revolt.
villages put under his charge and Outbreak of the Revolt
deposited them with the Scindhias,
• Some of the rulers like
• Bengal Resentment in 19 native
government, after deducting the Nizam and Holkars helped
infantry of Behrampur, which
cost of collection of the revenues Britishers in repressing the revolt.
refused to use the newly introduced
and his own remuneration for the The military equipment of rebels
Enfield Rifle.
arduous work. was inferior.
• Mangal Pandey 34th native
• Unlike the Bengal Zamindars the
infantry fired at the sergeant major
Oudh Taluqdars had no real rights
of his regiment. Known as a part of
over the lands under their charge.
Mutiny of Barrackpur. Place Leaders
Moreover, they worked as revenue
collectors for the fixed period of • Where the rulers were loyal to the Barrackpore Mangal Pandey
the settlement, and not in British, the soldiers revolted, as in Delhi Bahadur Shah II, Bakht
perpetuity. Gwalior and Indore. In some places, Khan Hakim Ahsanullah
people revolted before the sepoys. (Chief advisor to Bahadur
Shah II)
• In the beginning, the rebels were Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal, Bijris
REVOLT OF 1857 successful. Europeans were killed, Qadir, Ahmadullah (advisor
of the ex-Nawab of Awadh)
police stations and law courts were
The mighty upsurge of 1857, swept attacked and revenue records were Kanpur Nana Sahib, Rao Sahib
over many parts of Northern and (nephew of Nana), Tantia
destroyed. But, the revolt was soon Tope, Azimullah Khan
Central India like an avalanche. The suppressed. (advisor of Nana Sahib)
British Empire in India was rattled Jhansi Rani Laxmibai
to its foundation. It was the most Suppression of the Revolt Bihar (Jagdishpur) Kunwar Singh, Amar Singh
significant movement of resistance • John Lawrence remarked, ‘‘Had a Allahabad and Maulvi Liyakat Ali
against European colonial rule. single leader of ability arisen among Banaras
them we must have been lost Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah (he
Causes of the Revolt beyond redemption.’’ Delhi was declared the revolt as
Jihad against English)
• Political Cause Nana Sahib was recaptured on 20th September, 1857
Farrukhabad Tufzal Hasan Khan
refused pension as he was the by John Nicholson and Bahadur
adopted son of Peshwa Baji Bijnor Mohammed Khan
Shah II was deported to Rangoon,
Rao-II. He later led the revolt where he died in 1862. His sons Muradabad Abdul Ali Khan
from Kanpur. were shot dead at Delhi. Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan
• Awadh (Lucknow) was annexed • Jhansi was recaptured by Hugh Mandsor Firoz Shah
in 1856, on charge of Rose on 17th June, 1858. Rani Gwalior/Kanpur Tantia Tope
maladministration and Jhansi was Lakshmi Bai died in the battle field. Assam Kandapareshwar Singh,
annexed owing to Doctrine of Manirama Datta
Kanpur was recaptured on
Lapse. 6th December, 1857 by Colin Orissa Surendra Shahi, Ujjwal
Shahi
• Military Discrimination Indian Campbell. Lucknow was recaptured
Kullu Raja Pratap Singh
soldiers were paid low salaries, on 21st March, 1858 by Colin
Rajasthan Jaidayal Singh and
they could not rise above the rank Campbell, Havelock and Outram. Hardayal Singh
of Subedar and were racially Nana Sahib and Hazrat Mahal both Gorakhpur Gajadhar Singh
insulted. escaped to Nepal.
Mathura Devi Singh, Kadam Singh
808 CDS Pathfinder

• A paper named Subodh Patrika was started in order

OTHER IMPORTANT EVENTS
to spread the teaching of the society. Some prominent
●
At Jhansi, Rani Laxmibai, the widow queen of Raja
Prarthana Samajist like Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar,
Gangadhar Rao, the last Maratha ruler of Jhansi, led
Narayan Ganesh Chandarvarkar, Gopal Ganesh
the rebellion.
Agarkar, KT Telang etc contributed for overall
●
In Bihar, Kunwar Singh of Arrah, raised the banner
development of the society.
of rebellion, which soon spread to many parts of Bihar,
including Danapur, Chhotanagpur, Ranchi, Palamau
etc. The tribals of the region also joined the rebellion.
Arya Samaj
Kunwar Singh overthrew the British authority in Arya Samaj founded by Dayanand Saraswati or
Shahabad and established his own government. He Mulshankar (1824-83).
marched to Kalpi to help Nana Sahib for a joint • The first Arya Samaj unit was formally set up by him
attack on Kanpur. at Bombay in 1975 and later the headquarter of the
●
Prince Firoz Shah raised the banner of revolt at Samaj was established at Lahore.
Mandsor (Madhya Pradesh) and kept the British forces
• Dayanand’s views were published in the famous work
engaged in Central India. Driven out of central
provinces, he campaigned in Ruhelkhand and Awadh. of Satyarth Prakash (The True Exposition). He gave
He also joined the forces of Tantia Tope in Rajputana. slogan “Go Back to the Vedas”. He disregarded
●
Khan Bahadur Khan raised the banner of revolt in Puranas, idol worship, casteism and untouchability. He
Ruhelkhand with epicenter at Bareilly. He proclaimed advocated widow remarriage.
himself the Nawab Nazim. • Arya Samaj has established a large number of
educational institutions in India particularly in the
North, like Kanya Gurukuls and DAV (Dayanand
Social and Cultural Uprisings Anglo-Vedic) Schools and College.
Brahmo Samaj • Dayanand was the first man to use the term Swaraj
• Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Rammohan Roy in and recognise Hindi as the National Language of
1828 at Calcutta. India.
• Roy believed in the modern scientific approach and • The Arya Samaj opposed all social evils of the Hindu
principles of human dignity and social equality. He put society like sati, polygamy, child marriage, purdah,
his faith in monotheism. casteism etc and started the Shudhi movement.
• He wrote the Gift to Monotheists (1809) and translated it Rama Krishna Mission
into Bengali the Vedas and five Upanishads to prove his
• The first Rama Krishna Math was established by the
conviction to that ancient Hindu text.
disciple of Rama Krishna, Swami Vivekananda at
• In 1814, he set-up Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta to campaign Baranagar in 1897.
against idolatry, caste rigidities, meaningless rituals and
• Vivekananda went to America in 1893 and attended the
other social evils.
World Parliament of Religious Conference at Chicago.
• In 1825, he established a Vedanta college where courses
• Vivekananda revived Hindu Spiritualism and thus,
in both Indian learning and Western social and physical
science were offered. established its superiority over Islam and Christianity.
Irish woman Margaret Nobel (known as sister Nivedita)
• Roy was a gifted linguist. He knew more than a dozen popularised the mission.
language including Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English,
French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew. He proposed English Young Bengal Movement
system of education.
• During the late 1820 and early 1830 there emerged a
Prarthana Samaj radical intellectual trend among the youth in Bengal,
which came to be known as the ‘Young Bengal
• Mahadev Gobind Ranade along with Dr Atmaram
Movement’.
Pandurang reorganised Paramhansa Sabha under the
• Founded by Henry Vivian Derozio, who taught in
guidance of Keshab Chandra Sen and founded Prarthana
Samaj in 1867. It was primarily a Social Reform and Hindu College Calcutta from 1826 to 1831. Derozio is
Social Work Movement. considered as the first nationalist poet of Modern India.
• He also edited Hosperus and Calcutta Literary Gazette.
• Beyond the religious concerns, the primary focus of the
Prarthana Samaj was to improve the condition of women He urged the students to live and die for truth. Derozio
and depressed classes. The samajist demanded to end the also supported women rights and education.
caste system, abolish the child marriages and infanticide, • The movement was too radical, therefore it could not
educate the women and remarriage of windows. survive for long.
GENERAL STUDIES History 809

Satya Shodhak Samaj

• Satya Shodhak Samaj (Truth Seeker’s Society) Movement Founder Feature
was founded by Jyotiba Phule in 1873. He Ved Samaj Keshab Chandra ● K Sridharula renamed it as Brahmo Samaj of South
belonged to the Mali (gardener) community Sen and India in 1871.
K Sridharula in
and organised a powerful movement against 1864
● K Sridharula translated Brahmo Samaj into Tamil
and Telugu languages.
upper caste domination and Brahminical
supremacy. Deva Samaj Shiv Narain ● Teachings were compiled in book form named
Agnihotri in 1887 Deva Shastra.
• Phule’s works ‘Sarvajanik Satyadharma’ and at Lahore
● Belief in the Supreme Being, Eternity of Soul,
‘Gulam Giri’ became sources of inspiration Supremacy of Guru.
for the common masses. Ahmadiya Mirza Ghulam in ● Belief that Islam is the final dispensation for
Movement Punjab in 1889 humanity.
• Phule opened with the help of his wife, a
girls school at Poona and was a pioneer of Dravida John Rathinam and ● Goals were to eradicate the ills of the existing caste
Kazhagam EV Ramaswamy system including untouchability.
widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra.
● Name of Dravida Kazhagam was changed to
Dravidar Kazhagam in 1944.
JAJMANI SYSTEM Dravida C Iyothee Thass ● Movement emphasised that Scheduled caste
●
This system was an Indian social caste Mahajana in 1891 people to register themselves as “casteless
Sabha Dravidians” instead of identifying themselves as
system and was an interaction between Hindus.
upper castes and lower castes. It was an
Self-Respect EV Ramaswamy ● Aim of achieving a society where backward castes
economic system where lower castes Movement in 1925 have equal human rights.
performed various functions for upper
● To encourage backward castes to have
castes. self-respect in the context of a caste-based society
●
The terminology of Jajmani system was that considered them to be a lower end of the
hierarchy.
introduced by William Wiser. He found
in his study on a village in Uttar Deoband Rashid Ahmad ● The movement was inspired by scholar Shah
Movement Gangohi, Waliullah Dehlawi.
Pradesh, that how different castes (Deobandis) Muhammad Yaqub
interacted with one another in the ● The group founded an Islamic seminary known as
Nanautawi in 1867
Darul Uloom Deoband, where Islamic revivalist and
production and exchange of goods and anti-imperialist ideology of the Deobandis began to
services. develop.
●
The system is based on the agricultural ● Deobandis advocated a notion of composite
system of production and distribution of nationalism by which Hindus and Muslims were
goods and services. seen as one nation.
Radha Tulsi Ram popularly ● Belief in one Supreme Being, Supermacy of Guru
Swami known as Dayal and Simple Social Life.
The Theosophical Movement Movement Sahib or Swamiji
Maharaj, in 1861
• The Theosophical Society was founded by
Madame Blavatsky and Col. Olcott in New

•
York in 1875.
The founders arrived in India in January 1882
NATIONAL MOVEMENTS
and established the headquarters of the
society at Adyar near Madras. Indigo Revolt (AD 1859-60)
• The society belief in the universal • The European planters used totally arbitary and ruthless methods to
brotherhood of humanity without any force peasants to grow the unremunerative Indigo crop on a part of
discrimination, study of comparative religion, their land in Eastern India.
philosophy and science and the unexplained • In 1860, the terribly oppressed indigo peasants launched
laws of nature and the powers latent in ‘non-cultivation of indigo’ movements. Beginning with the Ryots of
human. Govindpur village in Nadia district (Bengal) the Indigo strikes
• In 1888, Mrs Annie Besant joined the society rapidly spread to other areas by the spring of 1860.
in England. Her membership provided an • Important role was played by Harish Chandra Mukherji, editor of
asset of greatest values to the society. Hindu Patriot. ‘Deen Bandhu Mitra’s’ play Neel Darpan was based
• Annie Besant (1847-1933) became its on this. Michel Madhusudan Dutta eminent Bengali poet cum
President after the death of Olcott in 1907. play-writer, translated Neel Darpan into English.
She laid the foundation of the Central Hindu • The government appointed an Indigo Commission in 1860. Indigo
College in Banaras in 1898, which became riots took place in 1867-68 in Champaran (Bihar).
BHU in 1916.
810 CDS Pathfinder

• An important aspect of the Swadeshi Movement was

The Indian National Congress emphasis placed on self-reliance. At the Calcutta session
• Founded in 1885 by Allan Octavian Hume (AO Hume) the Congress decided to boycott British goods on 7th
a retired British member of Indian Civil Service. It is August, 1905.
thought, his main purpose was to encourage the • Lala Lajpat Rai, BG Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal (Lal,
foundation of Congress to provide a ‘safety valve’ or Bal and Pal) and Aurbindo Ghosh played important role
‘safety outlet’ to growing discontent among the educated in Swadeshi Movement.
Indians.
• The first session of the Indian National Congress was Muslim League (1906)
held on 28th December, 1885. Dadabhai Naoroji changed In 1906, the All India Muslim League was founded under
the name of the organisation to Indian National Congress the leadership of Agha Khan, Nawab Salim-ul-lah of Dacca
(INC). Wyomesh Chandra Banerjee a leading lawyer of and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. The League supported
Calcutta was elected its President. Its session was held in separate electorate for the Muslim community and opposed
Bombay under WC Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates the Nationalist moves of the Congress. In return, the
attended it). British declared that they would protect the ‘special
• In 1890, Kadambini Ganguly, the first woman graduate interest of the Muslims’.
of Calcutta university, addressed the Congress session.
The most outstanding representative of this school was The Surat Split or
Bal Gangadhar Tilak later popularly known as Surat Session of INC (1907)
Lokamanya Tilak. He was born in 1856. The most • The Indian National Congress (INC) split in two
outstanding extremist leaders were Bipin Chandra Pal, groups, the moderate and extremist groups at the Surat
Aurobindo Ghosh and Lala Lajpat Rai. session in 1907. Extremists were led by Lal Lajpat Rai,
BG Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal and the moderates by
The Partition of Bengal Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• On 20th July, 1905 Lord Curzon issued an order to • The government launched a massive attack on the
divide the province of Bengal into two parts. It was extremists (between 1907 and 1911) by suppressing their
done with a partial motive to set-up a communal gulf newspaper (Incitement to offences) and their leaders.
between Hindus and Muslims.
• The Anti-Partition Movement was started by most
The Ghadar Party Movement (1913)
prominent leaders like Surendranath Banerjee and • Taraknath Das, Sohan Singh Bhakana and Lala Hardayal
Krishna Kumar Mitra. There were cries of ‘Bande founded the Ghadar Party Movement.
Mataram’ which became a national song of Bengal. • In November, 1913, the Hind Association of America
• Rabindranath Tagore composed the national song ‘Amar was founded by Sohan Singh Bhakana. It decided to
Sonar Bangla’ for the occasion which was sung by huge publish a weekly paper Ghadar or Hindustan Ghadar in
crowd parading the streets. This song was adopted as commemoration with the Revolt of 1857.
national anthem by Bangladesh in 1971 after liberation. • The organisation headquarter was at San Francisco. Lal
• The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was observed on Hardayal, Bhai Parmanand and Ram Chandar were
16th October, 1905. Hindu and Muslim tied ‘rakhi’ in leading figures of the Ghadar Party Movement.
one another’s wrists as a symbol of the unbreakable • Ghadar party planned to initiate as armed revolt in
unity. India, in 1915. They planned to start revolt in Punjab
firstly, then followed by Bengal and rest of India. India
Swadeshi Movement units as far as Singapore were planned to participate in
the revolt.
• The leader of Bengal felt that mere demonstrations,
public meetings and resolutions were not enough and • British intelligence infiltrated the Ghadarite movement
something more concrete was needed and the answer felt and crushed the plan before started.
was Swadeshi and Boycott. People burnt foreign clothes
and foreign goods. Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
• The leaders of Bengal took up the work of national • The major problem at Champaran in Bihar was of the
education in right earnest. National educational Indigo planters. The European planters forced the
institutions were opened by them and literary, technical peasant to grow indigo on 3/20th of the total land area
and physical education was given there. (tin katie system). Peasants were also forced to sell their
produce at the prices fixed by the Europeans. When the
• On 15th August, 1906 a national council of education
German syntactic dyes replaced indigo, the planters
was set-up and Aurobindo Ghosh was appointed as the
demanded high rents and illegal dues from the peasants
first Principal of the National College.
in order to maximise their profit.
GENERAL STUDIES History 811

• Through tours in rural areas, he established direct Home Rule Leagues (1916)
contact with ordinary people and talked about their
• Home Rule Leagues having been inspired by the Irish
concerns in the language which they understood. This
was a novel political technique; it had never been rebellion, Mrs Annie Besant (September, 1916) and BG
practiced by the educated leaders of the congress. Tilak (April, 1916) set-up the Home Rule League.
• For the first time, the peasants were drawn into political • BG Tilak linked up Swaraj with the demand for the
agitation under a new type of leadership. formation of linguistic states and education in Vernacular
• For the first time in India, Gandhi was displaying that language. Tilak gave the popular slogan, “Freedom is my
magnetic personality, which was to draw multitudes to birth right and I shall have it.”
him and to earn him the title of Mahatma and the
nickname of Bapu. Under pressure from the Lucknow Pact (1916)
Government of India, the Government of Bihar The Lucknow session of the INC in 1916 was memorable
appointed a committee of enquiry (June, 1917). The event on account of two important development. First was
recommendations of the committee were implemented, re-admission of the extremists who had been expelled from
by the Champaran Agrarian Act of 1917. He was also the INC 9 years earlier. The second development was the
member of this committee. alliance between the Congress and Muslim League.
• Some of leaders associated with Gandhiji in this
Satyagraha were JB Kripalani, Rajendra Prasad, Mahadev Rowlatt Act (1919)
Desai, Narhari Parikh etc. The government passed the Rowlatt Act in March 1919,
• Based on this movement, a book Neel Darpan was which empowered the British Government to detain any
written by Dinbandhu Mitra. person without trial. The act was a serious betrayal of the
promises made by the government during the world war
Ahmedabad Satyagraha (1918) period.
• While Gandhiji was still engaged in his task in Bihar, he
received a letter from Shrimati Anasuyabai. She informed Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (1919)
him about the condition of workers in Ahmedabad mills • People were agitating against arrest of their popular
and requested him to take up their cause with the mill
leaders Dr Saif-ud-din Kitchlew and Dr Satyapal.
owners.
• On 13th April, 1919, Baisakhi Day, hundreds of people
• The terrible plague of 1917-18, led to a heavy decline in
the number of workers in the major industrial city of were massacred and several thousand wounded in
Ahmedabad. In order to attract the workers, the mill Jallianwala Bagh where they had assembled to held a
owners started paying them 75% of their wages as protest meeting against the repressive policies of the
plague bonus. government.
• The mill-owners declaration of locking out the mills on • The troops led by General Dyer opened fire on the
22nd February, 1918 made the situation even more unarmed men and women, young and old, Hindu and
serious. At last, the issue was resolved with the Muslim. It was regarded as the worst massacre during
intervention of Mahatma Gandhi. The mill owners the entire freedom struggle. Hunter Commission was
agreed to give 35% of wages as bonus. This offer was appointed to enquire into it.
accepted by the workers. • Sardar Udham Singh killed General Dyer on 13th
• Gandhiji intervened in a dispute between the workers March, 1940, when the latter was addressing a meeting
and mill owners and he took a fast unto death to force a in Caxton hall in London.
compromise.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918) The Khilafat Movement (1920-22)
The All India Khilafat Conference held at Delhi in
• It was first Non-Cooperation Movement in India. In
November, 1919. Gandhiji was the head of Khilafat
1917 most of the kharif crops of the farmers of Kheda
district in Gujarat were destroyed due to heavy rains Committee. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad also led the
thus, incapacitating them to pay the land revenue to the movement. Later a Khilafat Manifesto was published which
government. When the government refused to comply called upon the British to protect the Khalifa (Caliphate).
with the peasant’s demand to remit the land revenues,
Gandhiji advised them to withhold the payment and Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22)
launch a struggle against the government on 22nd • The Non-Cooperation Movement under the leadership
March, 1918. of Mahatma Gandhi, was launched to press three main
• Gandhiji with his lieutenants like Vallabhbhai Patel, the demands
young lawyer of Kheda (who had become Gandhiji’s i. The Khilafat issue.
follower during this Satyagraha), Indulal Yagnik and ii. The redressal of the Punjab wrongs.
many other youth, toured villages to encourage the
peasants. iii. The attainment of Swaraj.
812 CDS Pathfinder

• The programme of the movement had two main aspects Simon Commission (1927)
i. Destructive ii. Constructive • In November 1927, the British Government appointed the
• Under the first category came Indian Statutory Commission known as the Simon
– Surrender of titles and honorary offices and Commission (after the name of Chairman).
resignation from nominated seats in local bodies. • John Simon, a British politician, was appointed as
– Refusal to attend official functions. Chairman of the commission to review the situation in
– Gradual withdrawal of children from officially India with a view to introduce further reforms and
controlled schools and colleges. extension of parliamentary democracy.
– Boycott of British Courts by lawyers and litigants. • At Madras Session in 1927 presided over by Dr Ansari,
– Refusal on the part of the military, clerical and the Indian National Congress decided to boycott the
labour classes to offer themselves as recruits for commission.
service in Mesopotamia. • The police came down heavily on demonstrators. The
– Boycott the elections to the Legislative Council. lathi-charge at Lahore, led to the death or Lala Lajpat
– Boycott of the foreign goods. Rai because of injuries (30th October, 1928).
• Under the second category came • The agenda for the second round table conference held in
– Use of Swadeshi goods.
London was to discuss the report of Simon Commission.
– Hand spinning and weaving.
Bardoli Movement (1928)
– Removal of social evils like casteism and
• Bardoli Movement against the payment of land tax led by
untouchability. Vallabhbhai Patel in a village called Bardoli in Gujarat.
– Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Vallabhbhai Patel got the title Sardar from the women of
– Collection of money for Tilak Swaraj fund.
this movement.
– Setting up national educational institutions.

• The Prince of Wales visited India during this period. The Nehru Report (1928)
• Having boycotted the Simon Commission, the Indian
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922) political parties tried to hammer out a common political
• In Chauri Chaura (Near Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh), a programme.
police station including 22 policemen was burnt on • All parties conference met in February, 1928 and
5th February, 1922. On 12th February, 1922, Gandhiji appointed a sub-committee under the chairmanship of
decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement. Motilal Nehru to draft a Constitution. This was the first
• Most of the nationalist leaders including CR Das, major attempt by the Indians to draft a constitutional
Motilal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Jawaharlal framework for the country.
Nehru, however, expressed their bewilderment at • The committee also included Tej Bahadur Sapru. The
Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the Non-Cooperation report was finalised on August, 1928.
Movement on 12th February, 1922. In March 1922,
Gandhiji was arrested and sentenced for 6 years in jail. Other Political Parties
The Swarajya Party (1923) and Movements (1922-27)
• The moderates who had walked out of the INC in 1918,
• CR Das, Motilal Nehru and NC Kelkar suggested that
formed National Liberal League, later known as the All
instead of boycotting the councils, they should enter
India Liberal Federation and cooperated with the
and expose them.
government.
• In December 1922, Das and Motilal Nehru formed the
• The All India Khilafat Committee also ceased to function
Congress Khilafat Swarajya Party with CR Das as the
after the abolition of Khilafat in Turkey by Mustafa
President and Motilal Nehru as one of the secretaries.
Kamal Pasha in 1924.
• The Swarajists contested elections to the Legislative
• The Hindu Mahasabha, a communal organisation of the
Assembly and Provincial Councils. In 1923, elections
Hindus, founded in December 1915, also gained strength
they got 42 seats out of 101 elected seats in Bengal and
and Madan Mohan Malaviya was elected as its President at
Central Province. The party broke in 1926 after the
Belgaum Session.
death of CR Das.
GENERAL STUDIES History 813

Revolutionary Movements Movements After

Hindustan Republic Association Simon Commission
• In October 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts Lahore Session or Poorna Swaraj (1929)
of India was called at Kanpur. This meeting was attended • On 19th December, 1929, under the Presidentship of
by old revolutionary leaders like Sachindranath Sanyal, Pandit JL Nehru, the Lahore Session of the Congress
Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee and Ram Prasad Bismil and also gave voice to the new militant spirit. It passed a
by some new revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Shiv Verma, resolution declaring Poorna Swaraj (complete
Sukhdev, Bhagwati Charan Vohra and Chandra Shekhar independence) to be the Congress objective.
Azad.
• On 31st December, 1929 the newly adopted
• At this meeting, it was decided to set-up the Hindustan
tri-colour flag of freedom was hoisted. On 26th
Republican Association which was later recognised as the January, 1930, it was fixed as the first Independence
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). The Day, which was to be celebrated every year.
HSRA was founded at Kanpur in October, 1924 by
Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, The Civil Disobedience Movement
Ramprasad Bismil and Chandra Shekhar Azad and declared
its objectives. The Civil Disobedience Movement was started by
Gandhiji on 12th March, 1930 with his famous Dandi
Kakori Conspiracy Case March.
• Revolutionaries decided to commit a dacoity in a running Dandi March
train on 9th August, 1925 at Kakori on the
Lucknow-Saharanpur section of the Northern railway. 29 Mahatma Gandhi launched the Salt Satyagraha on 12th
arrested and tried in the Kakori Conspiracy Case. March, 1930. Gandhiji marched from his Sabarmati
Ashram (Ahmedabad) with 78 followers. After 24 days
• Four revolutionaries Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, long march, he symbolically broke the Salt Law at Dandi
Roshan Lal and Rajendra Lahiri were sentenced to death. on 6th April, 1930. The breaking of the Salt Laws
formally inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Saundar’s Murder This movement sparked off patriotism also among the
• The first revolutionary act of the HSRA was the murder of Indian soldiers in British Army. The Garhwali soldiers
Mr Saundars, the Assistant Superintendent of Police, refused to open fire on the people of Peshawar.
Lahore, who had ordered Lathi-charge and brutally
wounded Lala Lajpat Rai during Anti-Simon Commission First Round Table Conference
protest march at Lahore on 17th December, 1928. (12th November, 1930– January 1931)
• Saundars was killled at Lahore railway station on 30th The First Round Table Conference was held in London.
October, 1928 by Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad and 57 political leaders from India participated the
Rajguru. conference. Congress didn’t participate.
Bomb at Legislative Assembly Gandhi-Irwin Pact
• Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw two crude In March 1931, the famous Gandhi-Irwin Pact was
bombs in Central Legislative Assembly on 8th April, 1929, signed. Gandhi was appointed as the representative of
when assembly was discussing the Public Safety Bill and the the Congress of the Second Round Table Conference.
Trade Disputes Bill.
• Bhagat Singh and Dutt were arrested and tried in Central Second Round Table Conference
Assembly Bomb Case. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru (1st September - 1st December, 1931)
were hanged to death on 23rd March, 1931 at Lahore jail The Second Round Table Conference opened in
for their role in Saunder’s murder case. September, 1931 in London. Gandhiji represented the
INC and went to London to meet British PM Ramsay
Chittagong Armoury Raid MacDonald. Indian National Congress in 1932 was
Surya Sen (1930), a revolutionary of Bengal masterminded the declared an illegal organisation. British Government also
raid on Chittagong armoury. He was hanged in 1933. On 27th refused to concede the basic nationalist demand for
February, 1931 Chandra Shekhar Azad was surrounded by the freedom on the basis of immediate grant of dominion
police at Alfred Park, Allahabad where he shot himself dead. status.
814 CDS Pathfinder

The Communal Award (16th August, 1932) • The demand for a separate state was opposed by
Congress and large sections of Muslims such as,
Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced his Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan
‘Communal Award’ on 16th August, 1932. According to and others.
this award, the Muslim, European and Sikh voters would
elect their candidates by voting in separate communal
electorates. The award declared the depressed class (Scheduled
The Individual Satyagrahas
caste of today) also to be Minority Community entitled to • There were two opinions in Congress about the
separate electorate and thus, separated them from the rest of the launching of civil disobedience. Gandhi felt that the
Hindus. atmosphere was not in favour of civil disobedience as
there were differences and indiscipline within the
Poona Pact (25th September, 1932) Congress. While some leaders of Congress, socialists
• Gandhiji started his fast unto death in Yeravada jail near and the All India Kisan Sabha were in favour of
Poona, an 25th September, 1932. He wanted the immediate struggle.
Communal Award to be withdrawn. The Poona Pact • The August Offer had disillusioned the Congress.
according to which the idea of separate electorates for the Finally, Gandhiji had a long meeting with the Viceroy
depressed classes was abandoned, but the seats reserved for at Simla in September, 1940, after which he was
them in the provincial legislatures were increased from 71 convinced that the British would not modify their
in the Award to 147 and in the Central Legislature to 18% policy in India.
of the total.
• He therefore, decided to launch Individual Satyagraha.
• Poona Pact agreed upon to appoint electorate for upper The aim of the satyagraha was to disprove the British
and lower classes. Upliftment of harijan now became claim of India supporting the war effort wholeheartedly.
Gandhi’s main concern. He started an All India
• On 17th October, 1940, Acharya Vinoba Bhave (the
Anti-Untouchability League in September, 1932 and the
first Satyagrahi) inaugurated the satyagraha by
weekly Harijan in January, 1933 even before his release.
delivering an anti-war speech at Paunar; Bhave had
8th January, 1933 was observed a ‘Temple Entry Day’.
been personally selected by Gandhiji for this.
• After the Poona Pact, Mahatma Gandhi lost interest in
• Mahatma Gandhi suspended it on 17th December, 1940
the Civil Disobedience Movement and fully engrossed in
due to little enthusiasm it created. Jawaharlal Nehru
the Anti-Untouchability Movement, which led to the
was the second to offer Satyagraha after Vinoba Bhave.
foundation of the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
It was during Individual Satyagraha that Gandhi
Third Round Table Conference (1932) declared Nehru as his chosen successor. Individual
Satyagraha was also known as Delhi Chalo Satyagraha.
Held from 24th November to December, 1932. The
Congress boycotted it and only 46 delegates attended the August Offer (1940)
session.
• To get Indian cooperation in the war effort the viceroy
Lahore Resolution of League announced the August Offer (August 1940), which
proposed dominion status as the objective for India,
• In 1940 at the Lahore, a resolution called for independent expansion of viceroy’s Executive Council, setting up of
state for Muslims i.e. Pakistan, which was totally based a Constituent Assembly would frame the Constitution
on the Two-Nation Theory of Muslim League. after war according to their social, economic and
• The term Pakistan had been coined by Choudhary political conceptions.
Rahmat Ali in his Pakistan Declaration in 1933. He • Subject to fulfillment of obligation of the government
referred to the names of the five northern regions of the regarding defence, minority rights treaties with states.
British India namely; Punjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh All India Services and no future Constitution to be
and Baluchistan. adopted without the consent of minorities. The
Congress rejected the August Offer, but it was
Demand for Pakistan accepted by the Muslim League.
• In March, 1940 at the Lahore, demand for Pakistan was
called. The session was chaired by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Cripps Mission (1942)
• The Muslim League demanded that the areas in which the • In March 1942, when Japan occupied Rangoon, after
Muslims are numerically in a majority as in the having overrun almost the whole of South-East Asia.
North-Western and Eastern Zones of India should be • The British Government, with a view to get support
grouped to constitute Independent states. from India, sent Sir Stafford Cripps, leader of the
• The Muslim League was encouraged by the British House of Commons to settle terms with the Indian
Government to press its demand for a separate state. leaders.
GENERAL STUDIES History 815

• For the first time, through the Cripps Mission, British • INA had three fighting brigades named Gandhi, Azad
Government recognised the Right of Dominion for and Nehru. Even a women’s regiment named the Rani
India. The mission promised for fulfillment of past Jhansi Regiment was formed.
promises to ‘self government’ of Indian people. • In July 1944, Subhash Chandra Bose asked for Gandhi’s
• The Indian leaders refused to accept more promise for blessings for India’s last war of independence. Subhash
the future and Gandhiji told the proposals as a Chandra Bose who was now called Netaji by the soldiers
post-dated cheque on a crashing bank. of the INA gave his followers the battle cry of ‘Jai Hind’.
Subhash Chandra bose also gave the slogan ‘Dilli Chalo’.
The Quit India Movement (1942) • The last echo of the INA Movement was heard when the
INA prisoners were tried at the Red Fort in Delhi and
• Also known as proposal and leaderless revolt. The
were defended by a panel of lawyers which included Tej
Congress met at Bombay on 8th August, 1942 and Bahadur Sapru, Bhulabhai Desai and Jawaharlal Nehru.
passed the famous Quit India Resolution. Gandhiji gave
the slogan ‘Do or Die.’
• Rangoon and Singapore were the two INA headquarters.
• The Quit India Movement became a powerful mass
• 12th November, 1945 was celebrated as the INA Day.
compaign galvanising people into vehemently demanding
freedom from the British rule. Towards the Dominion States
• On 9th August, 1942, Gandhiji and other Congress Rajagopalachari Formula
leaders were arrested and the Congress party was
• C Rajagopalachari (CR) the veteran Congress leader,
declared illegal once again.
prepared a formula for Congress-League Cooperation. It
• The violence had broken out in different parts of the was an acceptance of the league’s demand for Pakistan.
country. Many government offices were destroyed, The main points in CR plan were as follows
telegraph wires were cut and communication paralysed. – Muslim League to endorse Congress demand for
• Mahatma Gandhi disclaimed all responsibilities for the independence.
violence which was the consequence of repressive – League to cooperate with Congress in forming a
measure taken by the British. The parallel government provisional government at centre.
was set-up in Ballia in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, by Chittu
– After the end of the war, the entire population and
Pandey.
Muslim majority areas in the North-West and
• The movement was finally crushed. Span of the North-East of India decide by plebiscite.
movement was short lived, but the importance of the – In case of acceptance of partition agreement to be
movement lay in demonstrating the intensity of the
made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce
nationalist feeling that people displayed and the extent to
communication etc.
which people would go to make sacrifices in order to
– The above terms to be operative only if England
achieve freedom.
transferred full powers to India.
• The Muslim League did not support the Quit India
• Jinnah wanted the Congress to accept the Two Nation
Movement. Achyut Patwardhan, Ram Manohar Lohia,
Jayaprakash Narayan and Aruna Asaf Ali were the Theory. He wanted only the Muslim of North-West and
movement’s leaders. North-East to vote in the plebiscite and not the entire
population. Hindu leaders led by VD Savarkar
condemned the CR Plan.
The Indian National Army (INA)
• The Indian National Army led by Subhash Chandra Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference
Bose was in cooperation with the Japanese. (1945)
• Subhash Chandra Bose, after founding the Forward In May 1945, Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, went to
Bloc, in January 1941, escaped from India and went to London and discussed his ideas about the future of India
Berlin (Germany) via Moscow. with the British administration. The talks resulted in the
• Subhash Chandra Bose, who had escaped from his formulation of a plan of action that was made public in
confinement in Calcutta in 1941 formed the Indian June 1945. The plan is known as Wavell Plan.
National Army in 1943, in Singapore, along with
Rasbehari Bose. Wavell Plan
• The plan suggested reconstitution of the Viceroy’s
• The Azad Hind Fauj as the INA was aimed at a
military campaign for the liberation of India. The INA Executive Council in which the Viceroy was to select
consisted mostly of Indian soldiers of the British Army persons nominated by the political parties. Different
who had taken prisoners by the Japanese after they had communities were also to get their due share in the
conquered the British colonies in South-East Asia. council and parity was reserved for Caste-Hindus and
Muslims.
816 CDS Pathfinder

• While declaring the plan, the Secretary of State for Jinnah’s Direct Action Resolution
Indian Affairs made it clear that the British Government
• The set back in the election to the Constituent
wanted to listen to the ideas of all major Indian
communities. Assembly forced the league to reject the Cabinet
Mission Plan. Jinnah gave the call for ‘Direct Action’
Simla Conference which postulated a campaign for the creation of
• To discuss these proposals Wavell called for a conference Pakistan. Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the
at Shimla on 25th June, 1945. Leaders of both the Cabinet Plan on 29th July, 1946.
Congress and the Muslim League attended the • From 16th August, 1946 the country witnessed
conference, which is known as the Simla Conference. communal riots on an unprecedented scale. The League
• However, differences arose between the leadership of the passed a Direct Action Resolution which condemned
two parties on the issue of representation of the Muslim both British Government and Congress (16th August,
community. 1946). 27th March, 1947 was celebrated as Pakistan Day
All this resulted in a deadlock. Finally, Wavell announced by Jinnah.
the failure of his efforts on 14th July, 1945.
Constituent Assembly
The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) The Constituent Assembly met in New Delhi on
• The Attlee Government announced in February 1946, the 9th December, 1946, without the participation of the
decision to send a high-powered mission of three British league. Rajendra Prasad was elected as its President.
Cabinet members : Pethick Lawrence–Stafford Cripps and
AV Alexander to India to find out ways and means for a Mountbatten Plan (3rd June, 1947)
negotiated peaceful transfer of power of India. • The freedom with partition formula was coming to be
• The mission rejected the Muslim League’s demand for widely accepted well before Mountbatten came.
Pakistan. The mission proposed a Two Tier Federal Plan, The important points of the plan were as follow
which was initially accepted by both the Congress and – Punjab and Bengal Legislative Assemblies would meet
Muslim League. The Muslim League eventually decided in two groups: 1. Hindus and 2. Muslims to vote for
to keep away. partition.
Reaction to the Plan – In case of partition, two dominions and two

• The Muslim League joined the cabinet but decided to Constituent Assemblies would be created.
boycott the Constituent Assembly which started its work – Sindh would take its own decision.
of framing the Constitution on December, 1946. – The provision of referendum was provided in case of
• The Muslim League on 6th June and the Congress on NWFP and Sylhet.
24th June, 1946 accepted the long-term plan, but forward – Referendum in NWFP and Sylhet, district of Bengal
by the Cabinet Mission. would decide the fate of these areas.
• July 1946, elections were held in provincial assemblies for – Freedom would come on 15th August, 1947.
the Constituent Assembly. The Congress got 209 of the
total 273 seats. The Partition of India
• 29th July, 1946, the league withdrew its acceptance of the • A Boundary Commission would be set-up if partition
long-term in a reaction against Nehru’s statement and was to be effected. On July 1947 the British Parliament
gave a call for ‘direct action’ from 16th August, 1946 to ratified the Mountbatten Plan as the ‘Independence of
achieve Pakistan. India’ Act, 1947. The act was implemented on 15th
August, 1947.
Interim Government (2nd September, 1946)
• Pakistan became independent on 14th August, 1947. MA
• Lord Wavell invited Jawaharlal Nehru, the leader of the
Jinnah became the first Governor-General of Pakistan.
largest party in India to form an Interim Government
which was sworn-in on 2nd September, 1946. At midnight of 15th August, 1947 as the clock struck
12, India became free. Nehru proclaimed it to be the
• It was composed of 12 members (including 3 Muslims)
nation with his famous ‘tryst with destiny’ speech.
nominated by the Congress, Jawaharlal Nehru was its
Vice-President. It was for the first time since the coming • On the morning of 15th August, 1947, Lord
of the British that the Government of India was in Mountbatten was sworn-in as Governor-General and
Indian hands. Jawaharlal Nehru as the first Prime Minister of free India.
• The Muslim League at first refused to join the Interim • At the time of freedom, there were 562 small and big
Government. But later, it changed its stand. Muslim princely states. Sardar Patel, the first Home Minister
League joined the Interim Government not to work used iron hand in this regard.
sincerely.
GENERAL STUDIES History 817

Movement Location Leaders Causes

Awadh Kisan Oudh JL Nehru, Baba To organise peasants
Revolt Years Area Sabha (1920) Rama Chandra
Kol Uprising 1824-1828, 1839, Gujarat Andhra Ryots Andhra NG Ranga Abolition of Zamindari
1899 Association Pradesh
(1928)
Bhils Uprising 1818-1831 Western Ghat
All India Kisan Lucknow Swami Sahajananda Protection of peasants
Khasi Rising 1846-48, 1855, 1914 Orissa Sabha (1936) from economic
exploitation
Kuki Rising under Rani 1917-1819 Manipur
Gaidinliu Bijolia Rajasthan Sitaram Das, Vijay The movement arose due
Movement Pathhik Singh to imposition of 86
Singpo Rising 1830-1839 Assam (1905, 1913, different types of cesses
Kol Rising under Buddha 1831-1832 Chhotanagpur 1916, 1927) of peasants
Bhagat Tibhaga Bengal Communists Against Zamindars and
Movement moneylenders
Khond Rising under 1846-48, 1855, 1941 Khandmal area in
(1946)
Chakrabisai Orissa
Telangana Hyderabad — Against moneylenders
Tharo Kuti Rising under 1917-1919 Manipur Movement and officials of Nizam of
Jadonand and Rani (1945-1951) Hyderabad
Gaidinliu
All India Bombay Lala Lajpat Rai, To establish a social
Ramsoi Revolt under 1822-1829 Western Ghats Trade Union, Joseph Baptista, state in India and to
Vasudeo Balwant Fadke 1920 NM Joshi watch, promote,
(Robin-hood of
safeguard and further
Maharashtra)
the interests, rights and
Munda Revolt under Birsa 1899-1900 Chhotanagpur area privileges of the workers
Munda in all matters relating to
their employment

FAMOUS PEASANT IMPORTANT NATIONAL

MOVEMENTS LEADERS
Movement Location Leaders Causes
Pagal Panthi Bengal Karam Shah, Tipu Against hike in rents in Annie Besant (1847-1933)
Movement Shah (Hajong and Bengal
(1825-1835) Garo tribes) • She founded the Theosophical Society in India and
Moplah Malabar Sayyid Ali, Sayyid Against the oppression
started the Home Rule League. She established Central
Rebellion region, Fazl and exploitation of Muslim Hindu School and College at Banaras (later BHU). She
(1921) Kerala Moplah peasants by was elected the President of the Calcutta Session of
Hindu Zamindars and INC, 1917.
British Government
• She did not attend the 1920 Session at Nagpur due to
Indigo Revolt Nadia, Digambar Biswas, Peasants were forced to
(1860) district of Bishnu Bishwas, grow indigo in their fields growing difference with Gandhiji as she felt that
Bengal Harish Chandra by the European factory Government of India Act, 1919 were means to free
Mukherjee (editor of owners Dinbandhu Mitra India.
newspaper Hindu had written about this
Patriot) revolt in his play Neel • She edited famous Newspapers — New India and
Darpan (translated into Commonwealth. She prepared — The Lotus Song, a
English by Madhusudan
translation of Gita into English.
Datta)
Poona Pune By MG Ranade To popularise the
Sarvajanik peasant’s ‘legal rights’ Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1857-1920)
Sabha (1870) • He was given the title of Lokmanya. He established new
Eka Movement Awadh Madari Pasi Higher extraction of rent English school at Poona. He joined INC in 1891 and
(1921)
moved an Arms Act Resolution. He started the Ganapati
Champaran Bihar Gandhiji Dr Rajendra Against the Tin Kathia
Satyagraha
pooja and the Shivaji festival, in 1893 and 1896
Prasad System imposed by the
(1917) European Indigo planters respectively.
Kheda Gujarat Gandhiji Against ignored appeal • He was called Bal, Lala Lajpat Rai was called Lal and
Satyagraha for remission of band Bipin Chandra Pal was called Pal. He constituted the
(1918) revenue in case of crop
failure trio of Lal, Bal, Pal, an extremist group.
UP Kisan Uttar Indira Narain — • He founded the Home Rule League in 1916 and helped
Sabha (1918) Pradesh Dwivedi, Madan in ushering the Lucknow Pact and the Reforms Act at
Mohan Malviya
the Amritsar Congress in 1919.
818 CDS Pathfinder

• He used swaraj word first time in political sense and Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917)
accepted Hindi as the national language of India. He
• He was the first Indian to demand Swaraj in the
gave the slogan ‘Swaraj is my birth right and I shall
have it.’ Calcutta Session of INC, 1906. He was also known as
the Indian Gladstone, Grand Old Man of India.
• Valentine Chirol Shirol described him as the Father of
• He was first Indian to be selected to the House of
Indian unrest. He wrote the books, ‘The Arctic Home in
the Vedas’ and ‘Gita Rahasya’. Commons on Liberal Party ticket. He highlighted the
draining of wealth from India by the British and its
Bhagat Singh (1907-1931) effect in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India
(1901).
• He started Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha in 1926. The
sabha was to carry out political work among the youth, Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar (1891-1956)
peasants and workers on the basis of Marxism
ideologies. Dr Ambedkar was the great leader of the depressed class
and an eminent jurist. He set-up a network of colleges in
• Bhagat Singh and Sukhdev organised the Lahore students
the name of Peoples Education Society. He founded the
union for open legal work among the students. Depressed Classes Institute (1924) and Samaj Samata Sangh
• In 1928, he came in contact with revolutionaries like (1927). He participated in all the Three Round Table
Chandrashekhar Azad, Bejoy Kumar Sinha, Shiv Verma, Conferences and signed the Poona Pact with Gandhiji in
Jaidev Kapur and Bhagwati Charan Vohra to consolidate 1932. Towards the end of his life, he embraced Buddhism.
Kriti Kisan Party and Hindustan Republican Association
into one revolutionary organisation i.e. Hindustan Dr Rajendra Prasad (1884-1963)
Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). He founded the National College at Patna. He was the
• He killed British official Saunders in 1928 and was minister incharge of Food and Agriculture in the Interim
involved in Lahore conspiracy and bombed the Central Government (1946). He was the President of the
Legislative Assembly. He was executed on 23rd March, Constituent Assembly. He became the first President of
1931. the Indian Republic. He was honoured with Bharat Ratna
in 1962. He edited the newspaper — Desh (Hindi weekly).
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
(1833-1894) Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1886-1915)
• He was a great scholar best known for the composition Gandhiji regarded him as his political guru. He was the
of the hymn Bande Mataram. President of the Banaras Session of INC, 1905, supported
the Swadeshi Movement. He was the founder of the
• His novel was Durgesnandini, published in 1864 and
servants of Indian Society in 1905, to train people, who
he also published the journal Bangadarsan. would work as national missionaries. He gave the
statement on the establishment of INC i.e., “No Indian has
Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932) started the INC; he edited newspaper sudharak.”
• He was awarded with the title Mightiest Prophet of
Nationalism by Aurobindo Ghosh. He supported Age of Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)
Consent Bill, 1891, Swadeshi Movement and fought for • He became the General-Secretary of INC in 1928 and its
the cause of the Assam tea-gardeners. President in 1929. The Independence resolution was
• He started newspapers- Paridaashak (weekly); Public passed under his Presidentship at the Lahore Session.
Opinion and Tribune (editor); Swaraj (English weekly in • He was the first Prime Minister of Republic India (from
London); Hindu Review (English monthly); Independent 1947 to 1964), also known as architect of Modern India.
(daily); Democrate (weekly) and wrote book New India. He authored the Doctrine of Panchseel and believed in the
policy of non-alignment.
Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari (1879-1972)
• Books — The Discovery of India, Glimpses of World
• He was a politician and lawyer from Tamil Nadu. He
History, A Bunch of Old Letters, The Unity of India,
gave up his practice during NCM. He started the CDM Independence and After, India and the World etc.
in Tamil Nadu and was arrested for leading a Salt March
from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore coast. Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928)
• He served as the Governor of Bengal
• He was called The Lion of Punjab (Sher-a-Punjab). He
(August-November, 1947) and was the first and last
was inspired by Mahatma Hans Raj. Being an Arya
Indian Governor-General of India (1948-50).
Samajist, he helped in establishment of the DAV College
• He became the Minister of Home Affairs in the at Lahore.
country’s first cabinet. He founded the Swatantra Party • He was the President of the special session of the
in 1959. His rational ideas are reflected in the collection
Congress at Calcutta, 1920. He opposed the withdrawal
Satyameva Jayate. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna of NCM in 1922.
in 1954.
GENERAL STUDIES History 819

• He founded Swaraj Party with Motilal Nehru and CR • He founded the Forward Bloc (1939). He escaped to
Das. He was injured during a demonstration against Berlin in 1941 and met Hitler. He took the charge of
Simon Commission in 1928. He was the editor of the Indian Army (Azad Hind Fauz) in 1943 in Singapore
‘Bande Matram’, ‘the Punjab’ and ‘the People’. and set-up Indian Provisional Government there.
• He addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the Father of the
Mahatma Gandhi Nation, in a broadcast on Radio. He supposedly died in
• Gandhi came to India in 1915. He already had started a plane crash in 1945. He gave the famous slogans —
Satyagraha in South Africa. In 1907, he started Dilli Chalo and Jai Hind. The India Struggle was his
Satyagraha against compulsory registration and passes autobiography.
for Indians. In 1910, Satyagraha against immigration
restrictions, derecognition of Non-Christian Indian Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949)
marriages was also initiated. • Popularly known as the Nightangle of India. She became
• He led Champaran Satyagraha in 1917 against the the first woman to participate in the India’s struggle for
tinakathia system. In 1918, he led Ahmedabad mill strike independence. She participated in the Dandi March with
on the demand of plague bonus by the mill workers. Gandhiji and presided over the Kanpur Session of
Kheda Satyagraha was led by him in 1918 for the Congress in 1925. She was the first woman to become
demand of non-payment of tax due to famine. the Governor of Uttar Pradesh State.
• The Ahmedabad Satyagraha, where there was dispute • Her famous books include — The Golden Threshold
between the mill owner and workers over the ‘plague (1905), The Feather of the Dawn; The Bird of Time
bonus’ was also a success. Gandhi then advised the (1912) and The Broken Wing (1917).
workers to go on strike and he undertook hunger strike,
after which the mill owners were pressurised to accept
the tribunal award of 35% increase in wages.
• Kheda Satyagraha The peasants of Kheda district were
Newspapers, Journals and Books Writer/Editor
in extreme distress due to the failure of crops and the Abhyudaya, Leader, Hindustan Madan Mohan Malviya
government ignored their appeals for the remission of
Indian Mirror Keshub Chandra Sen
land revenue. Gandhiji advised them to withhold the
Comrade, Hamdard Muhammad Ali Jauhar
revenue and fight to death.
Kesari (Marathi), The Maratha (English), Gita Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Rahasya
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)
Young India, Harijan, Nawjiwan, Mahatma Gandhi
• He was a poet, philosopher, educationist, internationalist Hindu Swaraj, My Experiment With Truth
and a patriot. His elder brother was Satyendranath Commonweal, New India Annie Besant
Tagore, the first Indian to become an ICS. He founded Sanwad Kaunudi (Bengali), Mirat-ul-Akhbar Raja Ram Mohun Ray
Shantiniketan near Bolpore on 22nd December, 1901. He (Persian)
wrote Gitanjali, which fetched him the Nobel Prize in Anand Math, Devi Chaudhrani Bankimchandra
1913. Chattopadhyay
• On nationalism he said, “Nationalism is a great menance. Neel Darpan Deenbandhu Mitra
It is the particular thing which for years has been at the Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, Rast Dada Bhai Naoroji
Guftur
bottom of India’s troubles. And in as such as we have
been ruled and dominated by a nation that is strictly Amrit Bazaar Patrika Shishir Kumar Ghosh
political in its attitude, we have tried to develop within India Wins Freedom, Gubar-e-Khatir, Al-Hilal Abul Kalam Azad
ourselves despite our inheritance from the past, a belief Soj-e-Watan, Karmbhoomi, Prem Chandra
Shatranj ke Khiladi
in our eventual political destiny”.
Indian Struggle Subhash Chandra Bose
• His compositions were chosen as National Anthem by
India for Indians Chitranjan Das
two nations
Krmyogi, Yugantar, Vande Mataram, Arvind Ghosh
i. India — Jana Gana Mana Life Divine, Savitri
ii. Bangladesh — Amar Sonar Bangla Gandhi vs. Lenin, The Socialist, Literature Shripad Amrit Dange
and People
Subhash Chandra Bose (1897-1945) Amar Jiban-o-Bharater Communist Party Muzaffar Ahmad
(Bengali), Navyug, Langal
• He passed the Indian Civil Services Examination in 1920
Inquilab (Revolution) Ghulam Hussain
in England, but left it on Gandhiji’s call of NCM. He
founded the independence for India League with The Labour Kisan Gazette, Thozhilalar Singaravelu Chettiar
(Tamil)
Jawaharlal Nehru. He was elected as the President of
The Revolutionary Shachindranath Sanyal
INC at its Haripura Session (1938) and Tripuri Session
(1939), but resigned from Tripuri due to differences with Independent Moti Lal Nehru
Gandhiji.
02
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 853

GEOGRAPHY

The Geography section of the CDS examination plays an important role as around 12-14 questions are
asked every year. It includes both Indian as well as world geography. Topics which are asked include Earth
structure, Atmosphere, Rivers, Mountains, Oceanography, Latitude and Longitude, Location of important
industries etc.

PART I PHYSICAL AND WORLD GEOGRAPHY

THE UNIVERSE
• The Universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists including all physical matter like the planets,
stars, galaxies and the contents of intergalactic space and energy. The study of Universe is known as Cosmology.
• The Universe comprises of billions of galaxies. Galaxy is giant assemblies of stars, planets, gases and dust. These galaxies
are made up of millions of stars held together by the force of gravity and these stars account for most of the masses of the
galaxy. Andromeda is our nearest galaxy.
• Our own galaxy is called the Milky Way (the Akash Ganga) and it contains about 300 billion stars and one of these is
our Sun. Planets and other objects go round the Sun and make up the solar system with the Sun at the centre.
• In AD 140, Ptolemy propounded the theory that the Earth was at the centre of the Universe and the Sun and the other
heavenly bodies revolved around it.
• In 1543, Copernicus said that the Sun is at the centre of the Universe and not the Earth. Kepler supported Copernicus
but said that the Sun is the centre of solar system and not the Universe.
• In 1924, Edwin Hubble first demonstrated the existence of galaxies beyond Milky Way.
Structurally, the galaxies are found in three forms as follow
i. Spiral have a central nucleus with great spiral arms. Milky Way and Andromeda are the examples of it.
ii. Elliptical without spiral arms.
iii. Irregular with no shape.
854 CDS Pathfinder

Evolution of Universe • Aurora The constituent particles of the solar

wind are trapped by the Earth’s magnetic field and
The three main theories put forward to explain the origin and enter the Earth’s upper atmosphere as Aurora. It is
evolution of the Universe are as follows : described as Aurora Borealis in the Northern
i. Big Bang Theory (Proposed by Georges Lemaitre) Big hemisphere and Aurora Australis in Southern
Bang was an explosion that occurred 13.8 billion years ago, hemisphere.
leading to the formation of galaxies of stars and other • Plages and Sunspots The surface of the Sun is
heavenly bodies. continuously changing. Bright spots are called
ii. Steady State Theory This theory was proposed by Bondi, Plages and dark spots are called Sunspots. The
Gold and Fred Hoyle. According to this theory, new Sunspots are cold and dark regions on the Sun’s
galaxies are continuously being formed and older ones are surface with a periodicity of 11 years. These spots
destroyed. The overall size of the Universe remains constant. greatly influence the global climate.
iii. The Pulsating Theory According to this theory, the
Universe is supposed to be expanding and contracting Planets
alternately i.e. pulsating. At present, the Universe is
expanding. A planet is a heavenly body that moves in an orbit
around a star, such as the Sun. There are 8 planets in
solar system. These planets move around the Sun in
SOLAR SYSTEM the fixed path.
• The solar system comprises the Sun and 8 planets and their
moons and other non-stellar objects, which are believed to Mercury
have been developed from the condensation of gases and other • It is the innermost and smallest planet in the solar
lesser bodies. The size of solar system has been estimated system.
about 10 5 Astronomical Unit (AU). • Mercury is nearest to the Sun, having rotation
• The Sun is at the centre of the solar system and all the planets period is 58.65 days and revolution period is of
revolve around it in elliptical orbit. It is the nearest star to the 88 days (fastest in solar system) with no satellite,
Earth. it has the highest diurnal range of temperature and
• It also consists of Interstellar debris such as asteroids, has the shortest year.
meteoroids, comets, electrically charged gases, called Plasma and
interplanetary dust particles. The components of solar system Venus
other than planets, dwarf planets and satellites are called as • Also known as Earth’s twin, morning star and
Small Solar System Bodies (SSSB). evening star. Brightest heavenly body after the
Sun and the Moon because of 70% albedo. Venus
is closest planet to Earth.
THE SUN • It is hottest planet in our solar system because of
• The Sun accounts for more than 99% of the mass of the solar 97% CO2 . It is slightly smaller than the Earth (500
system and due to this, the Sun exerts immense gravitational km less in diameter). It rotates clockwise (East to
pull to keep the planets rotating around it in definite elliptical West) and it does not have satellite.
orbits. • It has slowest rotation period in our solar system
• The Sun is the major source of energy in the solar system. The (257 days) and have almost equal rotation and
energy is provided by the nuclear fusion reaction, that revolution (224.7 days) period.
converts hydrogen into helium in the core of the Sun.
• Super-imposed on Sun’s white light are hundred of dark lines Mars
called Fraunhofer lines. Each line indicates some elements • Mars is the fourth nearest planet to the Sun. It is
present in the solar system. also known as Red Planet because it appears as a
reddish ball when looked through a telescope.
Concepts Associated with the Sun • Its revolution period is 687 days and rotation
period is of 24.6 hrs (almost equal to that of Earth),
• Solar Winds The Sun is continuously emitting streams of
it has two satellites Phobos and Deimos and it has
proton in all directions either as spiral streams called Solar
signs of water, hence, there a possibility of life.
Wind or bouts of incandescent material called Solar Flares.
Solar flares being hot ionised gases pose danger to satellite • Various space missions have been sent e.g. Vikings,
communication. Pathfinder, Mars Odyssey, Mars Obriter Mission.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 855

Jupiter PLUTO Asteroids

• Largest of all planets, almost 11 Pluto was discovered in 1930 and • Asteroids or minor planets circle in a broad
times of the Earth, it is also was considered as ninth planet in belt between the orbits of Mars and
called Lord of the Heavens. our solar system. However, it is Jupiter.
no longer considered a planet • It is the debris left over from the formation
• It has fastest rotational time in
now. It orbits beyond the orbit of of inner planets, also called ‘planetoids’ or
our solar system (9.8 hrs) and Neptune.
revolution period is of 12 small planets and they are chunks of rock
It is much smaller than any of covered in frozen gases.
years, it has 16 satellites the official planets and now
(prominent are Europa, classified as a dwarf planet. It is Meteoroids, Meteors and
Ganymede and Callisto). the second largest dwarf planet in
the solar system.
Meteorites
• Europa resembles the living
• Meteoroids are small bodies that travel
condition like that of the Earth.
through space. Meteoroids are smaller than
Ganymede is the largest satellite Facts Related to Planets Asteroids, most are smaller than the size of
of our Solar system. • Biggest planet – Jupiter a pebble.
• Smallest planet – Mercury • A meteor is a meteoroid that has entered
Saturn • Biggest satellite – Ganymede the Earth’s atmosphere, usually making a
• Second largest planet (in size)
• Smallest satellite – Deimos fiery trail as it falls. It is sometimes called a
after Jupiter and Least dense of shooting star or a falling star.
• Blue planet – Earth
all (30 times less dense than the
• Green planet – Uranus • A meteor shower is a phenomenon in which
Earth). It has revolution period
• Brightest planet – Venus many meteors fall through the atmosphere
of 29 years and rotation period in a relatively short time and in
is of 10.3 hours. • Brightest star – Sirius (Dog Star)
approximately parallel trajectories. A very
• It has around 62 satellites. Titan • Closest Star of solar system – intense meteor shower is called a Meteor
is the most prominent one. Its Proxima Centauri storm.
atmosphere is dominated by • Coldest planet – Neptune
• A Meteorite is a meteor that has fallen to
presence of nitrogen. It has a • Evening star – Venus Earth. Meteorites are made up of rock
system of three well defined • Red planet – Mars and/or metals.
rings. • Slowest revolution in solar

Uranus system – Neptune The Moon

• Slowest rotation in solar system
• Identified as a planet in 1781 by • Moon is the only natural satellite of Earth.
– Venus
William Hershal. It rotates from It has no atmosphere as due to weak
• Earth’s twin – Venus gravitational force the gases easily escape
North to South as it is
• Only satellite with an atmosphere from its surface.
inclined at an angle of 98° to its
like Earth – Titan • Only 59% of Moon surface is directly
orbit, and it has revolution
period of 84 years and rotation visible from Earth. It takes 27 days, 7 hrs,
Comet 43 min and 11.47 sec to complete one
period is of 10.8 years.
• A comet is a member of the revolution around the Earth. It rotates on
• Like Saturn, it is also Sun’s family, part of the solar its axis in exactly the same time as that in
surrounded by a system of 5 system. Comet travels on a path revolution. That is why we see only one
faint rings and it has 21 or elliptical orbit around the Sun side of the Moon.
satellites (Miranda, Ariel etc.)
on a regular schedule.
• It may have originated from a
Phases of the Moon
Neptune
huge cloud the ‘oort cloud’ that • Due to its spherical shape, only one-half of
• Appears as ‘Greenish Star’
is thought to surround the solar the Moon gets illuminated by the Sun.
because of presence of
system. • Visible surface of Moon is not same
‘Methane’. It has revolution
• It has a head and a tail. Its tail
everyday because it revolves round the
period of 165 years and
Earth and visible shape of the Moon are
rotation period is of 15.7 days. originates once it gets closer to referred to as the phases of the Moon.
• Discovered by JG Galle of the Sun. The brightest part of the
– New Moon This is the phase when the
Berlin in 1846. Its prominent comet is head (coma) and it is
Moon is between the Earth and the Sun
satellite are ‘Trion and Neroid’. made up of solid matter and consequently the part of the Moon
Uranus and Neptune are called combined with gases. facing us is in complete darkness.
Jovion Twins. (New Moon = No Moon)
856 CDS Pathfinder

– Full Moon This occurs on the 14th day after the The Earth’s Movement
New Moon. The Moon at this time shows its fully
lighted surface. (Full Moon = Complete Moon) The Earth moves in space in two distinct ways rotation and
• When two full Moons occurs in a single month, the revolution, which are as follow
second full Moon is called a Blue Moon. i. It rotates on its own axis from West to East once in
every 24 hrs. It causes day and night.
Stars ii. It revolves around the Sun in an orbit once in every
• Stars are heavenly bodies made up of hot burning gases, 365¼ days. It causes the seasons and the year.
thus shine by their own light. If the star is bigger than
the Sun but not more than twice as big, it will turn into Rotation of the Earth
a Neutron star or Pulsar. They are formed due to • Earth spins on its imaginary axis from West to East in
novae and supernovae explosion. 23 hrs, 56 min and 40.91 sec. The rotational speed at
• A star’s colour indicates the temperature of its surface. equator is maximum (1667 km/hr) and then decreases
Blue colour denotes maximum temperature. Then comes towards the poles, where it is zero.
yellow, then red etc. • The rotation of the Earth causes day and night, change
in the direction of winds and ocean currents, rise and
Evolutionary Stages of a Star fall of tides everyday and a difference of 1 hr between
i. Adult Star It is the stage, where the helium core the two meridians which are 15° apart.
becomes increasingly heavy, accompanied with
• The division between day and night over the Earth is
expanding outer layers.
considered by the circle of illumination. The circle of
ii. Red Giant This stage results into swelling and illumination always bisect the equator and divides Earth
reddening of the outer regions of the star. Such star into light and dark halves i.e. a day hemisphere and a
of gigantic dimension is called Red star.
night hemisphere.
iii. White Dwarf If the mass of the star is relatively
small like that of our Sun, the gases that reach the Revolution of the Earth
outer layer are expelled. As these expelled gases cool • It is the Earth’s motion in elliptical orbit around the
and contract, the star becomes a white dwarf.
Sun. It takes 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min and 45.51 sec. It
leads to one extra day in every fourth year.
THE EARTH The revolution of the Earth results in
• It is the 5th largest planet of our solar system. Only i. change of season.
planet of our solar system where life exists. It is also ii. variation of the length of the days and nights at
called ‘Blue Planet’. It has circumference of 40008 km different times of the year.
(polar) and equatorial circumference 40075 km and area iii. shifting of the wind belts.
of nearly 510 million sq kms. The figures below shows the revolution of the Earth and
• Perigee Nearest position of Earth to Moon (356000 km). its effects on seasons and the variations of lengths of day
• Apogee Farthest position of Earth from Moon and night.
(407000 km). Equal Day and Night

• Aphelion Farthest position of Earth from Sun on 4th North Pole D

July, about 152 million km. emis
phere
Sum
mer
N.H in N
phere Win . He
• Perihelion Nearest position of Earth to Sun on 3rd m n in [Link] ter in mis
phe
tu in S. H re
January, about 147 million km. North Au ring emis
phe
Sp 23rd September re
Pole
• The history of the Earth is studied in terms of geological
Equator 21st June
years, periods and the epochs. A
22nd December
SUN
Equator
C
Artic Antartic
Circle Su Circle
Shape of the Earth W
mm
e
int r in S 21st March . H emis
phe
re
South
er in S ere Pole
in N .Hemisph mn isph
The Earth is an oblate spheroid, a sphere flattened along the .Hem ere Autu Hem .
ispher in S
e ing
axis from pole to pole such that there is a buldge around the Spr

equator. Earth bulges at the equator and is flattened at B South Pole

the poles. The shape of Earth is also called Geoid. Geodesy Equal Day and Night
is a branch of science which deals with measuring the
Earth’s size and shape.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 857

Equinoxes
• These are the days, when days and nights are equal.
Universal Time (Standard Time)
Under this situation, the Sun is vertically overhead at and Time Zones
the equator. It happens on 2 days of the year i.e.
• The Earth is divided in 24 longitudinal zones, each being
21st March and 23rd September.
15° or 1 hrs apart in time (360° = 24 hours, 360/24 =15° in
• 21st March Vernal equinox and 23rd September
1 hrs or 1° in 4 minute) called Standard Time Zones.
Autumnal equinox.
• Larger countries such as USA, Russia and Canada, which
Summer Solstice have greater East-West stretch have to adopt several time
• After the March equinox, the Sun appears to move zones for practical purposes.
Northward and is vertically overhead at the Tropic • Russia has as many as 11 time zones.
of Cancer on 21st June. This is known as Summer
• Both USA and Canada have five time zones, viz the
Solstice.
Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain and Pacific time zones.
• On 21st June, the Northern hemisphere will have its
• To avoid confusion about having many local times within
longest day and shortest night. The Southern
one country, a particular meridian is chosen for the whole
hemisphere will have shortest day and longest night.
country, whose time is known as Standard Time.
Winter Solstice • The Indian Government has accepted the meridian of 82.5°
On 22nd December, the Sun is overhead at the Tropic East for standard time, which is 5 hrs 30 min ahead of the
of Capricorn and this is the winter solstice. Southern Greenwich Mean Time GMT and is situated at Naini near
hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest night. Allahabad.

Latitude INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

• Latitude is the angular distance of a point on Earth
●
It is the 180° meridian running over the Pacific ocean
deviating at Fiji, Samoa and Gilbert Islands. This
surface from the centre of Earth, measured in degree.
meridian is considered to be deviated at the land
These lines are called parallels of latitude and on the
masses, so that the travellers do not feel inconvenient.
globe they are circles. The circumference of the ●
One who is crossing the Date Line from West to East
circles decreases from equator to pole and at the pole
repeats a day and the one who travellers crossing it
it converge to a point.
from East to West losses a day.
• The distance between any two parallels of latitude is
always equal. One degree latitude = Approx 111 km
• The most important lines of latitudes are equator ECLIPSES
(0°), the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N), the Tropic of
• An eclipse occurs when the Sun, Moon and Earth are in a
Capricorn (23½°S), the Arctic Circle (66½°N) and
straight line. There are two types of eclipses-Solar and
the Antarctic Circle (66½°S).
Lunar eclipse.
Longitude • Generally, a total of seven eclipse including solar and lunar
eclipses, take place in a year.
• Longitude is the angular distance of a point on the
Earth surface along the equator, East or West from Solar Eclipse
the Prime meridian. On the globe, they form semi
circles from pole to pole passing through the • Solar eclipse occurs when Moon comes between the Sun and
equator. the Earth. It can be partial or total.
• Prime meridian is the semi circle from pole to pole, • It happen only on a new Moon day when the Moon is in
from which all the other meridians radiate Eastwards line with the Sun. A solar eclipse doesn’t occur on every
and Westwards up to 180°. In 1884, it was decided new Moon day.
that the zero meridian is one that passes through the M oon
he
Royal Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich near Moon
ft
o
P a th

London.
Sun
• 180° meridian (International Date Line) is exactly
Earth
opposite to the Prime meridian. Such points are
called Antipodal Points.
Solar Eclipse
858 CDS Pathfinder

Lunar Eclipse The Mantle

Lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth comes in • It is about 2900 km in thickness, composed of minerals in a semi
between the Sun and the Moon. It occurs only on solid state. It is further divided into two layer upper mantle and
a full Moon day but not on every full Moon day lower mantle. The upper part of the mantle is called
because the Moon is not in the same position in Asthenosphere, which is about 250 km thick.
relation to that of the Earth and the Sun on every • Due to presence of minerals like silica and magnesium in the
full Moon day. rocks forming this layer of the Earth, the mantle layer is also
known as Sima (silica and magnesium). The average density of
this layer is about 5.68 gm/cm 3 .
Earth
• The transitional zone separating the mantle from the core is
Sun
called the Gutenberg Discontinuity.
Moon
Path
o f the
Moo
n
The Core
Lunar Eclipse • The core is the innermost layer of the Earth and occupies its
center. It is about 3500 km in radius. This layer is also known as
Nife (nickel and iron), because this layer contain large
concentration of iron and nickel.
STRUCTURE OF • Density of this part of the Earth is 17.2 gm/cm 3 and is many
EARTH’S INTERIOR times greater than the average density of the Earth (5.53
gm/cm 3 ).
The interior of Earth is divided into three parts
DISCONTINUITIES
The Crust The various layers are separated by dicontinuities, which are
• The crust is the outermost and the thinnest layer evident in seismic data.
of the Earth. This layer has the least density and
●
Conrad discontinuity lies between upper crust and
its thickness varies about 8 to 40 km. lower crust.
Mohorovic or Moho Discontinuity, marks
●
Mohorovicic discontinuity between crust and mantle.
the lower limit of the crust and this ●
Repetti discontinuity lies between upper mantle and
discontinuity is identified on the basis of rock lower mantle.
density. ●
Gutenberg discontinuity between core and mantle.
Here, the Earth’s density as well as velocity of P waves
• The rocks forming the crust of the Earth are
increases.
rich in lighter minerals like silica and aluminium. ●
Lehmann discontinuity divides upper core and lower
Hence, this layer is also called as Sial (silica core.
and aluminium). The average density of this
layer is 2.7 gm/cm 3 .
Composition of Whole Earth
Density Crust Depth (km)
Iron (35%), Oxygen (30%), Silicon (15%), Magnesium (13%),
2.90 0 Nickel (2.4%), Sulphur (1.9%).
3.3 Upper Mantle 30
Composition of Earth’s Crust
200
Oxygen (46%), Silicon (28%), Aluminium (8%), Iron (6%),
4.3 Lower 700
Magnesium (4%), Calcium (2.4%), Potassium (2.3%), Sodium
Mantle (2.1%).

Outer
Continental Drift Theory
5.5 2900
10.0 Core • This theory was given by Alfred Wagener, in 1915, to explain
the origin and evolution of the continents and the oceans.
12.3 5150 • According to this theory, about 250 million years ago, there was
13.3
6371
only one continent named Pangea means All Earth and it was
Inter surrounded by one mass of water body, named Panthalassa.
Core
• The present shape of the continents and oceans is due to the
13.6
Interior Structure of Earth break up of Pangaea. This breaking process started about 200
million years ago.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 859

• The Northern rift cuts Pangaea from East to West These forces are classified into endogenetic and exogenetic forces
creating Laurasia in the North and Gondwanaland
in South. A shallow sea called Tethys was situated
Endogenetic Forces
The forces coming from within the Earth are called
between the Laurasia and the Gondwanaland.
Endogenetic Forces. The heat inside the Earth is primary
driving force of these forces. These forces are further classified
Plate Tectonics Theory into two categories
• The theory of Plate tectonics states that the i. Sudden or Catastrophic Forces These forces act very
lithosphere is divided into several rigid segments, swiftly and often in an unpredictable manner. Earthquake
which include both oceanic and continental crusts. and volcanoes are major sudden forces.
These segments are called plates and they are ii. Slow or Diastrophic Forces These forces act in an
moving on the asthenosphere, which is not a liquid, imperceptible manner where changes are discernible after
but a solid which flows under stress. millions of year. These forces are further classified into
tensional and compressional forces.
• About 20 such plates have been identified. There are
seven major plates Eurasia, Antarctica, North Exogenetic Forces
America, South America, Pacific, African and Indian
Plate. These forces and processes occur over the Earth’s surface and
modify the landforms from outside. Erosion and weathering
• Most of the Earth’s seismic activity, volcanism and are two major phenomena of denudation of geomorphic
mountain building occur along with these dynamic features by exogenetic forces.
boundaries.
Depending upon the type of movement, plate margins
are of three types
EARTHQUAKES
• It refers to the vibration of the Earth’s surface caused by the
i. Divergent Plate Margin (Constructive margins) endogenetic forces. The magnitude or intensity of energy
ii. Convergent Plate Margin (Destructive margins) released by an earthquake is measured by the Richter Scale,
iii. Parallel Plates Margin (Conservative margin or whereas the damage caused is measured by modified Mercalli
Transform boundary) Intensity Scale.
• The place of origin of earthquake is called focus. The place
• Collision can occur between two oceanic plates, one
on the ground surface, which is perpendicular to the focus
oceanic and one continental plate or two continental
or hypocentre is called epicentre. Seismology is the special
plates. branch of geology that deals with the study of earthquake.
Due to collision three types of plate boundaries appears, • The waves generated by earthquake are called seismic waves
which are as follow and they are classified into three types :
Divergent Plate Convergent Plate Transform Fault i. Primary Wave (P Waves) These are the waves of short
Boundary Boundary Boundary wavelength and high frequency. They are longitudinal
When the plates move A convergent plate They are located, waves and can travel through solid, liquid and gases.
apart with the upwelling boundary is one, where where plates ii. Secondary Wave (S Waves) These are the waves of
of material from the two plates collide, one slide past one short wavelength and high frequency. They are
mantle, divergent plate plate bending downward another without
boundary results. and subducting below the creation or transverse waves, which travel through all solid particles.
the other. destruction of iii. Surface Waves or Long Waves (L Waves) They are
crust.
the waves of long wavelength, confined to the upper
Formation of the mid Deep oceanic trench is San Andreas
oceanic ridges are the formed adjacent to the Fault along the
layer of the Earth’s crust. It causes most of the
example of divergent zone of subduction. West coast of earthquake’s structural damage.
plate margin. Fold mountains are the Mexico is a • Imaginary lines on map connecting the places where the
result of convergent famous transform
plate boundary. fault. seismic wave arrives generated by an earthquake, at the same
Example Example Example
time are known as Homoseismal Lines.
Surtsey Island was born Himalayan boundary San Andreas
along with mid-Atlantic fault, Pacific ring of fire. Fault along the Distribution of Earthquakes
ridge. Western coast of
USA. Most of the world earthquake occurs in
• The zones of young fold mountain, zones of folding and

Forces Affecting Earth’s Crust faulting, junction of continental and oceanic margin, zone
of active volcanoes and along different plate boundaries.
Study of forces affecting the crust of the Earth is very The traditional zones of earthquake are
important as these forces and resultant movements are
• Circum Pacific belt, Mid Continental belt and Mid
responsible for creation, modification and destruction
Atlantic belt.
of various landforms over the Earth’s surface.
860 CDS Pathfinder

Mid-Continental Belt (Volcanic zones of convergent continental

VOLCANISM plate Margins). It includes volcanoes of Alpine mountain
• Volcanism includes all phenomena connected with chain, the Mediterranean sea and the fault zone of Eastern
the movement of heated material from the interior Africa of Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna, Kilimanjaro etc.
towards the surface of the Earth. Mid-Atlantic Belt The volcanoes are fissure eruption type e.g.
• A volcano is a vent or opening, through which Iceland, Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Azores etc.
heated materials consisting of gases, water, liquid
lava, fragments of rocks are ejected from the ROCKS
highly heated interior to the surface of the Earth.
The solid part of the Earth’s crust are called rocks. The rocks are
• Volcanic eruptions are closely associated with
made up of two or more minerals.
several integrated processes such as gradual
increase in temperature with increasing depth, due Rocks are classified in three main types depending on the process
of their formation
to the heat generated by degeneration of
radioactive elements inside the Earth.
1. Igneous Rocks
• Origin of magma due to the lowering of the
• Formed due to the cooling, solidification and crystallisation of
melting point caused by reduction in pressure of
hot and molten magma. They are called as the primary rocks
overlying rocks due to fractures caused by as all the other rocks are formed directly or indirectly from the
splitting of plates. igneous rocks.
• It is believed that the igneous rocks were formed during each
Classification of Volcanoes period of geological history of the Earth. They are hard,
On the basis of mode of eruption : granular and crystalline rock, less affected by chemical
weathering. Moreover, it does not have any fossil or does not
Central Eruption or Explosive Type Here, the
form any strata or layers of lava.
magma comes with great force through the
small vent and spread to a distant position. e.g., Classification of Igneous Rocks
Hawaiian type, Strombolian type, Pelean type, On the basis of mode of occurrence :
Vesuvius type, Volcanion type. • Intrusive Rocks They are formed due to the solidification of
Fissure Eruption or Quiet Eruption Large rising magma below the surface of the Earth. e.g. Granite,
quantities of lava quietly flow up from fissures Lapolith, Batholiths, Sills etc.
and spread out over the surrounding areas. • Extrusive Rocks They are formed due to cooling and
Successive flow of lava results in the growth of solidification of hot and molten magma at the Earth surface.
lava plateau. e.g., Deccan Plateau. e.g. Basalt, Gabbro etc.
On the basis of periodicity of eruptions : • On the basis of silica content :
Active Volcano Volcano which errupt periodically. – Acidic It has more silica content e.g. Granite.
e.g., Etna, Stromboli, Mayon – Basic It has less silica content e.g. Gabbro.
Dormant Volcano Volcano which become quiet
after their eruption for sometime. e.g., Fujiyama, 2. Sedimentary Rocks
Krakatoa, Barren Island • It is formed due to the aggregation and compaction of sediments
Extinct Volcano They have no indication of future derived from the older rocks, plants, animals and contains fossils
eruption. of plants.
• Sedimentary rocks can be classified on the basis of the nature
Various Volcanic Belts of sediments as mechanically, chemically and organically
formed rocks.
Circum-Pacific Belt (Fire girdle of the Pacific or
the fire ring of the Pacific). It extends across the 3. Metamorphic Rocks
Kamchatka Peninsula, Kurile Islands, the Islands • These are the changed form of igneous and sedimentary rocks.
of Japan, Philippines, New Guinea, New These are the rocks, which change either in form or
Zealand and the Soloman Islands. composition without disintegration.
Highest Volcanic Peaks Cotopaxi (South • Already formed metamorphic rocks are metamorphosed and
America), Fujiyama (Japan), valley of ten this process is called Metamorphosis. The agents of
metamorphism are heat, compression and solution.
thousand smokes (Alaska).
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 861

Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks • Tectonic plate movement under the Earth can create landforms by
Limestone Marble pushing up mountains and hills.
Sandstone Quartzite Major classification of landforms on the basis of their process of origin is
Shale/Clay Slate, Phyllite, Schist, given as under :
Coal Diamond or Graphite
Fluvial Landforms
Original Rocks Metamorphic Rocks A fluvial landform is a feature resulting from the movement of water on
Sandstone Quartzite the Earth’s surface. Flowing water is the most important force shaping
Limestone Marble the Earth.
Shale and mudstone Slate i. Erosional Landforms Erosional landforms made by river are
Granite Gneiss u-shaped valley, potholes, plunge pools, meanders, river terraces etc.
Coal Graphite coal
Clay
ii. Depositional Landforms Depositional landforms made by river are
Slate
alluvial fans, deltas, floodplains, natural levees, point bars etc.

WEATHERING Karst Landforms

• It is the process of disintegration Any limestone or dolomite region showing typical landforms produced
or decomposition of rocks in Situ by the action of ground water through the processes of solution and
by natural agents. It is a static process. deposition is called Karst Topography.
There are three types of weathering as given i. Erosional Landforms Pools, sinkholes, lapies and limestone
below pavement, caves are important erosional landforms made by
underground water.
i. Physical Weathering (or mechanical
weathering) ii. Depositional Landforms Stalactites, stalagmites, pillars etc are
important depositional landforms of underground water.
(a) It involves rock disintegration
without any change in the chemical
constituents of the rocks.
Glacial Landforms
(b) The factors responsible for physical The movement of glaciers is slow unlike the water flow. The movement
weathering are temperature change, could be a few centimetres to a few metres a day or even less. Glaciers
crystallisation of water into ice and move basically because of the force of gravity.
pressure release mechanism. i. Erosional Landforms Cirque/Corrie U–shaped valley, horns,
ii. Chemical Weathering It involves serrated ridges, glacial troughs, hanging valleys etc are important
decomposition due to chemical changes. erosional landforms made by glaciers.
There are various chemical processes, ii. Depositional Landforms Moraines, eskers, outwash plains,
which cause chemical weathering such as drumlins etc are depositional landforms made by glaciers.
Solution, Oxidation, Carbonation,
Hydration, Hydrolysis and Chelation. Coastal Landforms
iii. Biological Weathering Plants and Coastal landforms are formed by erosion or deposition through sea
animals including man largely control it. waves, aided by currents tides and storms in coastal areas.
It is divided into three types i. Erosional Landforms Cliffs, terraces, caves, stacks etc are
(a) Faunal weathering important landforms made by oceanic waves.
(b) Floral weathering ii. Depositional Landforms Beaches, dunes, bars, barriers, spits etc
(c) Anthropogenic weathering are important depositional landforms made by sea and oceanic
waves.
Erosion Aeolian Landforms
It involves removal of rock material and then
its transportation. Therefore, erosion is Wind is one of the most dominant agents in hot deserts. The wind action
performed by mobile agents such as streams, creates a number of interesting erosional land depositional features in the
wind, waves and underground water. deserts.
Aeolian landforms are regions where erosion and deposition by wind are
dominant geomorphic forces in shaping the landform. They are formed
LANDFORMS in hot deserts, coastal zones and fields.
• A landform is a feature on the Earth’s i. Erosional Landforms Pediments, pediplains, playas, deflation
surface. It may be either the terrain, hollows, mushroom rock, table rock, pedestal rocks etc are erosional
mountains, hills, plateaus or plains. landforms in deserts.
• Minor landforms include buttes, canyons, ii. Depositional Landforms Sand dunes, barchans, seifs etc are
valleys and basins etc. depositional landforms made by wind.
862 CDS Pathfinder

MOUNTAINS
Mountain Range Location Highest Point
Based on their mode of formation four main types of
mountains can be distinguished. Himalayas Asia Mount Everest
Karakoram Asia K2
Fold Mountains Hindu Kush Asia Tirich Mir
• It is formed due to the compressive forces generated by Andes South America Aconcagua
endogenetic forces (earthquake, landslide etc.) Alps Europe Mount Blanc
• Example of Fold mountains are Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies North America Mount Elbert
Rockies, Atlas etc. Urals Asia/Europe Mount Narodnaya
• On the basis of age, fold mountains are grouped into Alaska Range North America Denali (Mount Mckinley)
– Young/New Fold Mountains It came into existence Transantarctic Range Antarctica Mount Kirkpatrick
after the continental drift, e.g. Himalayas, Andes, Caucasus Europe/Asia Mount Elbrus
Rockies, Alps. Himalayas are regarded as the youngest Tien Shan Asia Jengish Chokusu
mountains in the world. Great Dividing Range Australia Mount Kosciuszko
– Old Fold Mountains They belong to pre-drift era,
e.g. Pennines (Europe), Appalachians (US), Aravallis
(India) etc. PLATEAUS
Tabular upland having relief of more than 500 feet may be
defined as plateau. Tibetan plateau (5000 m) is the highest
plateau in the world.

Fold Mountains Types of Plateau

According to their mode of formation and their physical
Block Mountains appearance, plateau may be grouped into the following types :
• It is formed when a huge block of Earth’s crust may be
raised or lowered due to tectonic activities. The land Tectonic Plateau
between the two paralled faults either rises forming
• These are formed by Earth movements, which cause
block mountains or horsts or subsides into a depression
uplift and are normally of a considerable size and fairly
termed as Rift valley or Graben. uniform altitude.
• Examples of Block mountain are Vindhya and Satpura in – When plateau are enclosed by Fold moutains, they are
India, the Vosges in France and Black forest in Germany known as Intermontane plateau.
(through which Rhine river flows). – Examples of Tectonic plateau are Tibetan plateau
Horsts between the Himalayas and the Kunlun and the
Graben Bolivian plateau between two ranges of the world.

Volcanic Plateau
Block Mountains These are formed by accumulation of lava. e.g. Deccan
Plateau (India).
Volcanic Mountains Dissected Plateau
• They are formed due to the accumulation of volcanic
• Through the continual process of weathering and erosion
material. They are also known as Mountains of by running water, ice and winds, high extensive plateau
Accumulation. are gradually worn down and their surface made
• Examples of Volcanic mountain are Mt Fuji (Japan), irregular.
Cotopaxi in Andes, Vesuvius and Etna in Italy, Mt • The Scottish Highlands is a good example of dissected
Mayon (Philippines) etc. plateau.
Residual or Dissected Mountain
• They are formed as a result of erosion of plateaus and PLAINS
high planes by various agents of erosion.
A relatively low-lying and flat land surface with least
• Examples of Residual or Dissected mountain are Catskill difference between its highest and lowest points is called a
mountains of New York, Sierras of Spain, Girnar and plain. The plains are divided into structural, erosional and
Rajmahal of India. depositional plains.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 863

Types of Plain Coral Island Rift Valley Lake

There are three types of plain as • It is an island that forms a ring and • Rift valley lakes occur in areas
follow : partially or totally encloses a where rock is pulling apart. As a
i. Structural Plain Formed due to shallow body of water or lagoon. narrow wedge of land drops from
the uplift of a part of the sea Coral islands, which are large the movement, a long, narrow lake
collections of coral a top rock often forms.
floor e.g. the great plain of USA.
(usually volcanic) in the ocean.
ii. Erosional Plain Formed when • The Rift valley, which cuts
• Lakshadweep island in Indian ocean through Africa and Asia, contains
the elevated tract of land is worn is best example of Coral islands.
down to a plain by the process the largest group of such lakes,
of erosion. e.g. Plain of North including lake Nyasa.
Alluvial Island
Canada. • They are formed by the outward Crater Lake
iii. Depositional Plain Formed by flow of water depositing silt and • Crater lakes form at a volcanic
filling up of sediments into gravel at the mouth of a river.
peak. When an extinct volcano
depressions along the foothills, • New Moore island at the mouth of collapses, it often leaves a
lakes and seas e.g. Indo Ganga Ganga river in West Bengal is somewhat circular depression;
Plain. known as alluvial island. water from rain and runoff
eventually fills the lake.
Barrier Island
ISLANDS They are formed by waves depositing
• Crater lake in Oregon is a good
example of such a lake.
An island is any piece of land that is sand on the shallow ocean bottom as
surrounded by water. A grouping of they crash on the shoreline.
Deflation Lake
geographically or geologically related • Deflation lakes usually occur in
islands is called an Archipelago. The
Tectonic Island
• They are formed by the result of deserts as the wind blows out
various types of islands are named depressions in the sand. If the hole
according to the way they were tectonic activity. By the tectonic
movement long island arcs reaches the local groundwater
formed. table, it can create an oasis.
(archipelagoes) are formed.
• Indonesia, Philippines, Japan groups • Such features dot the Sahara desert
Types of Island of island are best examples of in Africa which are locally called
Types of island are as follow tectonic island Oasis.

Continental Island Oxbow Lake

• It is simply an island that rests on
LAKES • Oxbow lakes are created by a
the continental shelf. Because of A lake is a body of water surrounded curved river meander that was cut
this, these islands are always quite by land from all the sides. A lake can off by sediment or other means,
close to a given continent. Also, the be fed and drained by rivers and creating a bowed shaped lake.
water level around a continental streams. • The Mississippi river shows
island is very shallow, typically less evidence of past Oxbow lakes.
than 600 feet. Types of Lake
• Canadian Island of Newfoundland Lakes can be classified as follow : Artificial Lake
is a continental island, as is • Artificial lakes are those usually
Greenland. Great Britain is the Tarn Lake formed by the damming of a river.
largest continental island in Europe. Tarn lakes (also often classified as • These lakes are usually created to
Alpine lakes) are usually associated regulate the flow of a seasonal
Volcanic Island with glacial regions areas that have flooding river and many times
They are formed when volcanoes been glaciated in the past. These
offer a constant supply of potable
deep in the ocean rise above the follows form as the ice scours out the
(drinkable) water or generated
water’s surface. side of a hill, creating what is called a
electricity.
cirque.
864 CDS Pathfinder

• Tropopause separates troposphere from stratosphere.

Troposphere accounts for practically the entire water
Lakes Countries Area (km2)
vapour, all dust particles and most of the carbon dioxide
Caspian Sea Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, 436000
Azerbaijan, Russia contained in the atmosphere. Due to this all weather
phenomena such as condensation, precipitation and storms
Superior Canada, United States 82414
etc occur in the troposphere only.
Victoria Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania 69485
Huron Canada, United States 59,600
TEMPERATURE INVERSION
Michigan United States 58000 ●
It refers to reversal of normal behaviour of temperature
Tanganyika Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia 32893 in troposphere such that a layer of cool air at the surface
Baikal Russia 31500 is overlain by a layer of warmer air.
Great Bear Lake Canada 31080
●
Inversion plays an important role in determining cloud
forms, precipitation and visibility. Long nights with clear
Malanei Malawi Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique 30044 skies and, calm and stable air are ideal conditions for
Great Slave Lake Canada 28930 temperature inversion.
Balkhash Kazakhstan 18428
Ladoga Russia 18130 Stratosphere
Nicaragua Nicaragua 8001 • The stratosphere extends upto about 50 km, where
Great Salt Lake United States 4662 stratopause separates it from the mesosphere.
• In stratosphere, the temperature increases with increase in
height. This phenomenon is known as Temperature
ATMOSPHERE Inversion.
• Atmosphere is a thick gaseous envelope which • The temperature rises in this layer from about–60 °C at the
surrounds the Earth from all sides and it is attached to tropopause to 0 °C at stratopause. The part of the
Earth through the force of gravitation. stratosphere, in which there is a concentration of ozone is
• Extent of Atmosphere Almost 97% of effective often called Ozonosphere. It absorbs ultraviolet radiation,
atmosphere confines within the height 29 km of the which is harmful for us.
Earth’s surface. So, the vertical distribution of the • Stratosphere is free from dust particles and also from
atmosphere is not uniform and even not atmospheric turbulences. Hence, this layer is considered
homogeneous. It extends between 16-29000 km from ideal for flying of jet aircrafts.
the sea level.
Mesosphere
Composition • Mesosphere extends above the stratopause upto a height of
about 80 km. In this layer, the temperature decreases with
• The atmosphere is mainly composed of gases, water
height like in the troposphere and it falls from about 0 °C
vapour and particulates. The main gases found in at its base to about – 100 °C at 80 km height. It is
atmosphere are nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon considered the coldest layer of the atmosphere.
(0.33%), carbon dioxide (0.03%), neon, helium, ozone,
• The upper limit of the mesosphere is marked by the
hydrogen etc.
Mesopause, a transitional layer separating it from the
• Besides these gases, water vapour, dust particles and
ionosphere.
other particulate matter are also present. Ozone gas is
found in a belt lying at an altitude of around 20-25 Ionosphere
km. The amount of water vapour present in the
• Ionosphere is located above the mesosphere and extends
atmosphere varies from region to region between
0-4% by volume. upto about 600 km. This layer is called as ionosphere
because it contains electrically charged ions that reflect the
radio waves back to the Earth, thus making radio
Layers of Atmosphere communication possible.
Troposphere • Absorption of solar radiation by ionised particles cause an
increase in temperature with increasing height in the
• It extends upto 16 km from the Earth’s surface.
ionosphere.
Thickness varies from 8 km at the poles to 18 km at
• Due to large concentration of ionised particles in this layer
the equator. At every 165 m, there is a drop of 1°C (or
6 . 4°C per km). This is called normal lapse rate of the ionosphere acts as a protective layer against meteorites,
that are burnt in this layer.
temperature.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 865

Thermosphere Atmospheric Pressure

• The zone between the 85 km and 400 km above the
surface is often called Thermosphere. In this layer, the Air is an extremely compressible gas having its own weight.
The pressure exerted by air due to its weight is called
temperature increases with increasing altitude. The
atmospheric pressure on the Earth’s surface. Atmospheric
upper limit of the thermosphere, the thermopause is
pressure is neither same for all the regions nor same for one
generally taken at an altitude of about 600 km. region all the time.
• The day temperature at 600 km altitude exceed 1400 °C
while night temperature remain about 225°C . Factor Affecting Atmospheric Pressure
• The upper part of the thermosphere contains only the Atmospheric pressure is affected by various factors such as
lighter gases like helium and hydrogen. altitude, temperature and Earth’s rotation.
Altitude Air pressure increases, when air descends due to
Exosphere and Magnetosphere the decrease in volume. When air rises its volume
• The outermost part of the atmosphere of the Earth is increases and the outward pressure of its molecule is
called Exosphere. This zone of the atmosphere extends spread over a larger area and its pressure decreases.
upto a height of about 900 km. Temperature The pressure of air rises, when its
• The upper limit of the exosphere is uncertain as this temperature falls. Low temperatures at the poles cause
layer acts as a transitional layer between the Earth’s the air to contract–high pressure develops; whereas the
atmosphere and the space. The outer part of the high temperature along the equator cause the air to
exosphere is called Magnetosphere. The presence of air expand–low pressure develops.
is extremely rare in this layer.
Pressure Belts
Insolation and Solar Radiation Earth can be divided into regions of broader pressure belts,
• Sun is the main source of energy on Earth. Energy even though it has regional anomalies or deviations.
from Sun is received in the form of radiation. Solar
radiation that is intercepted by Earth is known as Equatorial Low Pressure Belt (or Doldrums)
Insolation. • It is located on either side of the geographical equator in a
The amount of insolation depends on following factors : zone extending between 5°N and 5°S. Its location is not
– The area and nature of the surface. stationary and there is a seasonal drift of this belt with the
– The inclination of the rays of the Sun.
Northward (summer solstice) and Southward (winter
solstice) migration of the Sun.
– Distance between the Earth and the Sun.
• It is thermally induced because of the intense heating of
– Length of the day.
the ground surface by the almost vertical Sun rays.
– The transparency of the atmosphere.
• It represents the zone of convergence of North East and
• As the angle of the Sun rays decreases poleward, the South East trade winds. Due to the frequent calm
amount of insolation received also decreases in that conditions this belt is called as a belt of calm or
direction. doldrums.
• The Earth’s surface does not absorb all the energy that
it receives. The proportion of the solar radiation Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
reflected from the surface is called Albedo. • The ITCZ is a low pressure zone located at the equator
• On an average, insolation is highest near the equator, where trade winds converge and so, it is a zone where air
marginally lower at the tropic and lowest at the poles. tends to ascend.
• In July, the ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes
Heat Budget of the Earth cover the gangetic plain), sometimes called the Monsoon
Trough. This monsoon trough encourages the development
The Earth receives energy continuously from the Sun, its of thermal low over North and North-West India.
temperature is almost constant except the long-term
• Due to the shift of ITCZ, the trade winds of the Southern
climate changes. This is because the atmosphere loses an
hemisphere cross the equator between 40° and 60° E
amount of heat equal to the gain through insolation. This
longitudes and start blowing from South-West to
mechanism of maintaining the same temperature by the
North-East due to the Coriolis force. It becomes
atmosphere is called the Heat Budget or Heat Balance. South-West monsoon.
The heated surface of the Earth radiates energy in the • In winter, the ITCZ moves Southward and so the reversal
form of long waves. This process is called Terrestrial of winds from North-East to South and South-West, takes
Radiation. place. They are called North-East monsoons.
866 CDS Pathfinder

Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt • The slope of pressure from high to low is called as Pressure
Gradient, which is also called as Barometric Slope.
• It extends between 30° to 35° N and S in both the
hemispheres. The high pressure along this belt is • The imaginary line joining the points having same pressure is
due to subsidence of air coming from equatorial called Isobars. The direction of air movement should be
regions and also due to blocking effect of coriolis perpendicular to the isobars because the direction of pressure
force. gradient is perpendicular to the isobars, but the direction is
deviated from the expected one due to coriolis force caused
• The convergence of winds at higher altitude above
by the rotation of the Earth.
this zone results in the subsidence of air from
higher altitudes. Thus, decent of wind results in
concentration of their volume and ultimately causes
Wind Direction and Related Laws
high pressure. This zone of high pressure is also • The Coriolis force generated due to the rotation of Earth acts
called as Horse Latitude. as a deflective force to the wind direction.
• Because of the coriolis force, all the winds are deflected to
Sub Polar Low Pressure Belt the right in the Northern hemisphere while they are deflected
• It extends between 60° to 65° in both the to the left in the Southern hemisphere with respect to the
hemisphere. The low pressure belt does not appear rotating Earth. This is referred to as Ferrel’s law.
to be thermally induced because there is low • The coriolis force is absent along the equator, but increases
temperature throughout the year and as such there progressively towards the poles.
should have been high pressure belt instead of low
pressure belt. Thus, it is dynamically induced. Types of Winds
• It is more developed and regular in Southern (i) Permanent Winds
hemisphere than in Northern hemisphere because of
These winds include trade wind, westerlies and polar winds,
the over dominance of water (ocean) in the
Southern hemisphere. these are as follows :
• Trade Wind These are steady currents of air blowing from
Polar High the sub-tropical high pressure belt towards the equatorial low
High pressure persists at the poles throughout the pressure belt. Under the influence of the coriolis forces they
year because of the prevalence of very low flow from the North-East in the Northern hemisphere and
temperature all the year round. Polar highs are small from South-East in the Southern hemisphere.
in area and extend around the poles. • Westerlies The permanent winds blowing from the
sub-tropical high pressure belt to the sub polar low pressure
Shifting of Pressure Belts belt in both the hemisphere is called Westerlies. The general
• The entire system of pressure and wind belts direction of the Westerlies is South-West to North-East in
follows the movement of mid-day Sun. In June, the Northern hemisphere and North-West to South-East in
when the overhead Sun is over the Tropic of the Southern hemisphere. Westerlies are best developed
Cancer, all the belts move about 5 °- 10 ° North of between 40° and 65° S latitude, these latitudes are often
their average position. called Roaring forties, furious fifties and shrieking sixties.
• In the same manner, when the Sun is overhead at • Polar Winds These winds blows from polar high pressure
the Tropic of Capricorn in December, all the belts belt to sub polar low pressure belt. They are North Easterly
swings 5 °- 10 ° South of their average position. in Northern hemisphere and South Easterly in the Southern
hemisphere.
Wind System (ii) Seasonal Winds
The pressure difference is the major cause of the genesis The winds, which reverse its direction completely every
of the wind system. The air moves from high pressure 6 months are called Seasonal Winds. The best example is
to low pressure. monsoon winds.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 867

(iii) Local Winds

Cyclones
Local winds are horizontal movement of winds on
small-scale. Movement of these winds is mainly caused • Cyclones are the centres of low pressure surrounded by
by local factors such as water body, mountain etc. closed isobars having increasing pressure outward and
closed air circulation from outside towards the central low
pressure in such a way that air blows inward direction.
Winds Nature Region • Air blows inward in anti-clockwise direction in the
Land breeze Warm Experienced along coastal Northern hemisphere and clockwise direction in the
areas. Land breeze blows
from land to sea.
Southern hemisphere.
Sea breeze Cold Experienced along coastal
areas. Sea breeze blows Types of Cyclone
from sea to land. Cyclone are mainly of two types :
Chinook (snow eater) Warm Rockies (USA and Canada)
i. Tropical Cyclone They have thermal origin, they acquire
Sirocco Hot North Africa whirling motion due to coriolis force. Wind speed varies
Fohn Warm Alps/Europe from zero to 1200 km/h
Khamsin Hot Egypt ii. Temperate Cyclone They develop over mid-latitudes.
Blizzard Cold Siberian, Canada, USA Range 35° to 65° N and S. They are also called extra
Bora Cold Yugoslavia tropical or wave cyclones.
Southerly burster Cold Australia
Purga Cold Russian, Tundra
Bire Cold France Cyclone Region
Typhoons China sea
Cape doctor Cold South Africans’s coast
Tropical cyclones Indian ocean
Harmattan (the doctor) Hot Sahara to Guinea coast
(Ghana, Nigeria, etc) Hurricanes Caribbean sea
Zonda Warm Argentina, Chile/Andes Tornadoes USA
Brick fielder Hot Australia Willy Willies Northern Australia
Samun Hot Iran
Levanter Cold Wind Spain Anticyclone
Norwester Hot Wind New Zealand
• Anticyclones are the wind system, which have the highest
Leveche Hot Algeria, Morocco air pressure at the centre and lowest at the outer margins
Santa Ana Warm USA (California) surrounded by circular isobars.
Berg Warm South Africa • Air blows from centre to outward in clockwise direction in
Yoma Warm Japan Northern hemisphere and anti–clockwise direction in
Karaburan Hot Tarim basin Southern hemisphere.
Black roller Hot/Dusty North America • They are high pressure system and common in sub-tropical
Kalbaisakhi/ Bardoli Hot North India belts and practically absent in the equator region. They are
Chheerha
generally associated with rainless fair weather and that’s
Mistral Cold France to Mediterranean
(Rhine valley)
why they are called as Weatherless Phenomena.
Loo Hot/Dry North Indian Plains (Punjab
to Bihar) Thunderstorms
• Thunderstorms are local storms characterised by swift
Jet Stream upward movement of air and heavy rainfall with cloud
thunder and lighting.
• The strong and rapidly moving circumpolar Westerly
• Structurally, thunderstorms consist of several convective
air circulation in a narrow belt of a few 100 km width
cells, which are characterised by strong updraft of air.
in the upper limit of troposphere is called Jet Stream.
Their circulation path is wavy and meandering. Tornado
• The extent of the jet streams narrows down during
• Tornadoes are very strong tropical cyclones of smaller size.
the summer season because of their Northward In the Mississippi valley (US), they are called Twisters.
shifting while these extend up to 20° North latitude
during winter season. • They are more destructive than cyclones as the speed of
winds is very high, exceeding 320 km per hour.
868 CDS Pathfinder

• Fog is made from the droplets of water suspended in the

Humidity and Related Aspects lower layer of the atmosphere. Fog is not considered as a
• Humidity of air refers to the content of the water form of precipitaion. Visibility of less than 1 km is the
vapour present in the air at a particular time and place. internationally recognised definition of fog.
• Humidity is measured by an instrument called • Smog (Smoke + Fog) is a form of fog that occurs in areas,
Hygrometer. Another instrument used for the same where the air contains a large amount of smoke.
purpose is sling psychrometer. • Haze is formed by water particles that have condensed in
• The atmospheric humidity is expressed in a number of the atmosphere and visibility lie between 1 km to 2 km.
ways such as : • Frost is the moisture on the ground surface that
– Humidity Capacity The capacity of air of certain condenses directly into ice i.e. when condensation occurs
volume at certain temperature to retain maximum below freezing point.
amount of moisture content.
– Absolute Humidity The total weight of moisture
Clouds
content per volume of air at definite temperature is • Clouds are a mass of small water droplets or tiny ice
called Absolute Humidity. crystals.
– Specific Humidity The mass of the water vapour in • Clouds are classified according to their appearance, form
grams contained in a kilogram of air and it and height. There are four groups as follow
represents the actual quantity of moisture present in
i. High clouds 6000 m to 12000 m.
a definite air.
ii. Middle clouds 2100 m to 6000 m.
– Relative Humidity It is the ratio of the amount of
water vapour actually present in the air having iii. Low clouds below 2100 m.
definite volume and temperature (i.e. absolute iv. Clouds with great vertical extent 1500 m to 9000 m.
humidity) to the maximum amount the air can hold The different types of clouds are given Latin names, which
(i.e. humidity capacity). are the combination of the following words :
Absolute Humidity – Cirrus means looking like a feather and used to describe
Relative Humidity = × 100
Humidity Capacity the very high clouds.
– Cumulus means looking like a heap. It is used to
• Condensation is the change of physical state of
matter from gaseous phase into liquid phase. It is the describe the clouds having flat bases and rounded tops.
reverse of vaporisation. – Stratus means lying in level sheets. It is used for layer

• When the relative humidity reaches 100%, the air is

type of clouds.
completely saturated. The air temperature is said to be – Alto means mid-level cloud.
as dew point. – Nimbus means rain cloud.

High Clouds Middle Clouds Low Clouds Clouds with Great Vertical Extent
Cirrus Composed of small ice crystal, Alto Cumulus Composed of water Strato Cumulus Large globular Cumulus Round topped and flat based
white wispy and fibrous in droplets in layers and patches. masses, bumpy looking, soft and forming a whitish grey globular mass,
appearance. grey in appearance forming a consists of individual cloud units.
pronounced regular and
sometimes wavy pattern.
Cirro Cumulus Composed of ice Alto Stratus Composed of water Nimbo Stratus Dark grey and Cumulo Nimbus They have a great vertical
crystals but rippled in appearance. droplets, forming sheets of grey or rainy looking, dense and extent, white or black globular masses,
watery looking clouds. shapeless, often gives continuous whose rounded tops often spread out in the
rains. form of anvil. It is characterised by
convectional rain, lightning and thunder.
Cirro Stratus Looks like a thin white Stratus These are low, grey and
almost transparent sheet, which layered, almost fog like in
causes the Sun and Moon to have appearance, bringing dull weather
halos. and often accompanied by
drizzle.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 869

PRECIPITATION
On the basis of its origin, precipitation may be Name Country/ Region
classified into three main types Sahara (Libyan, Nubian) North Africa
Australian (Gibson, Simpson, Victorian Great Sandy) Australia
• Convectional Rainfall It occurs due to thermal
Arabian (Rub-al-Khali, An-Nafud) Arabia
convection currents caused due to insolational
Dast-e-Lut (Barren desert) Iran
heating of ground surface. e.g. Rainfall over
Dast-e-Kavir (Salt-e-Kavir) (Salt desert) Iran
Congo basin, Amazon basin and South-East Asia.
Desierto de Sechura Peru
• Orographic Rainfall It occurs due to ascent of Atacama North Chile
air forced by mountain barrier. e.g. Patagonia Argentina
Mahabaleshwar, Western Ghat recieves about 600 Kalahari Botswana
cm rainfall. Namib Namibia
• Frontal Rainfall It occurs due to upward Great Indian Desert India
movement of air caused by convergence of cold
air masses against warm air masses. e.g. Heavy
rainfall in North-West Europe due to Isopleth Reaction
convergence of cold continental and warm Isohels Sunshine
oceanic air. Isohyets Rainfall
Isonif Snow
WEATHER AND CLIMATE Isocline
Isotherms
Slope
Temperature
• Weather refers to the sum total of the Isobars Equal pressure
atmospheric conditions in terms of temperature, Isobath Equal depth in sea
pressure, wind, moisture, cloudiness, precipitation Isohaline Salinity
and visibility of a particular place at any given Isohypse (or contour lines) Elevation above sea-level
time. Isodapane Equal transportation cost
• The average weather conditions over a large area Isobrants Thunderstorm at the same time
are called the Climate of a Place. The factors,
which control the weather and the climatic
conditions are latitude, altitude, unequal Grasslands Countries Grasslands Countries
distribution of land and water, ocean current, air Steppe Eurasia Veld South Africa
pressure and wind, mountain barrier, nature of Puszta Hungary Downs Australia
ground surface, different types of atmospheric Prairie USA Canterbury New Zealand
storms etc. Pampas Argentina

Climatic Zone Climatic Types Rainfall Natural Vegetation

Equatorial Zone Hot, wet equatorial Rainfall all the year Equatorial rain forest– special term selva is used to
(10°N-10°S) Ebony, mahogany, dye woods are found.
Hot Zone (30°N-30°S) (i) Tropical Monsoon Heavy summer rain Monsoonal forest– Teak sal, sisam, eucalyptus acacia
(ii) Tropical Marine Summer rain savana (Tropical grassland)– grasses
(iii) Sudan type Rain mainly in summer
(iv) Desert Little rain Desert vegetation and scrub– cacti
(a) Saharan type (b) Mid latitude type
Warm Temperate Zone (i) Western margin (Mediterranean type) Winter rain Mediterranean forests– Oak, pine fir, eucalyptus, giant
(30°N-45°S) sequoia, cedar
(ii) Central Continental type (Steppe type) Light summer rain Steppe, temperate grass
(iii) Eastern Margin Heavier summer rain Warm, wet forests– Parapine, oak
(a) China type Parapine, oak
(b) Gulf type Walnut, oak, hickory
(c) Natal type Parapine, eucalyptus, wattle
Cool Temperate Zone (i) Western Margin (British Type ) Rain in autumn and Deciduous forest–Oak, elm, birch, poplar, chestnut,
(45°N-65°S) winter mapple
(ii) Central Continental (Siberian Type) Light summer rain Coniferous forest– Pine fir, spruce larch
(i) Eastern Margin (Lauritian Type ) Moderate summer rain Mixed forest– Oak, beech, mapple
Cold Zone (65°N-90°S) (ii) Arctic or Polar Mountain Climate Very light summer rain Tundra, mosses, lichens
Heavy rainfall (variable) Alpine, fern, conifers
870 CDS Pathfinder

• Parts of the Abyssal plains are occupied by raised

HYDROSPHERE ridges or submarine mountains and by very deep
The water components of the Earth is called Hydrosphere. trenches or canyons.
It includes the oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.
The hydrosphere covers about 70% of the surface of the Deeps/Trenches
Earth. • Trenches are narrow and steep sides depressions.
Trenches are formed, when two plates of the Earth’s
crust are moving together and one is being pushed
Total Percentage down below the other.
Storage Component
of Water • Marina trench (challenger deep) is the deepest trench in
Oceans 97.6 the world situated in the NW Pacific oceans, near
Saline lakes and inland seas 0.008 philippines. It is approx 11 km deep.
Ice capes and glaciers 1.9
Ground water 0.5 Oceanic Ridges
Soil moisture 0.01 • Oceanic ridges are of tectonic origin and they provide
Lakes 0.009 evidence in support of the Plate Tectonics Theory.
Freshwater rivers 0.0001 They are formed by the volcanic activity along the
Atmosphere 0.0009 spreading boundary of plates.
• These ridges are thousands of km long and hundreds of
Relief Features of the Oceans km wide mountain ranges on the oceanic floor.
• Their summits may rise above the sea level in the form
Continental Shelf of islands i.e. Iceland, Azores Island are such examples.
• The shallow submerged extension of the continent is
called the continental shelf. Extends to a depth of 100
Coral Reefs
fathoms (1 fathoms = 1.8 m). It has average width 70 km; • Coral reefs are formed due to accumulation and the
average slope 17 ft/mile or about 1°. compaction of skeletons of lime secreting organisms
• Continental shelf covers 7.5% area of the oceans. It
known as Coral Polyps.
extends over 13.3% of the Atlantic ocean, 5.7% of Pacific • Corals are found mainly in the tropical oceans and seas
ocean and 4.2% of Indian ocean. because they require high mean annual temperature of
• In cases, where the mountains extend along the coast, the
ranging between 20°C to 25°C.
continental shelf will be narrower. About 20% petrol and • Corals do not live in deeper waters due to lack of
gas are found here. They also provide the richest fishing sufficient sunlight and oxygen.
ground in the world. On the basis of nature, shape and mode of occurrence, the
coral reefs are classified into three types :
Continental Slope i. Fringing Reefs It develop along the continental
• Extends seawards from the continental shelf. It has margins or along the islands.
depth—200-2000 fathoms (3660m) and average slope 20 to – The seaward slope is steep and vertical while the
50 degrees. landward slope is gentle. These reefs run as a narrow
• The boundary between shelf and slope is known as belt of about 0.5 km to 2.5 km width.
Andesite Line, on the names of the Andesite rock. – They are usually attached to the coastal land, but
Continental slope covers about 8.5% of the total ocean occasionally they are separated from the shore by a
area. shallow and narrow lagoon called ‘Boat Channel’.
– This type of reefs are found near Rameshwaram in
Continental Rise the Gulf of Mannar.
• Continental rise is an area at the foot of the slope, slightly
ii. Barrier Reefs Largest coral reefs off the coastal
rising due to the accumulation of debris transported over platform, but parallel to them.
the slope.
– The reef lies at a distance away from the coast.
• It has average slope— 0.5° to 1°. Oil deposits occur here. Hence, a broad lagoon develops between the reef and
the shore. They are hundreds of kilometer long and
Abyssal or the Deep Sea Plains few kilometers wide.
• It is the deepest and most extensive part of the oceanic – The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is the largest
floor having average depth of 3000m to 6000m. It covers barrier reef in the world.
about 75.9% of total oceanic area.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 871

iii. Atoll A reef of narrow growing corals of horse— Straits

shoe shape and crowned with plam trees is called an
A strait is a narrow body of water that connects two larger
Atoll.
bodies of water and separates two landmasses.
– Atoll partly or completely encloses a lagoon. It is
formed around an island in an elliptical form on a
submarine platform. Funafuti atoll of Ellice Islands is Name Joins Location
a famous atoll.
Malacca Strait Andaman Sea and Indonesia-Malaysia
South China Sea
CORAL BLEACHING Palk Strait Palk Bay and Bay of Bengal India-Sri Lanka
When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such Sunda Strait Java Sea and Indian Ocean Indonesia
as temperature, light or nutrients, they expel the symbiotic Yucatan Strait Gulf of Mexico and Mexico-Cuba
algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn Carribbean Sea
colourless, this phenomenon is known as Coral Mesina Strait Mediterranean Sea Italy-Sicily
Bleaching. Bab-el-Mandeb Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Yemen-Djibouti
Strait
Cook Strait South Pacific Ocean New Zealand
SALINITY (N and S Islands)
Mozambique Strait Indian Ocean Mozambique-Malagasy
Salinity is defined as the total amount of salts and
Bass Strait Tasman Sea and South Sea Australia
minerals in grams contained in 1 kg of sea water and
Bering Strait Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea Alaska-Russia
is expressed as part per thousand. The oceanic salinity not
only affects the marine organism and plant community, but Bosphorus Strait Black Sea and Marmara Sea Turkey
also affects the physical properties of the ocean such as Davis Strait Baffin Bay and Greenland-Canada
Atlantic Ocean
temperature, pressure, density, waves and currents.
Denmark Strait North Atlantic and Greenland-Iceland
• Average salinity of seawater is about 35‰ and average Arctic Ocean
salinity in Southern hemisphere is more than that of Dover Strait English Channel and England-France
Northern hemisphere. North Sea
• Iso-halines represent the salinity distribution in the Florida Strait Gulf of Mexico and USA-Cuba
Atlantic Ocean
surface of the sea. These are the lines joining places
Hormuz Strait Gulf of Persia and Oman-Iran
having an equal degree of salinity. Gulf of Oman
• The main source of salinity is dissolution of the rocks of Hudson Strait Gulf of Hudson and Canada
oceanic crust, which contains salts. Poles have minimum Atlantic Ocean
salinity because of addition of fresh water in the form of Gibraltar Strait Mediterranean Sea and Spain-Morocco
icebergs and excessive snowfall. Atlantic Ocean

• Variation in salinity causes vertical circulation of water. Magellan Strait Pacific and South Atlantic Chile
Ocean
• Salinity also increases the density of water. More saline Tsugaru Strait Japan Sea and Japan
water freezes slowly while the boiling point of saline Pacific Ocean (Hokkaido-Honshu
water is higher than the fresh water. Island)

Controlling Factor Relation with Salinity

MOVEMENTS
Evaporation Greater the evaporation, higher the salinity. OF OCEANIC WATER
Precipitation Higher the precipitation, lower the salinity.
Influx of river water Big voluminuous rivers pour down immense Waves
volume of fresh water into the oceans and • Waves are the oscillatory movements in water mainly
salinity is reduced at the mouth.
produced by winds, manifested by an alternate rise and
Atmospheric pressure Anticyclonic conditions with stable air and fall of the sea surface. The waves are the important
high temperature increases the salinity of
the surface water of the ocean. agents of erosion in the coastal regions, where they carve
Circulation of oceanic Ocean currents affect the spatial distribution of
out various landforms like caves, bays, gulfs, capes and
water salinity by mixing sea waters. cliffs.
• Seismic waves or tsunamis are the waves caused by
• Salinity on an average decreases from equator to poles.
earthquakes in volcanic eruptions in the sea bottom. The
The highest salinity is recorded near the tropics rather
tsunamis, which hit the coast in South–East Asia on 26th
than the equator because of the heavy precipitation in
December, 2004, caused havoc in that region.
the equatorial region.
872 CDS Pathfinder

Ocean Currents Currents of North Atlantic Ocean

• An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of (i) Warm Currents
ocean water generated by the forces acting upon it, such • North Equatorial Current It is present between
as breaking waves, wind, coriolis effect, temperature and equator and 10°N.
salinity differences shape and configuration of the
coastline and tides caused by the gravitation pull of the • Cayenne Current It flows adjacent to French Guinea
Moon and the Sun. and enters into Carribean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
• Ocean currents circulate in clockwise direction in • Florida Current Cayenne current near Florida
Northern hemisphere and in anti-clockwise direction in (US coast) is called Florida Current.
Southern hemisphere. Ocean currents are of two types : • Antilles Current It flows to the East of West Indies
i. Warm Ocean Currents The ocean currents and other islands.
flowing from lower latitude to higher latitude are
called as warm currents.
• Gulf Stream It flows from US coast towards
North-West Europe under the influence of Westerly
ii. Cold Ocean Currents The ocean currents
winds.
flowing from higher latitude to lower latitude are
called as cold currents. • North Atlantic Drift Gulf Stream bifurcates into
– North Atlantic drift (warm).
Currents of North Pacific Ocean – West Wind drift (cold) and Canaries current (cold).
(i) Warm Currents (ii) Cold Currents
• North Equatorial Current It flows Westwards from • Labrador Current It orginates in Baffin bay and Davis
the Western coast of Mexico to the Philippines. Strait and merges with Gulf Stream near Newfoundland.
• Kuroshio Current It is an extension of North Newfoundland is a famous zone of fishing, commonly
Equatorial current near Japan coast. It flows towards known as Grand Bank.
North.
• Alaska Current It flows along the coast of British
• Irminger Current or Greenland Current It flows
Columbia and the Alaska Peninsula. between Greenland and Iceland and merges with North
Atlantic drift.
(ii) Cold Currents
• Canaries Current It flows along the Western coast of
• Oyashio Current It flows down from Bering sea
North Africa between Madeira cape verde and it joins
towards Japan from North pole and it joins Kuroshio
currents. North equatorial current.
• Okhotsk Current and Kuril Current It flows down • West Wind Drift It flows towards UK.
from sea of Okhotsk and joins Kuroshio current to the
North of Japan. Currents of South Atlantic Ocean
• West Wind Drift It flows towards Alaska. (i) Warm Currents
• Californian Current It is an extension of Alaskan • South Equatorial Current It flows between equator
currents. It finally joins North Equatorial current and and 10°S.
completes clockwise circulation of water.
• Brazilian Current It flows to the East coast of Brazil
Currents of South Pacific Ocean from equator towards pole.
(i) Warm Currents (ii) Cold Currents
• East Australian Current or Great Barrier Current • Falkland Current It flows along the South-East coast
It flows towards East coast of Australia from equator of South America from South to North.
towards Pole. • Benguela Current It flows from South to North near
• South Equatorial Current It originates due to South the ‘Cape of Good Hope’.
East trade winds and flows Westwards and bifurcates • West Wind Drift It is the continuence of Brazilian and
near New Guinea.
Falkland current.
• Counter Equatorial Current It extends upto Panama
Bay. It flows exactly on equator from West to East. • Guinea Current It flows near coast of Guinea (Africa).
(ii) Cold Currents Currents of the Indian Ocean
• Peruvian Current (Humboldt current) It flows from • The Asiatic Monsoon It influences the currents of the
South towards equator on the coast of Chile and Peru. North Indian Ocean, while the currents of South Indian
• West Wind Drift It flows from Tasmania to Chile ocean are influenced by the atmosphere’s anticyclonic
coast of South America. circulation.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 873

• North Equatorial Current The current flows from East Hardwood trees like rosewood, teak, sal, ebony and
to West and upon reaching the East coast of Africa, a good mahogany are most common trees. Such forests are
portion turns Southward, crosses the equator and becomes found near the equator in amazon basin, zaire basin and
the Mozambique current. South-East Asian region.
• Mozambique Current The Mozambique current flows
South along the East coast of Africa from the vicinity of
Tropical Deciduous Forests
the equator to about 35°, where it is known as Agulhas These forests are also known as Monsoon Forests.
stream. These forests are found in regions having monsoon
climate i.e. India, Myanmar, Thailand, parts of
• Agulhas Stream The Agulhas stream flows Westward
Indonesia, Malaysia, Indo-China, Philippines etc. Trees
along the Southern West of Madagascar and joins the
are adopted to a long dry season and shed their leaves
Mozambique current along the East African coast.
during dry season. Teak, sal, bamboo, khair, bargad,
• West Wind Drift Current It flows across the Indian peepal are important trees. Forest are not very dense,
ocean to the South-West of Australia. therefore, commercial exploitation of these forests is
• North-East Monsoon Drift It flows along the coast of possible.
India during winter.
• South-West Monsoon Drift It flows along the coast of
Mediterranean Forests
India during summer. These forests are found in areas around Mediterranean
Sea, Central Chile, South-West USA, Australia and
• South Equatorial Current It is a significant Pacific, Northern Africa. Such vegetations are found in regions
Atlantic and Indian ocean current that flows East-West with hot and dry summers and mild and wet winters.
between the equator and about 20 degrees South. Xerophytic plants constitute the natural vegetation.
• Somalia Current It is an ocean boundary current that Mediterranean regions are known as ‘Orchards of the
runs along the coast of Somalia and Aman in the Western World’ for their fruit cultivation. Citrus fruits like
Indian ocean and is analogous to the Gulf stream in the oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly cultivated.
Atlantic ocean.
Coniferous Forests
Tides These forest extend in a band across Northern North
The rises and fall of the sea level as a result of the forces America and Eurasia to the edge of the Arctic Tundra,
between the Earth, the Moon and the Sun is called a Tide. constituting the largest terrestrial biome in the world.
The interval between two tides is 12 hrs and 26 min. Forests consist of tall, softwood evergreen trees.
Northern coniferous forests are dominated by
There are two types of tides, which are as follows : cone-bearing trees, such as pine, spruce, fir and
i. Spring Tides When the Earth, the Moon and the Sun hemlock. Trees are conical shaped with needle shaped
are in a straight line (also called SYZYGY (straight line leaves and trees are found in large groups.
configuration of three celestial bodies) the Sun enhances
the gravitational pull of the Moon, creating a condition Tropical Grasslands
of higher high tides and lower low tides known as Spring These grasslands are known as ‘Savanna’ in Africa and
Tides. ‘Campos’ in Brazil. The grasses are very tall and grows
ii. Neap Tides When the Sun and Moon are at right angles upto a height of 3 to 4 metres. The scattered trees
to the Earth. The Sun partially contracts the pull of the found at different densities are thorny and have small
Moon producing lower high tides typical of a Neap Tide. leaves, an apparent adaptation to relatively dry
conditions. Fires are common in dry season and
Natural Vegetation dominant plant species are fire-adapted and tolerant of
seasonal drought.
Natural vegetation refers to those vegetations which grows
naturally on the Earth’s surface without any human
interference. Different vegetation regions that are identified
Temperate Grasslands
have distinct types of plants, soil and weathern patterns. These grasslands are also known as Prairies in North
Major vegetation types of the world has been discussed below : America, Pampas in South America, Down in Australia,
Velds in South Africa and Steppes in Europe. These
Tropical Evergreen Rainforests regions have warm and moist summers and cold and
snowy winters. Dominant plants are grasses and forbs,
These vegetations are characterised by long and evergreen
which vary in height from few centimetres to 2 m.
trees. Forest of these types have layered structure that form
These areas are also known as ‘Bread Basket’ of the
canopy at the top. Almost two-thirds of all the world’s
world due to large scale cultivation of maize and wheat.
flowering plants are found in rainforests.
874 CDS Pathfinder

Tropical Deserts Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

These are located on the western margins of the • This type of agriculture is practised on wide scale in densely
continents between 15°-30° North and South of populated regions of monsoonal Asia.
equator. These regions have hot and dry summers and • In this type of agriculture the farmer owns a small piece of
receive very less rainfall. Vegetation is very scant, with land, grown crops with the help of his family members and
succulent stems, long roots and leaves are reduced to consumes almost the entire farm produce with little surplus
spines. to sell in the market.
• This type of agriculture widely practised in Thailand,
Tundra
Myanmar, Vietnam, Cambodia and India.
Tundra covers large area in North Canada, North
Russia, North Sweden and Finland. The vegetation of Plantation Agriculture
tundra is mostly herbaceous, consisting of a mixture of
• Plantation agriculture is a form of commercial farming
mosses, grasses and forbs, alongwith some dwarf
where crops are grown for profit. Large land areas are
shrubs, trees and lichens. A permanently frozen layer
needed for this type of agriculture.
of soil called permafrost restrict growth of plant roots.
• It was introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in
the tropics. The major products of this type of farming are
AGRICULTURE the tropical crops such as tea, coffer, rubber and oil palm
• Agriculture is a primary economic activity. It includes etc has developed in parts of Asia, Africa and Latin
both, cultivation of crops and rearing of animals, to America.
provide food and other products.
Extensive Commercial Grain Farming
• Agriculture is practised under different combination
• It is commercial form of agriculture where entire operations
of physical and socio-economic conditions which
gives rise to different types of agriculture systems. from ploughing to harvesting are mechanised. Grain crops,
especially wheat is grown under extensive farming methods.
Types of Agriculture • This kind of farming is done by developed countries like
USA, Australia and Russia.
Shifting Cultivation Mixed Farming
• It is also known as slash and burn cultivation as field
• In this type of agriculture, equal importance is given to both
to be cultivated is cleared by burning the vegetation.
crop cultivation and animal husbandry.
• The cultivated patches are very small and cultivation
• It give earning to the farmers.
is done with very primitive tools.
• This type of farming is widely practised by many tribes Nomadic Herding
in the tropics, especially in Africa, South and Central
• It is a primitive subsistence activity, based upon rearing of
America and South-East Asia.
animals on natural pastures.
• People in this system keep on moving along with their
animals in search of grazing areas.
Shifting Cultivation Country • In Africa, cattle are the most important livestock, while in
Ladang Malaysia and Java Sahara and Asiatic deserts, sheep, goats and camels are
Tamrai Thailand reared.
Taungya Myanmar (Burma) • In the mountainous areas of Tibet and Andes, Yak and
Caingin Philippines llamas are reared and in arctic and sub-arctic regions,
Chena Sri Lanka
reindeer is most important animal.
Milpa Mexico
Mediterranean Agriculture
Roca Brazil
• Specialised commercial farming practised in Mediterranean
Konuko Venezuela
climatic region. Crops like wheat, barley and vegetables are
Masole Congo
grown for domestic consumption, while citrus fruits, olives
Tavy Madagascar and grapes are grown on commercial scale for export purpose.
Ray Vietnam and Laos
• Main regions include countries on either side of
Proka Ghana Mediterranean in Europe, Southern California, Central
Jhuming India Chile, South-Western South Africa and Western Australia.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 875

Market Gardening • Top Beef producer of world are USA, Brazil, European
Union, China and India.
• It is concerned with cultivation of high value crops like
vegetables, fruits and flowers for urban markets. It is • India is the world’s largest producer of milk. It is the
also known as Truck Farming. leading exporter of skimmed milk powder. The world’s
largest exportes of milk and milk products are
• It is well developed in densely populated industrial
New Zealand, the European Union, Australia and the
districts of North-West Europe, North Eastern USA and
United States.
Mediterranean regions.
DAIRY FARMING
Types of Cultures Description
●
It is highly capital intensive and advanced form of
farm activity.
Apiculture Raising of bees for commercial purpose
●
It is practised mainly near urban and industrial
Aquaculture Rearing of aquatic animals or plants for food
centres.
Floriculture Cultivation of flowers ●
Denmark and Sweden have witnessed the
Horticulture Cultivation of fruits, flowers and vegetables on maximum development of this type of farming.
commercial scale
Mariculture Rearing of fish or other marine life for food • Some animals like sheeps, goats and rabbits reared for
Pisciculture Controlled breeding and rearing of fish wool production also. Australia is the leading producer
Sericulture Commercial level production of silk worms of wool followed by New Zealand and China.
Silviculture Commercial cultivation of trees
Temperate grasslands like Steppes in Russia, Prairies in
North America, Pampas in Argentina, Veldt in South
Viticulture Cultivation of grapevines
Africa and Downs in Southern Australia supports highly
intensive livestock industry.

Crops Countries Rankwise Fisheries

Food Crops • Fisheries constitute an important economic activity in
Rice/Paddy 1. China 2. India 3. Indonesia the coastal regions of the world, especially in the
Wheat 1. China 2. India 3. United States temperate latitudes. Fisheries can be classified into two
Millet 1. India 2. Niger 3. China groups – fresh water fisheries and marine fisheries.
Maize/corn 1. United 2. China 3. Brazil • Around 90% of the fishes are caught from the sea while
States
remaining is obtained from fresh water. The top ten
Oat 1. Russia 2. Canada 3. Finland largest fish producing countries in the world are China,
Pulses 1. India 2. Pakistan 3. Canada Peru, India, Indonesia, USA, Chile, Japan, Thailand,
Fibre Crops Vietnam and Russia.
Cotton 1. China 2. India 3. United States • Major exporters of fish and fishery products in the
Jute 1. India 2. Bangladesh 3. China world are China, Norway, Thailand, USA and Denmark
Plantation Crops and major importers of fish and fishery products are
Rubber 1. Thailand 2. Indonesia 3. Vietnam 4. India Japan, USA, Spain, France and Italy.
Tobacco 1. China 2. Brazil 3. India There are four major fishing grounds in the world :
Coconut 1. Indonesia 2. Philippines 3. India i. North-East Atlantic Region Dogger Bank located in
Sugarcane 1. Brazil 2. India 3. China the North Sea is one of the most important fishing
Tea 1. China 2. India 3. Kenya ground. Important species of this region are Cod and
Coffee 1. Brazil 2. Vietnam 3. Indonesia Herring.
ii. North-West Atlantic Region Grand Bank and
Georges Bank are important fishing grounds.
LIVESTOCK FARMING/ Important species of this region are Cod, Lobster,
Oyster and Herring.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY iii. North-West Pacific Region Countries involved in
• It refers to rearing of animals for food and other human fishing in this region are China, Japan, Russia, North
uses. The world ‘Livestock’ applies primarily to cattle, and South Korea.
chickens, goats, pigs, horses and sheeps. iv. North-East Pacific Region This region include
• Poultry farmers keep chickens, turkeys, geese and other coastal regions of Canada and USA. Important species
birds for meat and eggs. of this region are Halibut, Sardine, Salmon and Tuna.
876 CDS Pathfinder

MINERALS AND ENERGY

Industries Major Countries
RESOURCES Iron and Steel Russia, China, Usa, Japan, India, Britain
Industry
• A naturally occuring substance that has a definite
Cotton Textile China, India, USA
chemical composition and physical properties is
Jute Industry India, Bangladesh, China
called mineral.
Woolen Textile Australia, China, USA
• Minerals are formed in different types of
Paper Industries China, USA, Germany, Japan
geological environments, under varying
Ship Building China, South Korea, Japan
conditions. They are created by natural processes
Aircraft Building USA, Britain, Russia, France
without any human interference.
Automobile Industry China, USA, Japan, Germany, South Korea, India
Petro Chemical USA, Belgium, Japan, Netherlands, China, South Korea,
Taiwan
Minerals Countries in Decreasing Order of Production
Iron ore China, Australia, Brazil, India, Russia
Maganese China, South Africa, Australia, Brazil, Gabon TRANSPORT
Bauxite Australia, China, Brazil
Aluminium China, Russia, Canada, UAE, India
Transport along with communication is considered as lifeline of an
economy. The principle modes of transportation includes land
Copper Chile, China, Peru, USA, Congo
transport, waterways, airways and pipelines.
Silver Mexico, China, Peru, Russia, Australia
Gold
Tin
China, Australia, Russia, USA, Canada
China, Indonesia, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil
Road Transport
• Roadways are the most universal and accessible form of
Zinc China, Peru, Australia, USA, Canada
transportation. It is also very economical for short distances.
Uranium Kazakhstan, Canada, Australia, Niger, Namibia
• Germany was the first country in the world to establish a nation
• Energy resources are generally defined as wide highway network.
anything that can be used as a source of energy.
• USA has world’s longest and biggest road network followed by
Some energy resources are coal, petroleum and
China, India, Brazil and Russia.
natural gas etc.
• Pan-American Highway is the longest highway in the world.

Resources Major Producer Countries Rail Transport

Coal China, USA, Australia, India • It is preferred mode of land transport for bulky goods
Petroleum USA, Saudi Arabia, Russia, China passengers over long distances.
Natural Gas USA, Russia, Qatar, Iran
• The first train was started on 27th September, 1825 between
Uranium Kazakhistan (First), Canada, Australia, Niger, Stockton to Darlington in England.
Namibia
Wind Energy China, USA, Germany, Spain, India
• United States has world’s longest rail network, followed by

Solar Energy Germany, China, Italy, Japan, USA, Spain,

Russia and China.
France • Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway line in the world.
Hydro-electricity China (First), Canada, Brazil, USA, Norway,
New Zealand, India
Air Transport
• Air transport is the fastest but costliest mode of transport. The
INDUSTRIES development of air transport started after the World War I. But
the actual development of this transport took place after the
• All economic activities namely; primary,
World War II.
secondary, tertiary and quaternary, revolve
around obtaining and utilising resources • Three types of services are performed by air transport :
necessary for survival. i. Inter-Continental Global This includes the longest services.
• Among all, these secondary activities add value to e.g. services between the continents.
natural resources by transforming raw materials ii. Continental Air Route These services are performed among
into valuable products. the countries within a continent. e.g. India-China.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 877

iii. National Air Route Perform services for long

distance within the country. e.g. Mumbai-Delhi.
Inland Waterways
• Inland waterways were the chief mode of transportation
INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT before the advent of railways.
AUTHORITY (IATA) • The major oceans of world are connected with each other
●
It is an international trade body created over 60 years
thus, forming a continuous expanse of water providing links
ago by a group of airlines. Today, IATA represents to most parts of the world.
240 airlines comprising 84% of total air traffic.
●
The organisation also represents, leads and serves the
Major Inland Waterways of the World
airline industry in general. Rhine Waterways It is navigable for 700 km from Rotterdam
(Netherlands) to Basel (Switzerland). This is world’s most
heavily used waterways.
Water Transport Danube Waterway Danube river rises in Black Forest and
• Both ocean water transport and Inland transport form flow Eastward in Eastern Europe. It is navigable upto
the part of water transport. Taurna Severin.
• Waterways are the most suitable and cheapest mode Volga Waterways It is an important waterways of Russia and
of transport for carrying international trade. is navigable for 11200 km. The Volga-Moscow Canal
connects it with Moscow region and Volga-Don canal
Important Sea Routes of the World with Black sea.
North Atlantic Sea Route (Big Trunk) It links Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway The Great lakes of North
North-Eastern USA and North-Western Europe. It America, Superior, Hurie, Erie and Ontario are connected
is busiest route in the world. by Soo canal and Welland canal. Great Lakes along with
South Atlantic Sea Route This route connects North estuary of St. Lawrence river form the waterways.
America and Europe with South America. Mississippi Waterways The Mississippi-Ohio waterway
Mediterranean-Indian Ocean Sea Route It connects connects interior part of USA with Gulf of Mexico.
highly industrialised West European region with
East Africa, South Africa, South-East Asia and Races
Australia and New Zealand. • Race is a term used for large group of people with some basic
Cape of Good Hope Route It connects West European inherited physical characteristics common. e.g. skin colour,
and West African countries with Brazil, Argentina hair, facial features, eye colour, head shape etc.
and Uruguay in South America. • Four major human races are Caucasoid, Australoid,
North Pacific Sea Route This route links the ports of Mongoloid and Negroid.
West-coast of North America with those of Asia.
South Pacific Sea Route This route is an important
connecting link between South and North America Trait Caucasoid Mongoloid Negroid Australoid
with Australia, New Zealand and various Pacific Skin colour Pale reddish Saffron to Brown to Skin colour is
islands via Panama Canal. white to olive yellow brown brown-black of chocolate
brown
Major Canal System of the World Head form Long to broad Predominantly Predominantly Dolichocephalic
and short, broad, height long height
Suez Canal It was constructed in 1869. This is the medium high to medium low to medium
largest canal in the world, that connects Port Said very high
in North and Port Suez in South Linking Red Sea Face Narrow to Medium Medium broad Large heavy
and Mediterranean Sea. medium broad, broad to very to narrow, jaws and
tends to high, broad, malars tends to prognathism
Panama Canal It is constructed across the Panama no prognathism high and flat, medium high,
Isthmus between Panama city and Colon, tends to strong
medium high prognathism
connecting the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean
Hair Hair colour, Hair colour, Hair colour, Hair is silky,
Sea. light blonde to brown to brown black black and wavy
Kiel Canal This canal in Germany connects the North dark brown brown black
Sea with the Baltic Sea. Eye colour Light blue to Brown to dark Brown to dark brown
dark brown brown brown black
Manchester Shipping Canal It connects Manchester
with Eastham. Nose Bridge usually Bridge usually Bridge usually
high low to low
North-Sea Canal It joins North-sea with Amsterdam. medium
878 CDS Pathfinder

Major Tribes of the World Population

• The term tribe refers to a cultural or social rather
Population refers to the whole number of people living in country
than a biological or racial groups. or region. Demography is the scientific study of human
population.
Tribe Country/Region Population Distribution
Aborigines Australia
• Population is not distributed evenly in all parts of the world.
Apache South-West America
Some places have sparse (scattered) population and some have
Ainu Japan dense population.
Amerinds America
• Sparsely populated places tend to be difficult places to live.
Acta Philippines
These are usually places with hostile environment e.g. desert
Bantu Central and Southern America areas of the world.
Beja Egypt
• More than 75% of the world’s population lives in the
Berber Northern coast of Africa continents of Africa and Asia.
Beduoins Arabia, Syria, North Africa
Bora Columbia, Brazil
Bushmen Kalahari Desert in Africa Population Population
Country Country
Buryats Siberia, Central Asia (million) (million)
Chukchi Chukchi Peninsula (Russia) 1. China 1369 2. India 1270
Dayak Borneo (Indonesia) 3. USA 321 4. Indonesia 255
Fellah Middle East, North Africa 5. Brazil 204 6. Pakistan 189
Fulani Nigeria 7. Nigeria 183 8. Bangladesh 158
Han China 9. Russia 146 10. Japan 126
Hottentots South-West Africa
Hausa Nigeria Population Density
Hadza Tanzania • Density is defined as number of persons in per unit area. The
Inca Peru, Mexico density varies not only from one country to another within a
Inuit Greenland, Canada, Alaska continent but also from one part to the other within a country.
Jarawa Andaman (India) • The highest densities are found in North- Eastern USA,
Kamasin Siberia North-West Europe, South Asia, South-East Asia and East
Karakalpak Central Asia Asia.
Kirghiz Kyrgyzstan • The lowest densities are found in hot and cold deserts, areas
Kubu Sumatra (Indonesia) around pole, high rainfall area near equator.
Kurds Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria
Kung Southern Africa Demographic Variables
Kamba Kenya Birth Rate Number of live births per 1000 population in a given
Kikuyu Kenya year. High birth rate found in Africa while lowest is in
Lapps Finland, Sweden, Norway, Russia
Europe.
Lepcha Sikkim Death Rate Number of deaths per 1000 population in a given
year.
Maori Australia
Papuan New Guinea
Infant Mortality Rate The number of deaths of infants under per
1000 live births in a year.
Red Indian USA
Semang Malaysia
Maternal Mortality Rate The number of women who die as a
result of pregnancy and child birth complications per 100000
Shan Myanmar
live births in a year.
Swahili Kenya, Tanzania
Total Fertility Rate The average number of children that would
Tatars Mongolian Plateau
be born alive to a women.
Tungus Siberia
Population Pyramid A bar chart that is arranged vertically to
Vedda Sri Lanka
show the distribution of population by age and sex. Males are
Yuit Alaska, Siberia on the left and females on the right.
Zulu South Africa
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 879

Doubling Time The number of years required for the • Internally Displaced Person A person who is
population of an area to double itself, at current rate of forced to leave his/her home region due to
population growth. unfavourable conditions, but does not cross any
Age-Dependency Ratio The ratio of persons in the ages defined boundary.
as dependent (under 15 years and over 64 years) to persons
in the ages defined as economically productive (15-64 Human Development
years). • Development means qualitative change, which is
Demographic Transition It refers to shift of birth and death always value positive.
rates from high to low levels. The decline in fertility is • The concept of human development was introduced
always delayed leading to population growth.
by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq. Dr Haq has described
human development as that development that
Migration enlarges people choices and improves their [Link]
Migration means the movement of people from one place to the four pillars of human development are equality,
other. sustainability, productivity and empowerment.

Types of Migration Human Development Index

• In the context of domestic migration, migration can be either • The Human Development Report is an annual
in-migration or out-migration. milestone publication by the Human Development
– In-migration The process of entering one administrative Report office of the United Nations Development
sub-division of a country from another sub-division. Programme (UNDP).
– Out-migration The process of leaving one sub-division of • The Report was first launched in 1990 by the world
a country to take up residence in another. renowned Pakistani economist Mahbub-ul-Haq and
Indian Nobel laureate Amartya Sen.
• International migration can be classified into the following :
• Human development is measured in terms of life
– Emigration It refers to the process of leaving one country
expectancy at birth, education and per capita
to take up permanent or semi-permanent residence in
income.
another.
– Immigration It is a process of entering one country from • Norway has highest HDI ranking. India ranks
another to take up permanent or semi-permanent residence. 130th in the list.
• Refugee A person who is residing outside country of his/her (i) HDi ranking (2016)
origin due to fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, (ii) India ranks 131
nationality or political opinion. (iii) Norway topped the Index
896 CDS Pathfinder

PART II INDIAN GEOGRAPHY

India occupies a South-Central position in the Asian Indian Standard Time (IST)
continent, looking across the Arabian sea to Arabia and
• India has only one standard time.
Africa on the West and across Bay of Bengal to
Myanmar, Malaysia and the Indonesian Archipelago on • India is 5.5 hours ahead of GMT/UTC, 4.5 hours behind
the East. Geographically, the Himalayan ranges keep Australian Eastern standard time and 10.5 hours ahead of
India apart from the rest of Asia. India derives her name American Eastern standard time.
from river Indus. 1°
• The 82 E longitude that passes through Allahabad city is
2
Location choosen as standard longitude for Indian standard time.
India is often described as a tropical country although a
large part of India lies in sub-tropics. The territorial RELIEF AND
limits of the Indian mainland extend between 8° 4´ N and
37° 6´ N latitudes and 68° 7´ E and 97° 25´ E longitudes. PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
Physiography is the branch of geography, which studies the
Area and Extent present relief features of the Earth’s surface or of natural
• India ranks 7th in the world in terms of area after features in their causal relationships. The physiographic
Russia, Canada, USA, China, Brazil and Australia. diversity of India embraces fold mountains, flat plains and
one of the oldest plateaus of the world.
• It has a total land area of about 3287263 sq km, i.e.
about 33 lakh sq km. India is divided into five physiographic units :
• It is second largest in terms of population and holds
17.4% of the total world population, the land area of
1. The Himalayas
India amounts only to 2.4% of the total world The Northern mountain wall is a series of high mountain
landmass. ranges stretching over the Northern borders of India.
• India is the second largest country in Asia both in • The geologically young and structurally fold mountain
terms of area as well as population, after China. ranges, the Himalayas run in West-East direction from the
Indus to the Brahmaputra.
• They form an arc, which covers a distance of about
2400 km. Their width varies from 400 km in Kashmir to
Country States 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
Pakistan Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat • The altitudinal variations are greater in the Eastern half
China Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, than those in the Western half.
Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh
The Himalayas range is classified into four longitudinal
Nepal Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim series of mountains, which are as follow
Bhutan Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh i. Trans-Himalayas North of the Greater Himalayas lie
Myanmar Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram the Trans-Himalayas or the Tibet Himalayas. This
Bangladesh West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, Mizoram section is older than Himalayas. This range acts as a
watershed between rivers flowing towards South and
• State with longest coastline is Gujarat. those flowing towards North. These ranges are about 40
• Active volcanoes are in Barren island in Andaman km wide and rise in height upto 5000 m. They include
and Nicobar islands. the Karakoram, Zanskar and Ladakh ranges.
• Northern most point of India is Indira Col. ii. Greater Himalayas or Himadri The Northern most
• Southern most point is Indira point or Pygmalion important range is known as the Great or Inner
point in Great Nicobar. Himalayas or the Himadri.
• Southern most tip of mainland is Kanyakumari. iii. Himachal Himalayas The range lying to the South of
• Eastern most point is Kibithu, Arunachal Pradesh. the Himadri, forms the most rugged mountain system
• Western most point is Guhar moti in Kutch, Gujarat.
and is known as Himachal or Lesser Himalayas or
Middle Himalayas.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 897

iv. Shivaliks The outermost range of the Himalayas is Name State Features
called the Shivaliks. They extend over a width of Rohtang pass Himachal It is a high mountain pass on Eastern Pir
10-50 km and have an altitude varying between 900 and Pradesh Panjal range of the Himalayas around 51
1100 m. These ranges are composed of unconsolidated km from Manali. It connects the Kullu of
Himachal Pradesh, India.
sediments brought down by rivers from the main
Himalayan ranges located in North. Shipki La Himachal The river Sutlej enters India through this
Pradesh pass.
v. The Purvanchal After crossing the Dihang Gorge,
Jelep La Sikkim Jelep La is a high mountain pass
the Himalayas take a sudden Southward turn and
between India and Tibet in East Sikkim
form a series of comparatively low hills in the shape District of Sikkim. The famous Menmecho
of crescent with it’s convex side pointing towards the lake lies below the Jelep La pass.
West. These hills are known as Purvanchal. Nathu La Sikkim It connects the Indian State of Sikkim
with China’s tibet autonomous region.
IMPORTANT PEAKS Lipulekh pass Uttarakhand It is a Himalayan pass connecting the
●
Highest mountain peak in India K2 or Godwin Kumaon region of Uttarakhand in the
Pithoragarh district in India with the old
Austin (PoK).
trading town of Talakot in Tibet.
●
Highest peak of India in Himalaya is Kangchenjunga.
Highest peak in Eastern Ghats Arma Konda (AP).
●

●
Highest mountain peak in Western ghats Annaimudi.
2. The Great Indian Plain
●
Highest peak in Aravali is Gurushikhar in Mount • To the South of Himalayas and North of Peninsula lies
Abu. the Great Plain of North India. It is an aggradational
●
Highest peak in Satpura and Mahadeo hills
plain formed mainly by the work of 3 rivers systems
Dhupgarh. viz, the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
• This is the largest alluvial tract of the world, extending
●
Highest peak in Nilgiris Doda Betta.
for a length of 3200 km and width varies between 150
●
Highest peak in Andaman and Nicobar Islands
to 300 km.
Saddle Peak.
Regional division of Great Plain of India are as follows :
●
Highest peak of Naga hills Saramati Peak.
Punjab-Haryana Plain
• The western part of the Northern Plain is known as
Punjab-Haryana Plain. Its Eastern boundary in Haryana
Name State Features is formed by the Yamuna river. It also includes
Banihal pass Jammu and Banihal pass is a pass across the Pir North-Eastern part of Rajasthan.
Kashmir Panjal range at 2832 m. This mountain • Depositional processes by the rivers continuing since
range separates the Kashmir valley in the long, has united these doabs. However, this mass of
Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir from
the outer Himalayas and plains to the
alluvium is broken by bluffs, locally known as Dhayas.
South.
Ganga Plain
Changla pass Jammu and Highest mountain pass in Ladakh. The
Kashmir Changla is on the route to Pangong lake This is the largest unit of Great Plain of India. Depending
from Leh. upon its geological variations, this plain can be furthur
Khardung La Jammu and Khardung La is historically important as it sub-divided into the following three divisions :
Kashmir lies on the major caravan route from Leh (i) Upper Ganga Plain
to Kashgar in Central Asia.
• Compacting the upper part of Ganga plain, this plain is
Namika La Jammu and Namika La is one of two high passes
Kashmir between Kargil and Leh, the other is the
delimited by 300 m contour in Shiwaliks in the North,
even higher Fotu La pass. the Peninsular body in the South and course of Yamuna
river in the West and 100 m contour in East.
Zoji La pass Jammu and Zoji La is a high mountain pass in India,
Kashmir located on the Indian National Highway-1 • The gradient is comparatively steeper in the North.
between Srinagar and Leh in the Western
sections of mountain range.
(ii) Middle Ganga Plain
• To the East of upper Ganga plain, lies middle Ganga
Bara-lacha La Himachal Also known as Bara-lacha pass. Highest
Pradesh mountain pass in Zaskar range plain occupying Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh and
connecting Lahaul district in Himachal Bihar.
Pradesh to Ladakh in Jammu and • This plain is drained by the Ghaghara, the Gandak and
Kashmir.
the Kosi rivers.
898 CDS Pathfinder

• Major unit of this plain are valley, divides the region into two Hill Ranges of Peninsula
Ganga-Ghaghara doab, Ghaghara- parts namely, the Central Highlands
Gandak doab and Gandak-Kosi in its North and the Deccan plateau The Aravalli Ranges
doab (Mithila plain). in its South. • It runs North-East to South-West
for 800 km from Delhi through
(iii) Lower Ganga Plain
Plateaus of Rajasthan to Palanpur in Gujarat.
• Some districts of Bihar and whole
of West Bengal are part of this Peninsular India • It has a lower elevation between
Delhi and Ajmer, where it is
plain. The Northern part of this The Deccan Plateau
characterised by a chain of
plain has been formed by sediment • It is the largest unit of the
discontinuous ranges.
deposited by the Tista, Jaldhaka Peninsular plateau of India with an
and Torsa. • Gurushikhar (1722 m) is the
elevation of 600 m. It is higher in
• This area is marked by drawn and the South than in its North. highest peak of the range, located
in Abu hills of Rajasthan.
barren plain, a tract of old alluvium • It generally slopes from West to East
between Kosi-Mahananda corridor and various big rivers of Southern The Vindhyan Ranges
in the West and the river Sankosh India like Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri • It runs parallel to the Narmada
in the East. etc flow through it. Rift valley as an escarpment in an
• The delta formation accounts for • Karnataka plateau with Archean East-West direction from Jobat in
about two-thirds of this plain. This formations lies to the South of Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar for a
is the largest delta in the world. Maharashtra plateau having rocks of distance of 1200 km.
Large part of the coastal deltas is lava origin in Northern Karnataka The Satpura Ranges
coverd by thick inaccessible tidal called Malnad region and the rest • It is a series of seven mountains
forests called Sunderbans. of the red soil region of the plateau that run in the East-West
Brahmaputra Plain called Maidan. direction in between Narmada
• Western boundary of these plains Meghalaya Plateau and Tapi rivers. It is an example
are formed by Indo-Bangladesh • It is extension of peninsular plateau,
of block mountain.
border as well as boundary of which has been separated by huge • Amarkantak is meeting point of
lower Ganga plain. The fault. Fault is between Rajmahal hills Vindhyan and Satpura range.
Brahmaputra river enters this plain and Meghalaya plateau.
near Sadiya and flows further to The Eastern Ghats
Bangladesh after turning The Chotanagpur Plateau • These are discontinuous and
Southwards near Dhubri. • It lies East of Baghelkhand in the irregular and dissected by rivers
• There are large marshy tracts in state of Jharkhand covering some draining into the Bay of Bengal.
this region and Southern tributaries parts of Chhattisgarh and • The Eastern ghats stretch from
of Brahmaputra also have West Bengal. Its average elevation is the South of Mahanadi valley to
meandering course and there are 700 m above sea level. the Nilgiris in the South. The
good number of bhils and ox-bow • It is the storehouse of minerals and a Eastern ghats are comparatively
lakes. large scale mining of iron, broader and do not form a
manganese, coal, uranium etc is done continuous water divide.
3. The Peninsular in this region. The Western Ghats or
• Damodar river valley is well-known Sahyadris
Plateau for its coal deposits. • Sahyadris form the Western edge
• The Peninsular plateau is a The Malwa Plateau of the Deccan plateau and lie
tableland composed of mainly • Largely in Western Madhya Pradesh parallel to the Western coast.
Archean gneisses and schists. It and South-Eastern Rajasthan forms a They form a continuous water
was formed due to the breaking triangular shape and is typical for divide.
and drifting of the Gondwana land having two systems of drainage. • It run continuously for 1600 km
and thus making it a part of the from Maharashtra to
oldest landmass. This region of the The Marwar Uplands Kanyakumari and can be crossed
country is surrounded on three • The Marwar uplands of Eastern through passes only.
sides by water and thus is a Rajasthan lie to the East of Aravalli
• Highest mountain peak in
Peninsular plateau. ranges. They are made up of
Western ghat is Annaimudi. The
• The plateau has broad and shallow sandstones and limestones of the
Western ghats are higher than the
valleys and rounded hills. Narmada Vindhyan period.
Eastern ghats.
river, which flows into a Rift
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 899

• The islands North of 11° N latitude • It originates from a glacier near

4. The Coastal Plains are known as Amindivi islands and Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region
The Peninsular plateau is flanked by those South of it are Cannanore near Mansarovar lake. In Tibet, it is
stretch of narrow coastal strips, running islands. known as Singi Khamban or Lion’s
along the Arabian sea on the West and mouth.
the Bay of Bengal on the East. Andaman and Nicobar • In Jammu and Kashmir, its

Eastern Coastal Plains Islands Himalayan tributaries are Zanskar,

• Andaman and Nicobar archipelago Dras, Gartang, Shyok, Shingar,
• The plains along the Bay of Bengal, Nubra, Gilgit etc. Its most
has been formed by the extension of
i.e. the Eastern coastal plains are the tertiary mountain chains of important tributaries, which join
wide and level. Arakan yoma. These islands lie close Indus at various places, are Jhelum,
• In the Northern part, they are to equator and experience equatorial Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej.
referred to as the Utkal plains and climate and have thick forest cover.
Northern Circars, while the Southern Some of the islands are fringed with The Ganga River System
part is known as the Coromandel coral reefs. • The Ganga system is the second
coast. • The entire group of islands is major drainage system of India. It
divided into two broad rises in the Gangotri glacier near
Western Coastal Plains categories–The Andamans in the Gaumukh (3900 m) in the
• It run almost parallel between North and the Nicobars in the Uttarakhand. Here, it is known as
Sahyadris and Arabian sea, from South. The Great Andaman group the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag,
Kanyakumari to Surat. of islands in the North is separated the Bhagirathi, meets the
by the Ten Degree Channel from Alaknanda, hereafter, it is known as
• North to South it has seen classified
the Nicobar group in the South. the Ganga.
as Kathiawar plain, Konkan plain,
• The Alaknanda has its source in
Karnataka plain and Malabar plain
the Satopanth glacier above
along the Kerala coast. DRAINAGE Badrinath. The Alaknanda consists
Rajasthan Desert SYSTEM OF INDIA of the Dhauli and the Vishnu
Ganga, which meet at Joshimath or
• Also known as Thar or Great Indian • India is blessed with hundreds of Vishnu Prayag. The other
desert, which covers Western large and small rivers, which drains
Rajasthan and the adjoining part of tributaries of Alaknanda such as the
the length and breadth of the Pindar joins it at Karna Prayag,
Pakistan. Desert is called Marusthali. country. Water drains in two
while Mandakini or Kali Ganga
• The Eastern part of the Marusthali is direction of the main water divide
meets it at Rudra Prayag.
rocky, while its Western part is line of India. 90% of land water
covered by shifting sand dunes drains into Bay of Bengal and the • The left bank tributaries of Ganga
locally called dhrian. rest drains into Arabian sea. are Ramganga, Gomti, Kali or
• The Eastern part of Thar desert upto • The Indian rivers are divided into Sharda, Gandak, Kosi and
Aravalli range is semi-arid plain, following two major groups Mahanadi. The right bank
which is known as Rajasthan tributaries of Ganga are Yamuna
i. The Himalayan Rivers
Bagar. It is drained by a number of and Son. Yamuna joins the Ganga at
ii. The Peninsular Rivers Allahabad.
seasonal streams creating fertile tracts
locally known as Rohi. • Kosi is called as ‘Sorrow of Bihar’
The Himalayan Rivers while Damodar is called as ‘Sorrow
The Himalayan river system is divided
5. The Islands into three major river system, which
of Bengal’ as these cause floods in
these regions. Hooghly is a
Apart from the large number of islands are as follow distributory of Ganga flowing
in the near proximity of the Indian
through Kolkata.
coast, there are two main groups of The Indus River System
islands in the Indian Ocean far away
from the coast.
• The Indus, also known as Sindhu, is The Brahmaputra River
the Western most of Himalayan System
rivers in India. It is one of the
Lakshadweep Islands largest river basins of the world • It is one of the largest river of the
• These islands group lies close to the covering an area of 1165000 sq km world. It is known as Tsangpo in
Malabar coast of Kerala. This group (in India it is 321289 sq km) and a Tibet, Dihang or Siang in Arunachal
of 25 islands is composed of small total length of 2880 km (in India Pradesh, Brahmaputra in Assam and
coral islands. 1114 km). Jamuna in Bangladesh.
900 CDS Pathfinder

• Brahmaputra forms largest number of riverine islands.

Majuli is the largest riverine island in the world. The
combined stream of Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the Name of Dam State River
biggest delta in the world, the Sunderbans, covering an Srisailam Dam Andhra Pradesh Krishna River
area of 58752 sq km. Its major part is in Bangladesh. Ukai Dam Gujarat Tapti River
• Brahmaputra is volume wise largest river of India, Pandoh Dam Himachal Pradesh Beas River
whereas lengthwise Ganga is the longest in India. Bhakra Nangal Dam Himachal Pradesh Sutlej River
Tributaries of river are–Manar, Subanshri, Dibang and and Punjab Border
Lohit. Nathpa Jhakri Dam Himachal Pradesh Sutlej River
Chamera Dam Himachal Pradesh Ravi River
The Peninsular River System Baglihar Dam Jammu and Kashmir Chenab River
• The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Uri Hydroelectric Dam Jammu and Kashmir Jhelum River
Himalayan one. A large number of the Peninsular rivers Maithon Dam Jharkhand Barakar River
are seasonal, as their flow is dependent on rainfall. Panchet Dam Jharkhand Damodar River
• Most of the major rivers of the Peninsula such as
Tungabhadra Dam Karnataka Tungabhadra
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery flow River
Eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers Krishna Raja Sagara Dam Karnataka Kaveri River
make deltas at their mouths.
Idukki Dam Kerala Periyar River
• Narmada and Tapi are the only long rivers, which flow
Parambikulam Dam Kerala Parambikulam
Westward and make estuaries rather than making a delta River
because of their swift flow and steep slopes. The drainage Mullaperiyar Dam Kerala Periyar River
basins of the Peninsular rivers are comparatively smaller
Bargi Dam Madhya Pradesh Narmada River
in size.
Bansagar Dam Madhya Pradesh Sone River

Lakes Gandhi Sagar Dam Madhya Pradesh Chambal River

Koyna Dam Maharashtra Koyna River
A lake is an area of variable size that is filled with water Indravati Dam Odisha Indravati River
and surrounded by land. Lakes from due to receding Hirakud Dam Odisha Mahanadi River
glaciers, plate tectonics, volcanism, meandering rivers, Mettur Dam Tamil Nadu Kaveri River
landslides and human damming. Man-made lakes are
Govind Ballabh Pant Uttar Pradesh Rihand River
referred as reservoirs. Facts related to Indian lakes are given Sagar Dam also Rihand
below Dam
• Wular lake (Jammu and Kashmir) is the largest fresh Tehri Dam Uttarakhand Bhagirathi River
water lake in India. Tulbul Navigation Project is located RESERVOIRS
on this. Himayat Sagar Reservoir Telangana Osman Sagar
• Sambhar, Didwana, Lunkaransar, Panchpadra are some of Gobind Sagar Reservoir Himachal Pradesh Sutlej River
the important saline lakes of Rajasthan. Maharana Pratap Sagar Himachal Pradesh Pong Dam Lake
• Ukai reservoir (Gujarat) is a man-made lake on river Reservoir
Tapi. Ranapratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar (Rajasthan) and Salal Project Jammu and Kashmir Chenab River
Gandhi Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) are located on river Chutak Hydroelectric Jammu and Kashmir
Chambal. Govind Sagar (Himachal Pradesh) is a huge Project
reservoir. Indirasagar Project Madhya Pradesh Narmada River
• Nagarjuna Sagar (Andhra-Telangana) on river Krishna, Narmada Dam Project Madhya Pradesh Narmada River
Nizam Sagar (Telangana) on Manjra and Tungabhadra Rihand Project Uttar Pradesh Rihand River and
(Karnataka) on Tungabhadra are man-made lakes. Son River
• Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar (Chhattisgarh-Uttar Pradesh)
has been constructed on Rihand. Stanley reservoir is
located in Tamil Nadu on Kaveri. THE CLIMATE OF INDIA
• Loktak lake (Manipur) is the largest fresh water lake in • India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly
North-Eastern India. Keibul Lamjao is a floating national influenced by the presence of Himalayas in the North
park located inside the lake. as they block the cold masses from Central Asia. It is
• Chilika lake (Odisha) is the largest lagoon in India. because of Himalayas that the monsoons shed their
Kolleru lake (Andhra Pradesh) is a lake located around water in India.
delta region. Pulicat lake (Andhra Pradesh) is a lagoon. • The Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) divide India into two
• Vembanad is located in Kerala. Lonar lake is a crater lake almost equal climatic zones, namely; the Northern zone
located in Buldhana, Maharashtra. (sub-tropical) and the Southern zone (tropical).
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 901

• The warm temperature or the Indian vegetation can be divided • It include areas—along the
sub-tropical climate of the Northern into the following groups Western ghats surrounding the
zone gives it cold winter seasons and belt of evergreen forests, a strip
hot summer seasons. The Southern Tropical Forests along the Shiwalik range including
tropical climate zone is warmer than Terai and Bhabar from 77°E to
the North and does not have a clear cut Tropical forests are divided
into–Moist Forest and Dry Forest 88°E, hills of Eastern Madhya
winter season. Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
• The Southern zone has the midday Sun Moist Forest Chhotanagpur and part of Odisha
almost vertically overhead at least twice and West Bengal.
Moist forest can be classified as :
every year and the Northern zone does • Species of trees found in this
not have the mid-day Sun vertically Tropical Wet Evergreen
forests are teak, sal, laurel, white
overhead during any part of the year. Forests
chuglam, badam, mahua and
• There are various factors which • It is found in the areas where bamboo etc.
influence the climate of India. Location the annual rainfall exceeds 250
and latitude plays an important role in cm. Littoral and Swamp Forests
affecting climate of India. Tropic of • The annual temperature is about • These forests occur in and around
Cancer divides, India into tropical and 25°-27°C, the average annual the deltas, estuaries and creeks.
sub-tropical climatic regions. Indian humidity exceeds 77% and the • Species of trees found
ocean influences the climate of dry season is distinctly short. are—sundari, rhizophora, srwpines,
peninsular.
• It includes areas—the Western sonnoratic etc.
• Himalayan range protects India from side of the Western ghats, a • These forests can survive and
bitterly cold and dry winds from strip running from North-East
Central Asia and moreover acts as grow both in fresh as well as
to South-West direction across brackish water.
barrier in bringing monsoonal rainfall. Arunachal Pradesh, upper
Heating of interior part during summer Assam, Nagaland, Andaman and
attracts monsoon winds and cause Dry Forest
Nicobar Island mahogony,
monsoon rainfall. In winter Western eboagle. Dry forest can be classified as :
disturbance cause snowfall in mountains
• Species of trees found in this Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
and rainfall in plains.
forests are white cedar, mesua, • These are found along the coasts
jamun, hopea, mahogony, ebony of Tamil Nadu, these forests occur
Seasons in India etc. in short stature.
Indian climate is characterised by distinct
Tropical Semi-Evergreen • Annual rainfall is about 100 cm
seasonality. Indian Meteorological
Forests and the mean annual temperature
Department (IMD) has recognised the
following four distinct seasons • These are found in the region is about 28°C.
where the annual rainfall is • The mean humidity is about 15%,
i. The cold season or winter season.
200-250 cm. species of trees found here are
ii. The hot weather season or summer
• The mean annual temperature khirni, jamun, tamarind, neem etc.
season.
varies from 24°-27°C and the
iii. The South-West monsoon season or Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
relative humidity is about 75%.
rainy season. • These are similar to moist deciduous
• It includes areas—Western coast,
iv. The season of the retreating monsoon forests and shed their leaves in dry
Assam lower slopes of the
or cool season. season.
Eastern Himalayas, Odisha and
Andamans. • These forests can grow in areas of
even less rainfall of 100-150 cm
NATURAL • Species of trees—aini, semul,
per annum.
kadam, rosewood, kusum etc.
VEGETATION OF INDIA • Species of trees— teak, axlewood,
Tropical Moist Deciduous tendu, palas, bel etc.
India is a land of great variety of natural Forests
vegetation. Himalayas are marked with Tropical Thorn Forests
• These are found in the areas
temperate vegetation; Western Ghats and • These forests generally occur in
having rainfall of 100 to 200 cm the area of low rainfall and high
Andaman and Nicobar islands have per annum.
tropical rain forests; deltaic regions have temperature.
• Mean annual temperature of
tropical forests and mangroves; desert and • Species of trees found are—Khair,
about 27°C the average relative
semi desert areas are known for variety of Neem, Babul, Cacti, Palas etc.
humidity of 60 to 70%.
bushes and thorny vegetation.
902 CDS Pathfinder

• The areas are North-Western parts • They are found in the higher hills of
of the country including Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Eastern
Major Soils of India
South-Western Punjab, Western Himalayan region to the East of 88° E On the basis of genesis, colour,
Haryana, Kutch etc. longitude. composition and location, the soils of
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests India have been classified into the
Sub-tropical Forest • These forests are mainly composed of
following types
Sub-tropical forest are of three types coniferous species such as pines, cedars,
silver, firs, spruce etc are most
Alluvial Soil
Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill
important trees. • They cover the largest area in
Forests
India (40%) and is the most
• These forests occur in the Eastern • These forests occur in the temperate
important soil from agricultural
Himalayas to the East of 88°E zone of the Himalayas between 1500
and 3300 m. Rainfall varies from 150 point of view. Alluvial soil is
longitude at altitudes varying from widespread in the Northern
1000 to 2000 m. cm to 250 cm.
plains and the river valleys.
• The mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests Through a narrow corridor in
125 cm, average annual temperature • These are coniferous forests with Rajasthan, they extend into the
is 18°-21°C. They form luxurious xerophytic shrubs. Deodar, chilgoza, plains of Gujarat.
forests of evergreen species. oak, olive etc are the main trees. • Geologically, the alluvium is
• Species of trees—Oaks, Chestnuts, • Such forests are found in the inner dry divided into new alluvium which
Sals and Pines (on lower and higher ranges of the Himalayas. is known as Khadar and old
margin respectively) etc.
alluvium, as Bhangar. The newer
• They also occur in the Nilgiri and MANGROVES alluvium is sandy and light
Palni Hills at 1070-1525 m above sea Mangroves are very specialised forest coloured, whereas, older alluvium
level. These forests are generally ecosystem of tropical and sub-tropical is more clayey, dark coloured and
called shales. regions of the world bordering sheltered contains lime concretions.
Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests sea-coasts. They occur all along the
• The conglomerate deposits in
Indian coastline in the sheltered
• They are found at the height of 1000 piedmont area are generally
estuaries, tidal creeks, backwaters, salt
to 2000 m above sea level in the marshes and mudflats. known as Bhangar. This soil is
Western Himalayas between 73°E Mangroves are dominated by salt suitable for rice, wheat,
and 88°E longitudes. tolerant halophytic plants of diverse sugarcane, oil seeds and jute
• Chir is the most dominant tree. structure and are invaluable marine cultivation.
Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen nurseries for a large variety of fish
Forests and other marine fauna. They support a Black Soil/
• Found in the Bhabar, the Shivaliks
large variety of birds, amphibians and Regur Soil
many other local arboreal, benthic and • The principal region of black soil
and the Western Himalayas upto water creatures.
about 1000 m above sea-level. is the Deccan plateau and its
Rainfall is between 50 to 100 cm. Mangroves have a dense network of periphery. This is formed from
aerial roots, which help to aerate the Deccan basalt trap rocks and
• Olive, Acacia, Modesta and Pistacia
root system and anchor the tree. Sundari occur in areas under the monsoon
are the important species of trees. is widespread in sunderbans, screw climate, mostly of semi-arid and
pines, canes and palms are common in sub-humid
Temperate Forest deltas, cracks are often lined with Nipa. types.
Temperate forest is further divided into • This soil is characterised by dark
3 types futher are of three types
Montane Wet Temperate Forests
SOIL grey to black colour, high
swelling and shrinkage, plasticity,
• The forests grow at a height of 1800 • Soil is formed when rocks are broken deep cracks during summer and
to 3000 m above sea level. The mean down by the action of wind, water and poor status of organic matter,
annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm, climate. This process is called nitrogen and phosphorus while
the mean annual temperature is weathering. this is rich in lime, iron, magnesia
about 11°C-14°C and the average • Soil forms different layers of particles and alumina.
relative humidity is over 80%. of different sizes called Horizons. Each • Impeded drainage and low
• Species of trees—deodar, chilauni, layer is different from the other in permeability are the major
Indian chestnut, birch, blue pine etc. thickness texture, colour and chemical problems. Cotton is mostly
composition. grown on this soil.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 903

Red and Yellow Soils productivity of the soil can be

increased, which involves addition of
Types of Farming
• These soils are derived from
organic matter and clay. Various geographical, physical and
granite, gneiss and other socio-economic factors are
metamorphic rocks. These soils are Swampy/Peaty Soil responsible for giving birth to
formed under well drained different types of farming in
condition. These soils are high Peaty soil originate in areas of heavy
rainfall, but inadequate drainage facility. different parts of the country.
textured and contain low soluble
salts. This soil is usually found at the foot
hills and extend in strips of varying Subsistence Farming
• They are slightly acidic to slightly Farmers cultivate small and
widths at the foot of Himalayas in
alkaline, well drained with Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, scattered holdings with the help of
moderate permeability. They are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. draught animal and family members.
also poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, The tools and techniques used are
lime, humus etc. Saline Soil primitive and simple and main focus
• Red soils cover a large part of is on food crops. The farmers and
Saline soil is formed due to
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra accumulation of soluble salts which his family members consume the
Pradesh, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, consists of chlorides and sulphates of entire farm production.
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and calcium and magnesium. In India, areas
Odisha. around 7 million hectares are salt Plantation Farming
affected distributed in different states. It involves growing and processing
Laterite Soil of a single cash crop purely meant
• Laterite soil is peculiar to India and Forest Soil for sale. It is capital intensive and
some of the tropical countries As the name suggests, forest soil is the other necessary things needed
where there is high temperature formed in the forest areas, where are vast estate, managerial ability,
and heavy rainfall with alternating sufficient rainfall is available. The soil technical know how, fertilizer, good
wet and dry periods. During vary in structure and texture depending transport facilities, processing
rainfall silica is leached downwards on the mountain environment where factory etc. This type of agriculture
and iron and aluminum oxide these are formed. is mainly practiced in Assam,
remains in the top layers. sub-Himalayan West Bengal and in
Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Cardamom
• In hilly areas they are more acidic Soil Erosion and hills in South.
than that of low areas. They are
less fertile and poor in humus, Degradation
nitrogen, phosphate and calcium. Shifting Agriculture
• The destruction of the soil cover is
• It is practised by the tribals in the
• Lateritic soils are found in Odisha, described as soil erosion, while
West Bengal, in some parts of decrease in its fertility is soil forest areas of Assam, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, degradation. Wind and water are
Kerala, Jharkhand and Maharashtra. Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh,
powerful agents of soil erosion
Odisha, Madhya Pradesh and
because of their ability to remove
Desert Soil Andhra Pradesh. In this type of
soil and transport it.
agriculture, a piece of forest land
• In the North-Western part of Wind erosion is significant in arid
• is cleared mainly by tribal people
India, desert soil occurs over the and semi-arid regions. In regions with felling and burning of trees
major parts of Rajasthan, South of with heavy rainfall and steep slopes, and crops are grown.
Haryana and Punjab and Northern erosion by running water is more
• Dry paddy, buck wheat, maize,
part of Gujarat. The soil in the significant.
plains are mostly derived from small millets, tobacco and
alluvium and pale brown to brown sugarcane are the main crops
to yellow brown and fine sandy to AGRICULTURE grown under this type of
agriculture. This is a very
loamy fine sand and is
structureless.
IN INDIA primitive method of cultivation
India is a vast country endowed with a which results in large scale
• The clay contents low and presence great variety of natural environments deforestation and soil erosion
of alkaline Earth carbonates is an and thus provides conditions for a large especially on the foothill sides.
important feature. By increasing the number of crops to be grown in
water holding capacity, the various parts.
904 CDS Pathfinder

Organic Farming Major Crops

• A new trend of farming in which all input used for
• With varied types of climate relief, soil and with plenty
farming are natural, no chemicals are used. of sunshine and long growing season, India is capable of
• Green manures and compost are used. Sikkim is the first growing almost each and every crop.
organic state of India. • Crops requiring tropical, sub-tropical and temperate
climate can easily be grown in one or the other part of
Cropping Seasons India.
Indian crops are divided into the following categories :
Three types of cropping seasons are found in India
– Food Crops Rice, wheat, maize, millets, jowar, bajra,
Kharif It requires much water, long hot weather for their growth, grown
in June with the arrival of South-East monsoon. e.g. rice, jowar,
ragi, pulses, gram and tur.
maize, cotton, groundnut, jute, tobacco, bajra, sugarcane, pulses – Cash Crops Cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco,
etc. oilseeds, groundnut, linseed, sesamum, castorseed,
Rabi Grown in winter, required cool climate during growth and warm rapeseed and mustard.
climate during germination of seeds and maturation. Sowing is
done in November and harvested in April-May. e.g. wheat, gram – Plantation Crops Tea, coffee, spices, cardamom,
and oilseeds like, mustard and rapeseed etc. chillies, ginger, turmeric, coconut and rubber.
Zaid A brief cropping season practised in irrigated areas, sown in – Horticulture Fruits Apple, peach, pear, apricot,
February- March, harvested in June. e.g. urad, moong,
watermelons. almond, strawberry, mango, banana, citrus food and
vegetables.

Crops Temperature (0°C) Rainfall (cm) Soil Distribution

Cash Crops
Cotton 21-30 50-75 Black Soil Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab
Jute 24-35 125-200 Sandy or Clayed Loams, Deep Rich West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, Assam
Sugarcane 20-26 150 Loamy Soil Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
Tobacco 15-38 50 Friable Sandy Soil Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka
Food Crops
Rice 24-27 150 Clayed and Loamy Soil West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab
Wheat 10-15 5-15 Light, Sandy, Clayed Loamy Soil Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan
Jowar 27-32 30-65 Black Clayed Loamy Soil Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh
Bajra 25-35 40-50 Loamy Soil Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Maharashtra, Gujarat
Plantation Crops
Tea 24-30 150-250 Loamy Forest Soil Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Assam
Coffee 16-28 150-250 Friable Forest Loamy Soils Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Rubber 25-35 300 Loamy Soils Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu

RESOURCES Natural Resources

Human beings interact with the nature through technology • These resources are naturally occurring substances that
and create institutions to accelerate their economic are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified
development. A resource is a source or supply from which (natural) form.
benefit is produced. It is an economic or productive factor • A natural resource’s value rests in the amount of the
required to accomplish an activity or as means to material available and the demand for it. The latter is
undertake an enterprise and achieve desired outline. determined by its usefulness to production.

Human Resources Classification of Natural Resources

• Human being themselves are essential components of Natural resources are mostly classified into renewable and
resources. They transform material available in non-renewable resources :
our environment into resources and use them. i. Renewable Resources These resources can renew
• This is the set of individuals who make up the themselves if they are not over harvested but used
workforce of an organisation or economy. Human sustainably. The rate of sustainable use of renewable
capital is sometimes used synonymously with human resource is determined by replacement rate and
resources. amount of standing stock of that particular resource.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 905

ii. Non-Renewable Resources It is a natural resource

which are present in a fixed quantity and it cannot
Non-Metallic
be used again once it gets exhausted. Mineral
Mines

Limestone Found in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,

Mineral Resources Gujarat, Chhattisgarh

• A mineral is an aggregate of two or more than two Dolomite About 90% of the dolomite is found in Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Gujarat, Karnataka, West Bengal
elements. A mineral has a definite chemical
Asbestos Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
composition, atomic structure and is formed by
inorganic processes. In economic geography, the term Gypsum Found in Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir
mineral is used for any naturally occurring material that Graphite Occurs in Kalahandi, Bolangir (Odisha) and Bhagalpur
is mined and is of economic value. (Bihar)

• Minerals generally occur in the Earth’s crust in the

form of ore. The availability and per capita Energy Resources
consumption of minerals is taken as an important
indicator to assess the economic development of a India is a fast growing country and therefore, the demand for
country. the energy is also continuously growing. India has exploited
almost all the sources of energy such as hydroelectricity,
The Mineral Regions of India thermal energy, nuclear energy, solar energy, wind energy etc.
The mineral regions of India are as follow : Energy Resources in India
The North-Eastern Peninsular Belt It comprises of • The natural resources for electricity generation in India are
Chota Nagpur plateau, Odisha plateau and West unevenly dispersed and concentrated in a few pockets.
Bengal. It is the richest mineral belt of India. Coal and Hydro resources are located in the Himalayan foothills and
Iron are very abundant in the region. in the North-Eastern Region (NER). Coal reserves are
Central Belt It comprises of Chhattisgarh, Madhya concentrated in Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal,
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. It Chhattisgarh, parts of Madhya Pradesh, whereas lignite is
contains deposits of manganese, bauxite, limestone, located in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.
marble, coal, gems, mica, iron etc. • North Eastern region, Sikkim and Bhutan have vast
The Southern Belt It comprises Karnataka plateau but untapped hydro potential estimated to be about 35000
extends upto Tamil Nadu upland. It is rich in ferrous MW in NER, about 8000 MW in Sikkim and about 15000
minerals and bauxite but lacks in coal deposits. MW in Bhutan.
The South-Western Belt It includes Southern Karnataka,
Kerala and Goa. It has deposits of iron-ore, garnet Conventional Sources of Energy
and China clay, Monazite sand etc.
The conventional sources of energy are generally non-
The North-Western Belt It extends along the Aravalis
renewable sources of energy, which are being used since a
in Rajasthan and in adjoining part of Gujarat. It is
rich in non-ferrous minerals (copper, lead, zinc), long time. Conventional sources of energy are coal,
uranium, mica, precious stones, aquamarine and petroleum and natural gas.
emerald etc. Thermal Energy Thermal electricity is produced with the
help of coal, petroleum and natural gas. About 65% of
the total electricity produced is thermal in character.
Metallic Thermal electricity has special significance in those
Mines
Mineral
areas, where geographical conditions are not very
Iron Kemmangundi, Sandur and Hospet (Karnataka) favourable for generation of hydroelectricity. It
Barbil-Koira (Odisha), Bailadila and Dalli-Rajhara
(Chhattisgarh), North Goa accounts for more than half of the installed capacity in
Manganese Found in Karnataka, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, 14 states.
Maharashtra Hydroelectricity The hydroelectric power generation in
Chromite Found in Odisha, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra and India made a humble start at the end of the 19th
Andhra Pradesh
century, with the commissioning of electricity supply in
Copper Malanjkhand Belt (Balaghat, Madhya Pradesh), Darjeeling during 1897, followed by a hydropower
Khetri-Singhana Belt (Jhunjhun), Singhbhum
(Jharkhand) station at Sivasamudram in Karnataka during 1902.
Bauxite Found in Odisha,Gujarat, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Atomic Energy Nuclear power is fourth largest source of
Chhattisgarh electricity in India after, thermal, hydroelectricity and
Gold Kolar and Hutti (Karnataka), Ramgiri in Anantapur conventional source of power.
(Andhra Pradesh)
906 CDS Pathfinder

• In 1992, DNES was converted into Ministry of

Non-Conventional Energy Sources, which is renamed in
Power Station Location Power Station Location
2006 as Minister of New and Renewable Energy
Tarapur Maharashtra Rawatbhata Rajasthan
(MNRE). The minister now has taken up some
Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu Narora Uttar Pradesh
programmes on various new technologies.
Kakrapara Gujarat Kaiga Karnataka
Kudankulam Tamil Nadu Banswara Rajasthan Renewable Energy Plants
Types of Energy Plants States
(UMPP)
Wind energy Muppandal Tamil Nadu
Plants States Capacity (MW) Awarded to Perungudi
Sasan Madhya Pradesh 4000 Reliance Kayattar Tamil Nadu
Mundra Gujarat 4000 Tata Satara Maharashtra
Krishnapatnam Andhra Pradesh 4000 Reliance Jogimati Karnataka
Girye Maharashtra 4000 NA
Lamba Mandvi Gujarat
Tadri Karnataka 4000 NA
Geothermal energy Manikaran Himachal Pradesh
Puga Valley Jammu and Kashmir

States Name of the Plant Tattapani Chhattisgarh

Haryana Faridabad, Panipat Tidal energy Gulf of Khambat Gujarat
Punjab Bathinda, Ropar Gulf of Kachchh Gujarat
Delhi Badarpur, Indraprastha Sunderban West Bengal
Rajasthan Kota Wave energy Vizhinjam Kerala
Uttar Pradesh Obra, Panki, Singrauli Solar energy Tirupati Andhra Pradesh
Gujarat Ukai, Sikka, Ahmedabad Sabarmati
Madhya Pradesh
Chhattisgarh
Satpura, Amarkantak, Pench
Korba, Bhilai
Economic Activities
Maharashtra Nashik, Uran, Chandrapur Trombay, Dabhol
Human activities which generate income are known as
economic activities. Economic activities are broadly
Andhra Pradesh Ramagundam, Kotha-gundam, Nellore, Vijayawada
grouped into primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary and
Tamil Nadu Ennore, Tuticorin, Neyveli
quinary activities.
Bihar Barauni
• Primary Activities are directly dependent on
Jharkhand Bokaro
environment as these refer to utilisation of Earth’s
Odisha Talcher, Rourkela
surface such as land, water, vegetation, minerals etc.
West Bengal Kolkata, Titagarh, Durgapur
Thus, includes hunting and gathering, pastoral activities,
Assam Namrup, Bongaigaon fishing, forestry, agriculture, mining and quarrying.
Jammu & Kashmir Pampore
• Secondary Activities add value to natural resources by
Tripura Rokhia
transforming raw materials into valuable products.
• Tertiary Activities include all types of services that
Non-Conventional or Renewable required special skills provided in exchange of payments.
Energy Sources These are health, education, law, governance etc.
• Quaternary Activities centre around research,
• The non-conventional energy sources include solar
energy, wind energy, biomass energy, fuel cell, electric development and may be seen as an advanced form of
vehicles, tidal energy, hydrogen energy and geothermal services involving specialised knowledge and technical
energy. The renewable energy programme started with skills.
the establishment of the Department of • Quinary Activities are services that focus on the
Non-Conventional Energy Sources in 1982 in India. creation, re-arrangement and interpretation of new and
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency was existing technologies.
set-up in 1987.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 907

INDUSTRIES
The industries sector is regarded as the growth engine for economic development of a nation. As India is an emerging
economy, in the post reform era 22% of the employment generation has been attributed to industrial sector.

Industries Details
Cotton Textile The first modern cotton textile mill was established in Bombay in 1854 by local parsi entrepreneurs with the name of Bombay spinning
Industry and weaving company. Mumbai is called cottonopolis of India and Ahmedabad is called Manchester of India. Coimbatore is called
Manchester of South India and Kanpur is called Manchester of Uttar Pradesh.
Distribution Maharashtra (Mumbai, Sholapur, Pune, Kolhapur, Satara, Wardha, Aurangabad and Amravati), Gujarat (Ahmedabad,
Vadodara, Rajkot, Surat, Bhavnagar, Porbandar, Maurvi and Viramgam), Tamil Nadu (Chennai, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Tuticorin, Salem,
Virudhnagar and Pollachi), Karnataka (Bengaluru, Belgaum, Mangaluru, Chitradurga, Gulbaraga and Mysore), Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur,
Etawah, Modinagar, Moradabad, Bareilly, Agra, Meerut and Varanasi), Madhya Pradesh (Indore, Gwalior, Ujjain and Bhopal),
Rajasthan (Kota, Jaipur, Sri Ganganagar, Bhilwara and Udaipur).
Woollen Textile The first woollen textiles mill was set-up in 1876 at Kanpur. Jammu and Kashmir is a large producer of handloom woollen goods.
Industry
Distribution Punjab (Dhariwal, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Ferozpur), Maharashtra (Mumbai), Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur, Mirzapur, Agra and
Tanakpur)
Jute Textile Industry First modern jute mill was set-up in 1855 at Rishra near Kolkata. India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute good production,
whereas it is second largest exporter of jute goods after Bangladesh.
Distribution West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Odisha, Tripura and Chhattisgarh.
Silk Textile Industry India is the second largest producer of natural silk, after China and is the only country producing all four varieties or natural silk viz
Mulberry, Tasar, Eri and Muga of which golden yellow Muga silk is unique in India.
Distribution Karnataka is the leading producer followed by West Bengal, Bihar etc.
Rubber Industry The first factory of synthetic rubber was set-up at Bareilly.
Distribution Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh), Baroda (Gujarat) Synthetic rubber units, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Amritsar-Reclaimed rubber units.
Tea Industry Tea cultivation in India was first started in the mid-19th century in Darjeeling, Assam and Nilgiris. Nearly 98% of the tea production
comes from Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, while the rest of it comes from Karnataka, Terai region of Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura.
Sugar Industry Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer of sugar.
Distribution Uttar Pradesh (Gorakhpur, Deoria, Basti, Gonda, Meerut, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Bijnor and Moradabad), Bihar
(Darbhanga, Saran, Champaran and Muzaffarpur), Punjab (Phagwara and Dhuri), Haryana (Ambala, Rohtak and Panipat),
Maharashtra (Nashik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur and Solapur) and Karnataka (Munirabad, Shimoga and Mandya).
Paper Industry The first paper mill in the country was set-up at Serampore (Bengal) in 1832, which failed. In 1870, a fresh venture was started at
Ballygunge near Kolkata. Raw material Bamboo (70%), Salai wood (12%), Sabai (9%), Bagasses (4%) and Waste paper and Rags
(5%).
Distribution Madhya Pradesh (Nepanagar), Hindustan Paper Corp, Vellore, Mysore Paper mill, Bhadravati, Maharashtra, (Mumbai,
Pune, Ballarpur and Kamptee produce paper and vikhroli), Andhra Pradesh (Rajahmundry and Sirpur), Madhya Pradesh (Indore,
Bhopal and Shandol) and Karnataka.
Iron and Steel Distribution Bhadrawati (Karnataka), Jamshedpur (Jharkhand), Durgapur, Burnpur (West Bengal), Bokaro (Jharkhand, Bhadrawati)
(Karnataka), Rourkela (Odisha), Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Salem (Tamil Nadu) and Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).
Ship Distribution Cochin Shipyard , Mumbai (Mazgaoze Dock), Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam and Kolkata (Gorden Reach
workshop). For Indian Navy, only at Mazgaon.
Aircraft Industry Distribution Hindustan Aeronautics India Limited was formed by merging two aricraft factories at Bengaluru and Kanpur. Four other
factories are at Nashik, Lucknow, Koraput (Odisha) and Hyderabad.
Fertilizer Industry The Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCI) was set-up in 1961 and National Fertilizer Limited (NFL) was set-up in 1974.
Distribution Sindri (Bihar), Nangal, Trombay, Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh), Durgapur, Namrup, Cochin, Rourkela, Neyveli, Varanasi,
Vadodra, Kanpur, Visakhapatnam and Kota.
Heavy Machinery Distribution Durgapur, Mumbai, Ranchi, Visakhapatnam, Tiruchirapalli and Naini.
Machine Tool It forms the basis for the manufacturing of industrial, defence equipments, automobiles, railway engines and electrical machinery.
Industry Distribution Hyderabad, Bengaluru, Pinjore (Haryana), Kalamassery (Kerala), Secunderabad, Ajmer and Srinagar.
Heavy Electrical Distribution Bengalure, Bhopal, Jammu, Tiruchirapalli, Ramchandrapuram (Hyderabad) and Jagdishpur (Uttar Pradesh).
Equipments
Photo Films Industry The Hindustan Photo Films Manufacturing Company at Udagamandalam (Tamil Nadu) is the only factory in the public sector,
producing photo paper and films.
Glass Industry Distribution Uttar Pradesh (Firozabad, Bahjoi, Hathras, Naini, Shikandrabad), Maharashtra (Mumbai, Telogaon, Pune, Sitarampur),
Tamil Nadu (Tiruvottiyor) and Karnataka (Bolgaon, Bengaluru).
908 CDS Pathfinder

• The second longest train route is of ‘Himsagar Express’ from

TRANSPORT Jammu Tavi to Kanyakumari. It covers a distance of 3726 km
and passes through ten states.
Railways • The oldest steam engine ‘Fairy Queen’ still runs on rail.
• India has the fifth largest railway network in the • Uttar Pradesh has largest railway network in India.
World after the USA, Russia, China and Canada. • Mumbai CST is busiest railway junction of India.
The Indian railway operate in three different • Railway track electrification was introduced in early 1920s. The
gauges first two sections from Victoria Terminus to Kurla and from
Gauge Routes (km) Victoria Terminus to Bandra were electrified. About 26% of
Broad Gauges (1. 676 m) 55000 the rail lines have been electrified.
Meter Gauges (1. 000 m) ~6809 • Anil Kakodkar Committee was constituted for Rail Safety in
Narrow Gauges (0.761 and 0.610 m) ~2463 2011.

• It is the largest public sector undertaking of the

country and it is the world’s largest railway Railways Specialities
network under single management. Darjeeling Himalayan Narrow gauge railway from Siliguri to Darjeeling in the state
• The first Indian railway line in India was operated Railways (1999) of West Bengal
for public traffic in 1853 between Mumbai and Chhatrapati Shivaji It was opened in 1887, in the time to celebrate Queen
Thane over a distance of 34 km. Terminus (2004) Victoria’s golden jubilee.
Nilgiri Mountain It connects the town of Mettupalayam with the hill station of
• The first electric train in India was ‘Deccan Railways (2005) Udagamandalam in the Nilgiri hills.
Queen’, it was introduced in 1929 between
Kalka-Shimla Narrow Gauge railway in North-West India travelling along
Bombay and Poona. Railways (2008) a most mountainous route from Kalka to Shimla.
• The headquarters of Indian railway is in New *The year in bracket represents the year in which UNESCO has added the railway
Delhi. line to the World Heritage site list.
• The fastest train in India is the Gatimaan Express,
whose maximum speed is 160 km/hr. Konkan Railways
• It runs from Mangalore to Roha (40 km South of Mumbai).
• It has the fastest track in India and has a total length of
Zone Headquarter
738 km.
Central railway Mumbai
• Almost 10% of the line passes through tunnels.
Eastern railway Kolkata
Northern railway New Delhi • Konkan railway connects Maharashtra, Karnataka and Goa.
North-Eastern railway Gorakhpur
North-East Frontier railway Malegaon
Start of
Southern railway Chennai City System Notes
Operations
South Central railway Secundrabad
Kolkata Kolkata Metro 24th October, First mass rapid transit system in
South-Eastern railway Kolkata 1984 India and the 17th zone of the
Western railway Mumbai (Church Gate) Indian Railways.
East Central railway Hajipur Chennai Chennai MRTS 1st November, It is planned for the MRTS to be
East Coast railway Bhubaneshwar 1995 taken over by the Chennai Metro
Rail Limited once the Chennai
North Central railway Allahabad
Metro becomes operational.
North-Western railway Jaipur
Delhi Delhi Metro 24th December, India’s first modern rapid transit
South-East Central railway Bilaspur
2002 system.
South-West railway Hubli
Bengaluru Namma Metro 20th October, First Metro in India to introduce
West Central railway Jabalpur 2011 Wi-Fi onboard trains.
• Indian railways has the second biggest electrified Gurgaon Rapid Metro 14th November, India’s first fully privatelly financed
system in the world after Russia. Rail Gurgaon 2013 metro, and the first metro system
in the country to auction naming
• The total route covered is approximately 63000 rights for its stations.
km.
Mumbai Mumbai Metro 8th June, 2014 The largest number of
• Vivek Express has the longest train route in India underground stations (86
connecting Dibrugarh and Kanyakumari. It is 8th spanning 3 planned lines) in any
longest in the world. metro system in India.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 909

• The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways is

Roadways already in the process of preparing a draft for creation
In 1943, Nagpur plan classified the roads into four categories of a National Expressway Authority of India (NEAI)
i. National highway on the line NHAI.
ii. State highway Some of the Important Information
iii. District roads Regarding the National Highways
iv. Village roads
• NH44, is the longest NH of India, running from
• Indian road network is the 2nd largest in the world. Srinagar to Kanyakumari
• India has a road network of over 4.8 million km. • NH5 and NH17 run along the Eastern and the Western
• National highways are constructed and maintained by coast respectively.
Central Public Works Department (CPWD). • NH15 represents the border road in Rajasthan desert.
• NH47A is the shortest highway in the Indian highway
network.
National
Route Distance • Maximum length of highway is present in State of Uttar
Highway
NH-1 New Delhi-Ambala-Jalandhar-Amritsar 456 Pradesh.
NH-1 A Jalandhar-Uri 663
NH-2 Delhi-Mathura-Agra-Kanpur-Allahabad-Varanasi- 1465
National Highway Development
Kolkata Programme (NHDP)
NH-3 Agra-Gwalior-Nasik-Mumbai 1161 National Highway Development Programme consists of
NH-4 Thane-Chennai via Pune and Bengaluru 1235 following projects :
NH-5 Kolkata-Chennai 1533 • The Golden Quadrilateral project involves connectivity
NH-6 Kolkata-Dhule 1949 of
NH-7 Varanasi-Kanyakumari 2369 – Delhi to Kolkata (NH2)
NH-8 Delhi-Mumbai (via Jaipur, Vadodra and 1428 – Delhi to Mumbai (NH8, NH76 and NH79)
Ahmedabad)
– Mumbai to Chennai (NH4, NH7 and NH46)
NH-9 Mumbai-Vijayawada 841
– Chennai to Kolkata (NH5, NH6 and NH60)
NH-10 Delhi-Fazilka 403
NH-15 Pathankot-Samakhiali (along great Indian desert) 1526 Total length 5846 km, out of which maximum
NH-17 Panvel-Edapplly (along West coast) 1269 length is in Andhra Pradesh (1016 km) followed by
Uttar Pradesh (753 km).
NH-22 Ambala-Shipki La (along Shipki La Gorge) 459
• North-South and East-West corridors
NH-31 Barhi-Guwahati (connecting East to North-East) 1125
– NS corridor connects Srinagar to Kanyakumari.
NH-37 Pancharatna near Goalpara-Saikhoaghat (along 680
Assam plain) – EW corridor connects Porbandar (Gujarat) to Silchar
NH-44 Srinagar to Kanyakumari 630 (Assam).
NH-47A Kundanoor and Willingdon-Island in Kochi Kerala 6
NH-49 Cochin-Dhanshkodi 440 Airways
NH-52 Daihatsu-Junction NH-47 (near Saikhowaghat) 850 • In 1935, the ‘Tata Airlines’ started its operation
NH-58 Delhi-Mana 538 between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937
NH-65 Ambala-Pali 690 between Mumbai and Delhi.
NH-75 Gwalior-Ranchi 955 • In 1953, all the private airline companies were
NH-220 Kollam (Quilon)-Teui (TN Border) 265 nationalised and Indian Airlines and Air India came
into existence.
Expressway • International Airports Authority of India and National
• Expressway is a highway especially planned for high Airports Authority were merged on 1995 to form
speed traffic, limited point of a access or exist. Airports Authority of India. The Authority manages
Expressway are the highest class of roads in the Indian the Civil Aviation Training College at Allahabad and
roads network. Indian roads has approx 942 km National Institute of Aviation Management and
expressway. Research at Delhi.
910 CDS Pathfinder

International Airport City Ports of Important Facts

Rajiv Gandhi International Airport Hyderabad Eastern Coast
Kolkata Oldest port, India’s reverine port having two dock system.
Calicut International Airport Calicut
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport Mumbai Paradip It handles iron ore and some amounts of coal and dry cargo.
Kempe Gowda International Airport Bengaluru Chennai All weather port having deep drafted berth, oil jetties, iron ore
terminals, etc.
Goa International Airport, Dabolim Goa
Visakhapatnam Seaport and well known for its outstanding performance. It
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Kolkata serves the Bhilai and Rourkela steel plant.
Airport
Tuticorin Artificial deep sea harbour, all weather port offer direct weekly
Thiruvananthapuram International Airport Thiruvananthapuram container service to USA.
Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Guwahati Ennore First corporatised major port in India.
Airport
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport Ahmedabad
Indira Gandhi International Airport Delhi
Chennai International Airport Chennai Ports of Western Important Facts
Coast
Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee Amritsar
Mumbai It handles maximum traffic, natural harbour mostly
Cochin International Airport Cochin (Kerala) petroleum and dry cargo.
Coimbatore International Airport Coimbatore
Kandla Tidal port and important traffic handled are crude oil,
(Tamil Nadu)
petroleum, edible oil, foodgrains.
Lal Bahadur Shastri Airport Varanasi
(Uttar Pradesh) Marmagao It handles iron ore. It has a naval base.

Chaudhary Charan Singh Airport Lucknow New Mangaluru It is an all weather port.
(Uttar Pradesh) Cochin Major natural port in Willingdon Island.
Ambedkar Airport Nagpur (Maharashtra) Jawaharlal Nehru It is called as Nhava Sheva.
Gaya Airport Gaya (Bihar)
Imphal International Airport Imphal (Manipur) • Largest container port of India is Jawaharlal Nehru port in
Mumbai. The largest natural port is in Visakhapatnam.
Waterways • Kandla in Gujarat is a tidal port. It has been made into a free
trade zone.
Major Waterways of India • New Mangaluru port is also called the ‘Gateway of
Karnataka’.
Numbers Stretches of the Waterways Specifications
NW1 Allahabad-Haldia (1620 km) along Ganga river
• Mumbai port is the busiest port of India.
NW2 Sadiya- Dhubri (891 km) along
• Mundra port is largest private port of India.
Brahmaputra river • The Union Cabinet has given its in-principle approval for
NW3 Kottapuram-Kollam (168 km) along setting up a major port of Enayam near Colachel in Tamil
Champakara and Nadu. On completion the port will become country’s 13th
Udyogmandal
canal major port.
NW4 Bhadrachalam to Rajahmundri and along Godavari
Wazirabad to Vijaywada (1095 km) and Krishna river Demographic Profile of India
NW5 Mangalgarhi to Paradeep and along Mahanadi
Talcher to Dhamara (623 km) and Brahmini river
system
Population
• Population geography is closely related to demography. It is
NW6 Lakhipur to Bhanga (121 km) along Barak river
concerned with the study of demographic processes and their
consequences in and environmental context.
Ports in India • Population density is the degree of compaction in population
• The waterways authority in India divides Indian the closeness of persons living on a given surface, the spatial
ports into three categories, major, minor and balance of their social and economic assets.
intermediate. • Population density shows the population pressure on land
• India has about 200 ports, with 13 major and the resource. There are various ways to measure population
rest intermediate and minor. density such as crude or arithmetic density, nutritional or
• Project Sagarmala has been concieved for physiological density, agricultural density, economic density
development. etc. Among them arithmetic density is mostly used.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 911

• There are various factors that affect the distribution and Rural-Urban Composition
density of population such as physical factors (land India is primarily a country of villages. According to 2011
forms, vegetation, soils and water supply), climatic census, 68.84% of total population lives in rural areas and
factors (temperature, rainfall etc), availability of natural only 31.16% lives in urban areas, Goa is the most
resources, means of transport and communication etc. urbanised state where 62.17% of population lives in urban
• Population growth refers to the change in population. It areas. Tamil Nadu (48.45%), Kerala (47.72%), Maharashtra
can be measure in terms of absolute numbers and in (45.23%) are other states where urbanisation is high.
percentage. Basic components of population growth are Himachal Pradesh has mostly rural population.
fertility, mortality and migration.
• Migration is the permanent, seasonal or temporary shift Sex Ratio
of residence for substantial duration. Sex ratio refers to the number of females per thousands
• Population composition refers to the characteristics of males. According to 2011 census, India has recorded the
population. These characteristics are measurable and sex ratio of 943.
helpful in differentiating one group of people from the
other. Age—sex composition, literacy, rural-urban Literacy
composition, occupation etc are such characteristics. The literacy rates among both males and females have
Demographic Characteristics shown improvement in census 2011 compared to the last
• India is one of the most populous country of the world.
census. The literacy rates in the country as a whole is
Ethnic diversity, rural character and uneven distribution 74.04%. In the rural and urban areas, the literacy rate are
etc are some aspects of population affecting the process 68.9% and 84.9% respectively. The female literacy rate in
and pace of socio-economic development of India. the rural and urban areas shows wide variaton. In the
urban areas of the country, the female literacy rate is
• India’s population is unevenly distributed. Plains have
79.92%, in the rural areas it is only 58.75%.
more population than the mountains, deserts and
forested lands.
• According to 2011 census, India is home to 121.01 crore
Tribes of India
population. Among states Uttar Pradesh is most • India is the home to large number of indigenous people,
populous state in India with population of 19.95 crore who are still untouched by the lifestyle of the modern
followed by Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and world. These tribal people also known as adivasis are the
Andhra Pradesh. On the other hand, Sikkim shares least poorest in the country, who are still dependent on
proportion of population. hunting, agriculture and fishing.
• India’s average population density is 382 persons per sq
• Some of the major tribal groups in India include Gonds,
km. Arunachal Pradesh (17) has lowest population
Santhals, Khasis, Angamis, Bhils, Bhutias and Great
density whereas Bihar (1102) has highest density of
Andamanese. All these tribal people have their own
population. Among Union Territories, Delhi (11297) has
culture, tradition, language and lifestyle. This enables the
highest population density and Andaman and Nicobar
(46) has lowest population density. tourist to get an insight into many different cultures at
the same time on the tribal tour to India.
Growth of Population
Important Tribes of India
• There are four phases identified for the growth of
• Abors : Arunachal Pradesh
population in demographic history of India as follow
i. Period of stagnant growth rate (before 1921) • Aptanis : Arunachal Pradesh

ii. Period of steady growth (1921-1951) • Badagas : Nilgiri (TN)

iii. Period of rapid growth (1951-1981) • Bhils : Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, some in Gujarat
iv. Period of declining growth rate (after 1981) and Maharashtra
• The declining growth rate of population during • Bhot : Himachal Pradesh
2001-2011 was 17.64%. Kerala registered the lowest • Bhotias : Garhwal and Kumaon regions of Uttar Pradesh
growth rate of 4.86% whereas Daman and Diu • Chakma : Tripura
registered the highest growth rate of 53.54%.
• Chenchus : Andhra Pradesh, Orissa
Migration • Gaddis : Himachal Pradesh
A migrant is one who is enumerated in census at a place • Garos : Meghalaya
other than the place of his birth. In India, heavy pressure
• Gonds : Madhya Pradesh. Also in Bihar, Orissa and
of population, poverty, high incidence of unemployment,
Andhra Pradesh
etc are important factors responsible for migration.
912 CDS Pathfinder

• Gujjars : Himachal Pradesh Earthquake

• Jarawas : Little Andamans • An earthquake is a vibration or oscillation of the surface of the
• Khasis : Assam, Meghalaya Earth caused by the elasticity or the isostatic adjustment of the
• Kol : Madhya Pradesh rocks, beneath the surface of the Earth. Major earthquakes are
usually caused by sudden movements along faults.
• Kotas : Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu)
• Earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and highly
• Kuki : Manipur destructive of all the natural disasters. There is a
• Lepchas : Sikkim geographic-pattern of the earthquake around the world at the
• Lushais : Mizoram
tectonic plate margins. Earthquakes that are of tectonic origin
have proved to be the most devastating and their area of
• Murias : Bastar (Madhya Pradesh) influence is also quite large.
• Mikirs : Assam • Earthquake Zones of India On the basis of the intensities or
• Mundas : Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal the destructiveness of the earthquakes. India is divided into four
• Nagas (Angami, Sema, Ao, Tangkul, Lahora): earthquake zones.
Nagaland, some in Assam and NEFA region. • Zone IV and Zone V had experienced some of the most
• Oarons (also called Kurukh): Bihar, Orissa and devastating earthquakes in India. Areas vulnerable to these
West Bengal. earthquakes are the North-East states, areas to the North of
Darbhanga and Araria along the Indo-Nepal border in Bihar,
• Onges : Andaman and Nicobar islands Uttarakhand, Western Himachal Pradesh (around Dharamshala)
• Santals : Birbhum region in Bengal, Hazaribagh, and Kashmir valley in the Himalayan region and the Kutch
Purnea in Bihar, Orissa (Gujarat).
• Sentinelese : Sentinel Island, Andaman and • Zone III covers Southern and South-Eastern parts of Rajasthan,
Nicobar larger parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
• Shompens : Andaman and Nicobar Jharkhand and Northern and North-Western part of Odisha.
• Todas : Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu)
Floods
• Uralis : Kerala
• These are sudden and temporary inundation of a large area as an
• Warlis : Maharashtra overflowing of rivers or reservoirs.
• The common causes which can be responsible for over flowing
NATURAL HAZARDS of river are heavy rainfall, sediment deposition, deforestation,
interference in drainage system, change in the course of river
AND DISASTER etc. Tsunami and cyclone are responsible for flood in coastal
areas.
MANAGEMENT Flood Prone Zones in India
• A disaster is a result of natural or man-made
• In India, around 40 million hectare area is flood-prone, which is
causes that leads to sudden disruption of normal
one eighth of the total area. The most flood prone areas are the
life, causing severe damage to life and property
Brahmaputra, Ganga and Indus basins.
to an extent those available social and economic
protection mechanisms are inadequate to cope. • As far as states are concerned, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal and Odisha are the most flood affected states followed
• Disaster management is the managerial function
by Haryana, Punjab and Andhra Pradesh.
which deals with creating the framework within
which communities to reduce vulnerability to Droughts
hazards and cope with disasters.
It is either absence or deficiency of rainfall from its normal pattern
• As per origin, disasters can be classified into
in a region for an extended period of time leading to general
natural and man-made disasters. Based on generic suffering in the society.
disasters can be classified into five categories;
water and climate, geological, biological, On the basis of severity of droughts, India can be divided into the
accidental and chemical, industrial and nuclear. three regions, which are as follows :
1. Extreme Drought Affected Areas Most parts of Rajasthan,
Natural Disaster Marusthali and Kutch regions of Gujarat fall in this category.
2. Severe Drought Prone Area Parts of Eastern Rajasthan,
It is a major adverse event resulting from natural
most parts of Madhya Pradesh, Eastern parts of Maharashtra,
processes of the Earth; examples include floods,
interior parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau,
droughts, cyclones, landslides, volcanic eruptions,
Northern parts of interior Tamil Nadu and Southern parts of
earthquakes, tsunamis and other geologic processes.
Jharkhand and interior Odisha.
GENERAL STUDIES Geography 913

3. Moderate Drought Affected Area Northern parts Tropical Cyclones

of Rajasthan, Haryana, Southern districts of Uttar
• Tropical cyclones are characterised by destructive winds,
Pradesh, the remaining parts of Gujarat,
Maharashtra except Konkan, Jharkhand and torrential rainfall and storm surges disrupt normal life with
Coimbatore plateau of Tamil Nadu and interior the accompanying phenomena of floods due to the
Karnataka. exceptional level of rainfall and storm surge inundation
into inland areas.
Tsunami • Cyclonic storms are more common in India’s Eastern coast
• It is a Japanese word which means Harbor waves. and Bangladesh, they routinely hit between April and
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that cause the November, causing deaths and widespread damage to
sea-floor, to move abruptly resulting in sudden property.
displacement of ocean water in the form of high
vertical waves are called tsunamis or seismic sea Man-Made Disaster
waves.
• Man-made disasters refer to non-natural disastrous
• Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater occurrences that can be sudden or longer term.
explosions (including detonations of underwater
• Sudden man-made disasters include structural collapses,
nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite
impacts and other disturbances above or below water such as building and mine collapse, when this occurs
all have the potential to generate a tsunami. independently without any outside force.
• From the tsunami point of view, Pacific ocean is in Nuclear Disaster
the most dangerous position. The tsunami that
• With increased emphasis on power generation through
occurred on the 26th of December, 2004 in the
nuclear technology, the threat of nuclear hazards has also
Sumatra island of Indonesia in the Indian ocean was
increased.
the result of subduction of Indian plate below the
Burmese plate. • The nuclear facilities in India have adopted internationally
accepted guidelines for ensuring safety to the public and
Landslides environment. A crisis management system is also in place
The term landslide includes all varieties of mass to take care of any nuclear hazard.
movements of hill slopes and can be defined as the
downward and outward movement of slope forming
Bhopal Gas Tragedy
• It happened in 23rd December, 1984 and considered as
materials composed of rocks, soils, artificial fills or
combination of all these materials along surface of world’s worst industrial disaster.
separation by falling, sliding and flowing, either slowly • A gas (methyl isocyanate) was leaked from Union Carbide
or quickly from one place to another. Pesticide plant. This incident cause approximately 2000
deaths.
Landslides in India
• Landslide and avalanches are among the major hydro- Disaster Management Act, 2005
geological hazards that affect large parts of India.
• The Disaster Management Act, 2005 has been enacted as
Besides the Himalayas, the North-Eastern hill ranges
the Central Act to deal with the management of disasters.
the Western Ghats, the Nilgiris, the Eastern Ghats
This act envisaged a three tier Disaster Management
and the Vindhyas in that order, covering about 15% structure in India at National, States and District levels.
of the landmass.
• Under the act, the NDMA, SDMA, NEC, NDRF, NIDM
• The Himalayas alone count for landslides of every
and disaster related funds were established. The Disaster
fame, name and description big and small, quick and Management Act mandates the Central Government to
creeping, ancient and new. The North-Eastern region establish National Disaster Management Authority as nodal
is badly affected by landslide problems of a authority with Prime Minister as its ex-officio chairperson.
bewildering variety. • The DM Act puts on Central Government the obligation
• A different variety of landslides, characterised by a to take all measures necessary and expedient for the
lateritic cap, pose constant threat to the Western purpose of disaster management including coordination
Ghats in the South, along the steep slopes overlooking between ministries and department, state governments,
the Konkan coast besides Nilgiris, which is highly various domestic and international agencies etc. It is also
landslide prone. obliged to make proper allocation of funds.
03
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 947

INDIAN POLITY

Analysing the previous year question papers of CDS examination, the Polity section has a great relevance.
Around 14-16 questions are asked from this section. The topics which are asked include Fundamental
Rights, Executive, Legislative and Judiciary system of India, Panchayati Raj system, Important Articles,
Important Constitutional Amendment Acts, Schedules of the Constitution etc.

The British Government has introduced a series of constitutional reforms to regulate and control the affairs of India. These
constitutional reforms were guided towards ensuring responsible governance in India. The emergence of India as an
independent and sovereign democratic republic has its roots in the history of British rule in India.
The evolution of Indian Polity and Constitution can be better understood, only if we start with brief reviews of
constitutional development during British rule.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
• The very genesis of Indian Constitution can be traced from 1773 as it was first constitutional intervention by British
Government to control and regulate the affairs of East India Company in India. British rule in India till 1858 was
basically that of the East India Company because after that British Government took the governance of India in its
hands directly.
• With rising activities and responsibilities of company, need was felt to regulate and control the affairs which resulted in
various enactments by British Parliament.
• The period of British constitutional experiment in India can be divided into two phases for better understanding that is
constitutional experiments during the rule of East India Company (1773-1857) and the constitutional experiments under
the British crown (1857-1947).

Constitutional Development Under East India Company

Regulating Act (1773)
• The Governor of Bengal was elevated to the position of the Governor-General of Bengal.
• The Parliament got the right to intervene in the affairs of the company. The dual government was abolished. A Supreme
Court was set-up at Calcutta headed by Elijah Impey.
948 CDS Pathfinder

Pitts India Act (1784) Constitutional Development Under

• The act established six commissioners for the
affairs of India. This body known as the British Crown
Board of Control was to exercise an effective
control over the Board of Directors, who Government of India Act (1858)
possessed the charge of the administration of • As a result of the Sepoy Mutiny, the power to govern was
the company. transferred from the East India Company to the British crown.
• The control of the Governor-General in • A post of Secretary of State (a member of British Council) for India
council over the presidencies of Madras and was created. He was assisted by a 15 Member Council (called Indian
Bombay was clearly defined and rendered Council). He was to exercise the powers of the crown.
more effective. • The Board of Control and the court of directors were abolished.
The Governor-General was given the title Viceroy. He represented
The Charter Act (1793) Secretary of State, who was assisted by an Executive Council which
• The powers of Board of Control were consisted of high officials of the government.
concentrated in the hands of the President, • The viceroy’s status was reduced to a subordinate authority in
who virtually became the Cabinet Minister relation to the British Government in matters of policy as well as
for India. execution of policy. He was aided by an Executive Council of 5
• The salaries of the members of the Board of members, who were heads of different departments.
Control and that of the President were to be
drawn from the Indian exchequer. Indian Council Act (1861)
• Provincial Legislative Council members introduced. Council of
The Charter Act (1813) Governor was known as Imperial Legislative Council. Non-official
Asserted the crown’s sovereignty over British (Indians) were added.
India. Company’s monopoly overtrade • Portfolio system was introduced. High Courts (1865) established
abolished except trade with China, allotted (High Court Act, 1861). Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 was passed.
money to promote education in Indian masses.
Christian missionaries were permitted. Indian Council Act (1892)
• It provided for nomination of some non-official members to Central
The Charter Act (1833) Legislative Council and Provincial Legislative Council.
• The act abolished the trading activities of the • This act made the provision for election for filling the some
company and hence forth, it became a purely non-officials seats in central and provincial legislative councils for
administrative body. the first time in the constitutional development of India.
• The Governor-General of Bengal was
designated as the Governor-General of India. Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)
William Bentinck thus became the first • The Morley-Minto Reforms or the Indian Council Act, 1909.
Governor-General of India. Separate electorate for muslims was introduced.
• Abolition of the power of different • Direct election (non-official members who are directly elected). They
presidencies to make law for themselves and could discuss the budget and also cross questioning could be done.
giving power to the Governor-General in • A bicameral legislature at the centre was provided. Dyarchy in the
council to make laws. provinces which unlike its dictionary meaning of two bodies :
• In order to enable the council to discharge Transferred and Reserved.
the important functions efficiently, a new • Separate electorates were further extended to Sikh in the Punjab and
member with expert knowledge of law was non-Brahmins in Madras. Right to Vote for women was provided.
added to it.
Government of India Act (1919)
The Charter Act (1853) • This is also known as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms, after the
• The number of directors were reduced and secretary of state Edwin Montague and the Viceroy Chelmsford.
the power of patronage was taken away • The Executive Council was enlarged and Central Legislature was
from them by instituting and open thoroughly remodelled and made bicameral, two chambers being the
competitive examination for the recruitment Council of State and the Legislative Council.
of civil servants.
• The legislature had virtually no control over the Viceroy and his
• The approval of the crown was made
Executive Council which the Central Government had unrestricted
necessary for all appointments of councillors, control over the Provincial Government. The Act introduced
both central and provincial. dyarchy or dual government in the provinces.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 949

The Government of India Act (1935) Members of Interim Government

• The act provided for the establishment of an all India Viceroy and Governor-General of India Viscount Wavell
Federation. It divided the powers into three lists Vice-President Jawaharlal Nehru
i. Federal List, Home Affairs, Information and Vallabhbhai Patel
Broadcasting
ii. Provincial List and
Agriculture and Food Rajendra Prasad
iii. Concurrent List
Commerce Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar
• Residuary powers were with the Governor-General. (Muslim League)
• Act of 1935 introduced the provincial autonomy and Education and Arts C Rajagopalachari
abolition of Dyarchy. The provincial legislatures were Defence Baldev Singh
made bicameral for the first time in 6 provinces (i.e. Finance Liquat Ali Khan (Muslim League)
Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Health Ghazanfar Ali Khan (Muslim
Assam). League)
Industries and Supplies John Mathai
The Indian Independence Act (1947) Labour Jagjivan Ram
• The act provided for setting up of two independent Law Jogendra Nath Mandal
dominions, to be known as India and Pakistan from 15th (Muslim League)
August, 1947. Posts and Air Abdur Rab Nishtar (Muslim League)

• The territories of the dominion of India would include Railways and Communication Asaf Ali
the whole British India exclusive of the territories Work, Mines and Power CH Bhabhan
consisting Pakistan. The legislature of each dominion
would have full power to make laws for that dominion. Drafting Committee
• With effect from 15th August, 1947, the British
• On 29th August, 1947, the Constituent Assembly set-up a
Government would cease to have any responsibility for
the Government of British. India and all treaties and Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of
agreements between his majesty’s government and the Dr BR Ambedkar to prepare a Draft Constitution for
rulers of Indian states. India.
• The Constitution of India was adopted on 26th
• The two dominions as the provinces would be
governed as nearly as may be in accordance with the November, 1949 and the honourable members appended
Act of 1935. their signatures to it on that day. In all, 284 members
actually signed the Constitution. 26th November, 1949 is
• Provision was made for the division of the armed forces also mentioned in the Preamble as the date on which the
and the civil services between the new dominions. Each people of India adopted, enacted and gave to themselves
dominion would exercise authority over its armed and the Constitution.
civil services.
Constitution Committees and their Chairmen

MAKING OF THE Major Committees

Drafting Committee
Chairmen
Dr BR Ambedkar
CONSTITUTION Members
1. N Gopalaswami Ayyangar
• The demand that India’s political destiny should be 2. AK Ayyar
determined by the Indians themselves had been put 3. KM Munshi
forward by Mahatma Gandhi as early as in 1922. The 4. Mohammed Sadullah
idea of a Constituent Assembly for India was put 5. BL Mittar
forward for the first time by MN Roy in 1934. 6. DP Khaitan
• The demand for the Constituent Assembly was first Union Power Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
accepted by the British in August offer (1940). The Union Constitution Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
Constituent Assembly was set-up as per the Cabinet Provincial Constitution Committee Sardar Patel
Mission Plan of 1946. An interim government was Advisory Committee on Fundamental Sardar Patel
formed on September 1946 from the newly elected Rights and Minorities, Tribal Affairs
Constituent Assembly. The first meeting was held on Rules of Procedure Committee Dr Rajendra Prasad
9th December, 1946 with Sachidanand Sinha, as the States Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
interim or provisional President. On 11th December, Steering Committee Dr Rajendra Prasad
1946, Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President
Special Committee to Examine the Draft Sir Alladi Krishna Swamy lyer
of the Constituent Assembly. Constitution
950 CDS Pathfinder

XII Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits 264 to 300 A

Borrowed Features of the Chapter I Finance 264 to 291
Constitution of India Chapter II Borrowing 292 to 293
Chapter III Property, Contracts, Rights 294 to 300
• From UK (England) Parliamentary System, Lower Liabilities, Obligations and Suits
House more powerful, Prime Minister, Cabinet System Chapter IV Right to Property 300 A
of Ministers, Single Citizenship, Bicameral Parliament, XIII Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the 301 to 307
Provision of Speaker in Lok Sabha, Council of Ministers Territory of India
responsible to Lower House, Nominal Head—President. XIV Services under the Union and the States 308 to 323
Chapter I Services 308 to 314
• From USA Written Constitution, Post of Vice-President,
Fundamental Rights, Supreme Court, Head of the State Chapter II Public Service Commission 315 to 323
known as President, Provision of States and Judicial XIVA Tribunals 323 A to 323 B
Review. XV Elections 324 to 329 A
• From France Republic and ideals of liberty, equality XVI Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes 330 to 342
and faternity. XVII Official Language 343 to 351
• From Australia Concurrent List, Centre-State Chapter I Language of the Union 343 and 344
Relationship, Language of the Preamble. Chapter II Regional Languages 345 to 347
• From USSR Fundamental Duties and Five Year Plan. Chapter III Language of the Supreme Court, the 348 and 349
High Courts and so on
• From Germany Emergency provisions. Chapter IV Special Directives 350 to 351
• From Japan Procedure established by law. XVIII Emergency Provisions 352 to 360
• From Canada Federal system and Residuary powers. XIX Miscellaneous 361 to 367
• From South Africa Procedure of Constitutional XX Amendments of the Constitution 368
Amendment. XXI Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions 369 to 392
• From Ireland Concept of Directive Principles of State XXII Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative Text in 393 to 395
Policy (originally, it was borrowed from Spain). Hindi and Repeals

Constitution at a Glance ! Part-VII (Article 238) deals with states was repealed in 1956 by
the 7th Constitutional Amendment Act.
Articles
Part Subject Matter Covered Schedules in Constitution
I The Union and its Territory 1 to 4
II Citizenship 5 to 11 First Schedule List of States and Union Territories.
III Fundamental Rights 12 to 35 Second Schedule Salary of President, Governors, Chief Judges,
Judges of High Court and Supreme Court,
IV Directive Principles of State Policy 36 to 51
Comptroller and Auditor General.
IV A Fundamental Duties 51 A
Third Schedule Forms of Oaths and Affirmations.
V The Union 52 to 151
Chapter I The Executive 52 to 78 Fourth Schedule Allocate seats for each State of India in Rajya Sabha.
Chapter II Parliament 79 to 122
Chapter III Legislative Powers of the President 123 Fifth Schedule Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and
Tribes.
Chapter IV The Union Judiciary 124 to 147
Chapter V Comptroller and Auditor General of 148 to 151 Sixth Schedule Provisions for administration of Tribal Area in Assam,
India Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
VI The States 152 to 237 Seventh Schedule Gives allocation of powers and functions between
Chapter I General 152 Union and States. It contains three lists
Chapter II The Executive 153 to 167 1. Union List (for Central Govt.): 97 subjects
Chapter III The State Legislature 168 to 212 2. States List (Power of State Govt.): 66 subjects
3. Concurrent List (Both Union and States): 47
Chapter IV Legislative Powers of the Governors 213 subjects
Chapter V The High Courts 214 to 232 List of 22 languages of India recognised by
Chapter VI Subordinate Courts 233 to 237 Eighth Schedule Constitution.
VIII The Union Territories 239 to 242 Ninth Schedule Added by 1st Amendment in 1951. Contains acts
IX The Panchayats 243 to 243-0 and orders related to land tenure, land tax, railways
IX A The Municipalities 243 P to 243 ZG and industries.
IX B Cooperatives 243 ZG to Tenth Schedule Added by 52nd Amendment in 1985. Contains
243ZT provisions of disqualification on grounds of defection.
X The Scheduled and the Tribal Areas 244 to 244 A Eleventh By 73rd Amendment in 1992. Contains provisions of
XI Relations between the Union and the States 245 to 263 Schedule Panchayati Raj.
Chapter I Legislative Relations 245 to 255 Twelfth Schedule By 74th Amendment in 1992. Contains provisions of
Chapter II Administrative Relations 256 to 263 Municipal Corporation.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 951

Salient Features of the National Symbols

Constitution National Flag It was designed by Pingali Venkayya of Andhra
Pradesh. On 22nd July, 1947, it was adopted by Constituent
The salient features of the Constitution, as it
Assembly. It follows 3 : 2 ratio between length and breadth of
stands today, are as follows :
the flag. It has three colours saffron, white and green. Middle
i. Lengthiest Written Constitution The portion has Ashoka Chakra, in blue with 24 spokes.
Indian Constitution is the lengthiest in the
world. Originally, the Constitution had 395 National Emblem It has been taken from the Sarnath (Varanasi)
Articles, 8 Schedules and 22 parts. Pillar of Ashoka and on 26th January, 1950. It was adopted by
ii. Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility The Government of India. The word Satyameva Jayate which was
procedure of amendment of the Indian written at the base in Devanagari script (taken from Mundaka
Constitution is partly flexible and partly Upanishad) is the National Motto of India.
rigid. Some provisions can be amended easily National Anthem It was written by Rabindra Nath Tagore. Its
and some provisions can only be amended by recitation period is 52 seconds. First time it was sung in Calcutta
passage in both Union Parliament and half of
the State Legislatures. Congress Session on 27th December, 1911. On 24th January,
1950, Constituent Assembly adopted it (Jan Gan Man).
iii. Parliamentary Government India has a
parliamentary system of government both, at National Song Vandemataram taken from Bankim Chandra
the centre and in the states. The President is Chatterji’s work Anandmath, was officially adopted on 24th
the head of the Union of India and the January, 1950. It was sung for the first time as Kolkata session of
governors are head of the states. But they act Congress in 1896.
on the advice of the Council of Ministers. National Calendar Based on the Saka Era, Chaitra is its first
They have nominal powers.
month and a normal year of 365 days along with the Gregorian
iv. Independent Judiciary There is a single, calendar. It was adopted by the Central Government on 22nd
integrated and unified judiciary in India. The
March, 1957.
Supreme Court is the highest court of the
land. Both Supreme Court and high courts National Animal It is tiger. It has eight species around the world
have been given extensive powers to interpret and Indian species is known as Royal Bengal Tiger. The
the Constitution and law under various majestic tiger (Panthera Tigris) is the National Animal of India.
provisions of the Constitution of India. National Bird Indian peacock (Pavo Cristatus). It is fully protected
v. Federal System with Unitary under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
Features Our Constitution contains federal
features of government like division of
powers, written Constitution, independent The Preamble
judiciary and bicameralism but, also a large • The Preamble means introduction or preface of the Constitution
number of unitary features like a strong or essence of the Constitution.
centre, single citizenship, flexibility of
• The Preamble of the Indian Constitution is based on the
Constitution, integrated judiciary emergency
provisions etc. Objectives Resolution drafted and moved by Pandit Nehru and
adopted by the Constituent Assembly.
vi. Secular State The Indian Constitution
• The idea of justice, social, economic and political have been taken
stands for a secular state i.e. all religions in
our country have the same right and support from the Russian Revolution (1917).
from the state, it does not uphold any • The idea of liberty, equality and fraternity have been taken from
particular religion as the official religion of the the French Revolution (1789-1799).
Indian state.
vii. Universal Adult Franchise Every Indian Preamble of India
citizen (above 18 years) has a right to vote in We, the People of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute
the elections without any discrimination of India into a sovereign socialist, secular, democratic, republic and
caste, sex, relation etc. secure to all its citizens.
viii. Emergency Provisions Indian Constitution Justice, social, economic and political.
has special provisions to meet any
Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.
extraordinary situation or emergency. During
emergency the Central Government becomes Equality of status and of opportunity and to promote among them all.
powerful and state comes under the total Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and
control of it. During emergency our federal integrity of the nation.
system becomes unitary without any
In our Constituent Assembly on this 26th day of November, 1949, do
amendment of the Constitution.
hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this Constitution.
952 CDS Pathfinder

Amendability of the Preamble CITIZENSHIP

• Whether, the Preamble can be amended under
The Constitution of India provides for single citizenship. There
Article 368 or not, this question arose for the first
is no separate citizenship of state. According to the
time in Keshavananda Bharati Case (1973). In this
Constitution, the following three categories of persons are
case, Supreme Court held that Preamble is the part
entitled to citizenship
of the Constitution and can be amended, subject to
the condition that no amendment is done to the i. Persons domiciled in India.
basic features of the Constitution. ii. Refugees, who migrated to India from Pakistan.
• The Preamble has been amended only once so far, iii. Indians living in other countries.
in 1976, by 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, • Article 5 Citizenship at the commencement of the
which added three new words Socialist, Secular and Constitution.
Integrity. This amendment was held to be valid. • Article 6 Rights of Citizenship of certain persons, who have
migrated to India from Pakistan.
• Article 7 Rights of Citizenship of certain migrants to
IMPORTANT PROVISIONS Pakistan.
• Article 8 Rights of Citizenship of certain persons of Indian
OF THE CONSTITUTION origin residing outside India.
• Article 9 Persons voluntarily acquiring Citizenship of a
The Union and its Territories Foreign State not to be citizens.
• Article 10 Continuance of the Rights of Citizenship.
Article 1 to 4 under part-1 of the Constitution deal
with the Union and its Territory. • Article 11 Parliament to regulate the Right of Citizenship
by Law.
• Article 1 Deals with name and territory of the
Union. It describes India, that is Bharat as Union
of States. The Territory of India includes territories
Acquisition of Citizenship
of states, union territories and territories that may The act provides for the acquisition of Indian citizenship after
be acquired by the Government of India at any the commencement of the Constitution in five ways, i.e. birth,
time. descent registration, naturalisation and incorporation of
• Article 2 Admission or establishment of new states. territory.
• Article 3 Formation of new states and alteration of By Birth
areas, boundaries or names of the existing states.
Every person born in India on or after 26th January, 1950 shall
• Article 4 Laws made under Articles 2 and 3 to be a citizen of India by law of soil, provided either or both of
provide for the amendment of the first and the his/her parents are citizens of India at the time of his/her birth.
fourth schedules and supplemental, incidental and But this law does not apply where his/her father is a diplomat
consequential matters. of any other country or is an enemy alien at the time of
his/her birth.
Reorganisation of State
• In 1953, State Reorganisation Commission was By Descent
set-up under the Chairmanship of Fazl Ali, HN Broadly, a person born outside India on or after 26th January,
Kanzu and KN Panikkar were the other two 1950, is a citizen of India by descent if his/her either of the
members of the commission. It suggested the parents is a citizen of India at the time of that person’s birth.
reorganisation of 27 States of various categories in
16 States and 3 Union Territories. By Registration
• The State Reorganisation Act, 1956 was passed by The prescribed authority may, on application, register as a
Parliament as a result 14 States and 6 Union citizen of India, any person who is not a citizen by virtue of
Territories were created on 1st November, 1956. Constitution or the provisions of the Citizenship Act.
This mode of acquiring citizenship is available to any of the
New Sates UT’s Created After, 1956 following categories :
Maharashtra and Gujarat 1960, Dadra and Nagar • Persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in India
Haveli 1961, Goa, Daman and Diu 1961, Pondicherry for 7 years immediately before making an application for
1962, Nagaland 1963, Haryana, Chandigarh 1966, registration.
Himachal 1971, Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya 1972, • Persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in any
Sikkim 1975, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Goa country or place outside undivided India.
1987, Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand 2000 and • Women who are or have been married to citizens of India.
Telangana 2014. Minor children of persons who are citizens of India.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 953

By Naturalisation Overseas Citizen of India

• Citizenship by naturalisation can be acquired by
• Government of India recognises those person and provide them
making an application in the prescribed manner. overseas citizen of Indian card, who have following credentials
The qualifications for naturalisation are as
– Who are now citizen of another country but was citizen of
follows :
India at time of or at any time after commencement of
– He must be a person of full age and capacity.
Constitution.
– He must not be a citizen of a country where
– Who were citizen of other country but were eligible to
Indian citizens are prevented from becoming become citizen of India at time of commencement of
citizens by naturalisation. He has renounced Constitution.
the citizenship of the other country. – Who is citizen of another country but belonged to a territory
– He has either resided in India or has been in
that became part of India.
Government service for 12 months before the – Child/grand child/ great grand child of the above such
date of making the application for
citizens. Person of Pakistan and Bangladesh can’t get an OCI.
naturalisation or during 7 years prior to these
Recently, government has merged people of Indian origin card
12 months, he has resided or has been in the
with overseas citizen card.
Government service for not less than 4 years.
– He must take an oath of allegiance.
Non-Resident Indian
– He is of a good character.
• A citizen of India, having Indian passport and staying
– He has an adequate knowledge of a language temporarily in another country for purpose of employment,
recognised in the eight schedule to the education for more than 6 months.
Constitution.
• NRIs whether they have acquired citizenship of other countries
or not are eligible to vote. Eligible NRIs have to register by
By Incorporation of Territories filling up form 6-A with electoral registration office. They must
If any new territory becomes a part of India, after a be physically present in their place of origin to exercise their
popular verdict, the Government of India shall franchise.
specify the person of that territory to be the citizen
of India. Pravasi Bharatiya Diwas
• It is celebrated on 9th January every year to recognise
Loss of Citizenship contribution of overseas Indian community in the development
The Citizenship Act, 1955 also lays down three of India. 9th January is selected because on this date, Mahatma
modes by which an Indian citizen may lose his/ her Gandhi returned to India from South Africa. This celebration
citizenship. These are renunciation, termination and provide opportunity to overseas citizen to interact with
deprivation government and people of their homeland. Pravasi Bharatiya
Renunciation It is a voluntary act by which a Diwas started from year 2003.
person, after acquiring the citizenship of • The 14th Pravasi Bharatiya Diwas was held on 9th January,
another country, gives up his Indian 2017 in Bengaluru (Karnataka). The event was attended by
citizenship. This provision is subject to certain Portugal Prime Minister, Dr. Antonio Costa. The theme of this
conditions. edition is “Redefining Engagement with the Indian Diaspora”.
Termination Takes place by operation of law
when an Indian citizen voluntarily acquires the
The Citizenship (Amendment)
citizenship of another country. He Bill, 2015
automatically ceases to be an Indian citizen
• Parliament of India passed the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill,
(Article 9).
2015 on 9th January, 2015 to bring parity between provisions
Deprivation It is a compulsory termination of the for Persons of Indian Origin (PIO) and Overseas Citizens of
citizenship of India obtained by registration or Indian (OCI) cardholders.
naturalisation, by the Government of India, on
charges of using fraudulent means to acquire • Now, the benefits under the PIO scheme would be extended to
citizenship. OCI cardholders with recognition granted to their great grand
children which was earlier limited to grand children.
954 CDS Pathfinder

• Article 21 (A) Right to education from age 6 to 14 years

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS was made a Fundamental Right by 86th Amendment,
2002.
• The Fundamental Rights have been described in
• Article 22 It entails protection against arrest and
Articles 12 to 35, Part III of Indian Constitution.
detention in certain cases. This right is not available to an
• Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles have a enemy alien and a person arrested or detained under a law
common origin. Nehru Report 1928 incorporated some providing preventive detention (detention of a person
Fundamental Rights. The framers of Constitution without trial).
derived inspiration from the Constitution of USA i.e.
Bill of Rights. Part III of Constitution is rightly Right Against Exploitation
described as Magna Carta of India. (Articles 23 and 24)
– Article 12 Definition of ‘State’.
• Article 23 It entails prohibition of traffic in human
– Article 13 Laws inconsistent with or in derogation beings and bonded labour, forced labour.
of the Fundamental Rights. • Article 24 No child below the age of 14 can be employed
Originally Fundamental Rights were seven in numbers viz in factories or mines or in hazardous employment.
i. Right to Equality
ii. Right to Freedom
Right to Freedom of Religion
iii. Right against Exploitation
(Articles 25 to 28)
iv. Right to Freedom of Religion • Article 25 Freedom of conscience and free profession,
practice and propagation of religion.
v. Cultural and Educational Rights
• Article 26 Freedom to manage religious affairs.
vi. Right to Constitutional Remedies
• Article 27 Freedom as to payment of taxes for
vii. Right to Property
promotion of any particular religion.
Right to Equality (Articles 14 to 18) • Article 28 It prohibits any religious instruction in
educational institutions wholly maintained by state funds.
• Article 14 Equality before law and equal protection of
In other instructions aided and recognised by the state,
law.
every person will be free not to participate in religious
• Article 15 Social Equality It prohibits discrimination instruction or worship.
only on the ground of religion, race, sex, caste, place or
birth. Cultural and Educational Rights
• Article 16 It entails to equality of opportunity in the (Articles 29 to 30)
matter of public employment. • Article 29 It allows every community to conserve its
• Article 17 It deals with the abolition of untouchability. distinct language, script or culture. It also bars disallowing
a citizen admission to any educational institution
• Article 18 It deals with abolition of titles. Except maintained or aided by the state only on grounds of
military and academic. religion, race, caste or language.
Right to Freedom (Articles 19 to 22) • Article 30 Right of minorities to establish and administer
educational institutions.
• Article 19 It guarantees freedom to the citizen of
India. Following six fundamental freedoms are as follow Right to Property (Article 31)
i. Freedom of speech and expression (freedom of • Article 31 Right to property, repealed by the 44th
press, media). Amendment Act, 1978. Now, it is only a legal right.
ii. To assemble peacefully and without arms.
iii. To form association or unions. Right to Constitutional Remedies
iv. To move freely throughout the territory of India. (Article 32)
v. To reside and settle in any part of the territory • Article 32 It provides the right to the citizens to move to
of India. the Supreme Court by appropriate proceedings for the
vi. Freedom to choose any profession and business. enforcement of the Fundamental Rights and it empowers
the Supreme Court to issue directions or writs for the
• Article 20 It gives protection in respect of conviction enforcement of the Fundamental Rights.
for offences.
• The writs include Habeas, Corpus, Mandamus,
• Article 21 It gives protection of life and personal Prohibition, Quo-waranto and Certiorari, Dr BR
liberty to both citizens and non-citizens. Articles 20 Ambedkar termed the Right to Constitutional Remedies
and 21 remain in force even during emergency. as the heart and soul of the Constitution.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 955

Forms of Writs Suspension of Fundamental

Habeas Corpus Rights
• It literally means ‘have the body’ i.e. to be produced
before the court. • The Constitution contains provisions for automatic
suspension of the Fundamental Rights under certain
• This kind of writ is issued to protect personal liberty
circumstances, e.g. during the National Emergency under
of an individual against the arbitrary action of both
Article 352 (i.e. war or external aggression).
the state and private individuals. The aggrieved person
can even claim for compensation against such action. • Under Article 358, when National Emergency is
proclaimed on the grounds of war or external aggression
Mandamus (and not armed rebellion), the Fundamental Rights under
• It literally means ‘command’. Article 19 are automatically suspended.
• This kind of writ is issued against a public authority • The Constitution empowers the President, under
or an officer and inferior courts for compelling the Article 359 to suspend any or all the Fundamental Rights
authority to do a particular work that it ought to do by issuing a separate proclamation during a National
but has not done. This writ cannot be issued against Emergency. The 44th Amendment Act, 1978 prohibits the
the President and the Governors. Private rights cannot suspension of Articles 20 and 21 (protection in respect of
be enforced by the writ of the Mandamus. conviction for offences and protection of life and personal
Prohibition liberty, respectively) even during a National Emergency.
• It means ‘to forbid’.
• This kind of writ is issued by the higher courts to the DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF
lower courts or the quasi-judicial bodies when the
latter exceed their judicial authority. STATE POLICY (DPSP)
• The objective is to keep the inferior courts or the • Dr BR Ambedkar described the DPSPs as ‘novel feature of
quasi-judicial bodies within the limits of their the Constitution’. DPSPs are constitutional instructions or
respective jurisdiction. guidelines to state in the legislative, executive and
• The difference between ‘Mandamus’ and ‘Prohibition’ administrative affairs. It provides the social and economic
is that while the former can be issued against judicial base of a genuine democracy. Granville–Austin has
as well as administrative authorities, the latter is described the “FR’s and DPSP as conscience of
issued only against the judicial or quasi-judicial Constitution’’.
authorities. • The purpose of directive principles of state policy is to lay
down positive instructions which would guide state policy
Certiorari
at all levels.
• It means ‘to be certified’.
• However, on the basis of their content and direction, they
• This writ is issued to quash the order of a lower can be classified into three broad viz socio-economic
court or the decision of a tribunal in excess of its principles, Gandhian and liberal principles.
jurisdiction. The purpose of this writ is to secure that
the jurisdiction of an inferior court or tribunal is Socio-Economic Principles
properly exercised and that it does not usurp the
jurisdiction, it does not possess. (Articles 38 and 39)
Quo Warranto • To provide adequate means of livelihood.
• It literally means ‘by what authority or warrent’. • To prevent concentration of wealth and means of wealth
• This kind of writ is issued to ensure that the person and material resources.
holding a public office is qualified to hold the office. • To secure equal pay for equal work for both men and
• Besides the normal writs issued on violation of women.
Fundamental Rights, there has been a progressive • To ensure a decent standard of living and leisure for all
strengthening of the Fundamental Rights by the workers.
judiciary. • To provide necessary opportunities and facilities to children
! The principle of ‘Locus Standi’ applies only to the writs of and youth to prevent their exploitation.
Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari i.e. only aggrieved • To make efforts to secure the right to work, education and
person is entitled to seek these writs. public assistance in case of unemployment, sickness, old
age etc.
956 CDS Pathfinder

Gandhian Principles Difference between Fundamental Rights

and Directive Principles
• Article 40 The establishment of village
panchayats and make them powerful Fundamental Rights Directive Principles of State Policy
enough to function as a units of The democratic political system has been The economic welfare of the state is established
self-government. established by providing the FRs. by the implementation of the DPSPs.

• Article 43 To promote cottage FRs are subject to court of law at any point While DPSPs are not enforceable by the court of
of time if anybody feels that his FR are law.
industries. being violated.
• Article 45 State shall endeavour to FRs can be suspended except the right DPSP can never be suspended under any
provide early childhood care and mentioned in Articles 20 and 22 during condition.
education for all children until they emergency.
complete the age of 6 years. FRS are assumed negatively sometimes, DPSP are always affirmative because they
because of their restrictive attitudes direct the states for definite activity.
• Article 46 The promotion of educational towards the states.
and economic interest of weaker sections.
The Fundamental Rights are a bit limited in While, the scope of Directive Principle of State
• Article 47 The prohibition of its scope. policy is endless. In DPSP, the political
administrative, economic and subjects like
intoxicating drugs and drinks. international peace are also included.
• Article 48 Prevention of the slaughter of
cows and other milk cattle.
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
Western Liberal (ARTICLE 51 A)
Principles • The Fundamental Duties in the Constitution serve as a reminder to the
• Article 39 A equal opportunity for citizens that while enjoying their rights, they should also be conscious
justice and free legal aid. of their duties towards the country. Formed on the recommendation of
• Article 43 A Securing the participation Swarn Singh committee.
of workers in the management of • They were added by 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 under Article 51 A. It
industries. contains the duties of the citizens. They are as follow
• Article 44 A Uniform civil code. – To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions,
the National Flag and the National Anthem.
• Article 45 Provision for free and
– To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national
compulsory education for children.
struggle for freedom.
• Article 46 Promotion of educational and
– To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
economic interests of Scheduled Castes,
– To defend the country and render national service when called upon
Scheduled Tribes and other weaker
sections. to do so.
– To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst
• Article 47 Duty of the state to raise the
level of nutrition and the standard of all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
living and to improve public health. sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women.
• Article 48 Organisation of agriculture – To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
and animal husbandry.
– To protect and improve the natural environment including forests,
• Article 48A Protection and lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.
improvement of environment and – To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry
safeguarding of forests and wildlife. and reform.
• Article 49 Protection of monuments and – To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
places and objects of national activity so that the nation constantly rise to higher level of endevour
importance. and achievement.
• Article 50 Separation of judiciary from – To safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
executive. – For every citizen who is a parent or guardian, to provide
• Article 51 Promotion of international opportunities for education to his child or as the case may be ward
peace and security. between the age of 6 and 14 years (86th Constutional Amendment).
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 957

Term of Office and Salary

THE UNION EXECUTIVE Tenure Under Article 56, the Presidents shall hold the
It deals with Union Government. It consists of the office for 5 years. There is no limit, as to how many times
President, the Vice-President and the Council of Ministers a person can become President. He can give his resignation
headed by Prime Minister to aid and advise the President. to the Vice-President before the full term completes. The
President may be removed from office before the expiry of
The President (Articles 52 to 78) his tenure through a special procedure called Impeachment.
On 11th September, 2008, the Government of India
The President of India is the highest executive authority. increased the salary of the President to 1.5 lakh.
The Constitution vests in him all the executive powers of
Union. All executive actions are taken on his name. He is Presidents of India
the head of the state and represents the Republic of India Tenure
and he is the first citizen of India.
Name From To
Dr Rajendra Prasad 26.01.1950 13.05.1962
Qualifications
Dr S Radhakrishnan 13.05.1962 13.05.1967
Article 58 deals with the qualification of a person to be Dr Zakir Hussain 13.05.1967 03.05.1969
the President of India.
V V Giri (Vice-President) 03.05.1969 20.07.1969
• Must be a citizen of India.
Justice M Hidayatullah 20.07.1969 24.08.1969
• Should have completed the age of 35 years.
V V Giri 24.08.1969 24.08.1974
• Should not hold any office of profit under the
F Ali Ahmed 24.08.1974 11.02.1977
government.
BD Jatti 11.02.1977 25.02.1977
• He should be qualified to become a member of the
N Sanjeeva Reddy 25.07.1977 25.07.1982
Lok Sabha.
Giani Zail Singh 25.07.1982 25.07.1987

Election (Articles 54, 55 and 71) R Venkataraman 25.07.1987 25.07.1992

Dr SD Sharma 25.07.1992 25.07.1997
• The President of India is not directly elected by the
people, but by the members of electoral college KR Narayanan 25.07.1997 25.07.2002
consisting of Dr APJ Abdul Kalam 25.07.2002 25.07.2007
– the elected members of both the Houses of Parliament. Mrs Pratibha Patil 25.07.2007 25.07.2012

– the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of Shri Pranab Mukherjee 25.07.2012 25.07.2017
the State. Ram Nath Kovind 25.7.2017 Till Date
– the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of
Delhi and Puducherry. Impeachment
• Nominated members do not take part in the election of Article 61 The President can be impeached only on the
the President. ground of violation of the Constitution.
• Election is held through the system of proportional • The procedure for impeachment can be initiated in either
representation by means of the single transferable vote house of Parliament.
by secret ballot. The candidate who gets minimum 50% • The charges are contained in a notice which has to be
of votes, is considered elected. signed by atleast one-fourth of the total members of that
• States have different representation in the presidential houses. Notice is sent to the President before 14 days.
election depending on the population and the number of • Impeachment procedure is quasi-judicial in nature
elected members of Legislative Assembly. because after resolution to this effect is passed by the
• Value of vote of an MLA = (State population ÷ Total two-third majority. The other house can set-up a
numbers of elected MLAs) × 1000. committee to investigate the charges against President.
• Value of vote of an MP = Total value of MLAs of all • President can defend himself by taking service of
states ÷ Total number of elected MPs (Lok Sabha and Attorney General of India or any other lawyer.
Rajya Sabha).
This formula secures the uniformity between all the states Vacancy (Article 62)
on one hand and the Parliament on the other. • In the case of vacant seat due to any reason e.g. death,
• Only Supreme Court enquires all disputes regarding resignation or removal then the Vice-President acts as the
presidential election. President, if he is not available the Chief Justice of India,
• President takes oath in presence of Chief Justice of India
if not then the seniormost Judge of Supreme Court.
and in his absence, the seniormost judge of Supreme • The election is to be held within 6 months for the
Court administers oath to the President. vacancy.
958 CDS Pathfinder

Powers and Functions (Article 77) Reprieve It means a stay of execution of sentence pending
• The President has a very important role in our
a processing pro pardon or commutation.
democracy. He has vast powers to be exercised during Remission The power of remission reduces the amount of
normal time as well as during emergency period. sentence without changing its character. e.g. a sentence
• These powers however are actually exercised by the of rigorous imprisonment for two years may be
Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. remitted to rigorous imprisonment for 1 year.
Respite The power to grant respite means awarding a lesser
Executive Powers of President sentence instead of the prescribed penalty in view of
• He appoints Prime Minister who enjoys the support of some special facts. e.g. pregnancy of woman offender.
the majority in the Lok Sabha, appoints the members for Commutation It merely substitutes one form of the
the Council of Ministers and distributes portfolios
punishment for another of a lighter character. e.g. a
among them on the advice of the Prime Minister.
death sentence may be commuted to rigorous
• He appoints Chief Justice and judges of Supreme Court imprisonment.
and High Court, Chairman and Members of UPSC,
CAG, Attorney General, Chief Election Commissioner Financial Powers
and other members of Election Commission, Governors, • All Money Bills can originate in Parliament only on the
members of Finance Commission, Ambassadors etc. recommendation of the President.
• He can seek any information relating to the • Appointment of Finance Commissioner every 5th year.
administration of affairs of the Union and the proposal • Can make advances out of the Contingency Fund of
for legislation from the Prime Minister.
India to meet any unforseen expenditure.
Legislative Powers
Diplomatic Powers
• The President of India is an integral part of the
All kinds of international treaties and agreements
Parliament. Though legislation is the primary
concluded on his behalf.
responsibility of Parliament.
The President has the right to influence the legislative • He represents country on the international forum.
process in following ways • He sends ambassadors and receives diplomats.
– The summoning dissolution and propogation of Lok
Military Powers (Article 53)
Sabha.
He is the Supreme Commander of armed forces. He
– Right of President to address and he can also summon
appoints the chiefs of army, navy and airforce staff. He
a joint sitting of both the House of Parliament, which declares wars or conclude peace subject to approval of
is presided over by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. Parliament.
– Nomination of the members of Parliament (12
members to Rajya Sabha from amongst person having Emergency Powers
special knowledge or practical experience in literature, The President of India can proclaim emergency in three
science, art and social services and 2 members from conditions after getting the written recommendation of the
Anglo-Indian community in Lok Sabha). Cabinet, which are as follow
– Laying down some reports at the floor of the National Emergency (Article 352) arising out of war,
Parliament. external aggression or armed rebellion within the
– Prior consent on some bills. (e.g. Money Bill) country.
– Article 123 of the Constitution empower the President Constitutional Emergency (Article 356) arising out of the
to promulgate ordinances during the recess of failure of the constitutional machinery in the states. It
Parliament. These ordinance have the same force and is also known as President’s Rule.
effect as and act of Parliament, but are in the nature of Financial Emergency (Article 360) arising out of a threat
temporary laws. to financial stability or credit of India.
Judicial Powers (Article 72)
President can grant pardon or reduce the sentence of any
Discretionary Powers
convicted person under central laws. • The President of India almost always acts on the aid and
advice of the Council of Ministers except under the
Various Pardoning Power of the President following circumstances where he/she acts on his/her
(Article 72) discretion
Pardon It removes both the sentences and the conviction – In appointing the Prime Minister from among the
and completely absolves the offender from all contenders when no single party attains majority after
punishments and disqualifications. elections to the Lok Sabha.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 959

President can refer a decision of an individual

–
minister for the collective consideration of Council
The Vice-President
of Ministers. • As per the Article 63, there shall be a Vice-President of
– When the Houses of the Parliament do not meet India. He occupies the second highest office in the country.
regularly, the President may act in his/her • In absence or illness of the President, the Vice-President
discretion and summon both the Houses of the performs the functions of the President. If the President
Parliament. resigns or dies, the Vice-President officiates as a President,
– While exercising a pocket veto. till a new President is elected.
– Can return the advice of the Council of Ministers Election
once for its reconsideration.
• The Vice-President is elected by an ‘Electoral College’
– Can return the bill passed by the Parliament once for
constituted by the members of both Houses of the
its reconsideration.
Parliament in accordance with the system of proportional
representation by means of single transferable vote and the
Veto Powers vote being secret.
The President enjoys three veto powers which he/she
• Nominated members also participate in the election.
can use to deny the execution of an action
Supreme Court enquires all disputes regarding
recommended by Parliament. They are as follows : Vice-President election.
Absolute Veto When a Bill other than a Money Bill
passed by Parliament, the President may decline to Qualifications
give assent to the Bill altogether. • Must be a citizen of India.
Suspensive Veto When a Bill other than a Money Bill • Should have completed the age of 35 years.
is passed by Parliament and the President may • Must be eligible to become a member of Rajya Sabha.
resend the Bill to Parliament for further • Must not hold any government post.
consideration with a message to amend certain
provisions of a Bill. However, if the Parliament Terms and Functions
passes it again with or without amendment, the • He is elected for 5 years and can be re-elected.
President is bound to give assent on it. • He is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
Pocket Veto This veto power is used when the • All bills, resolution, motion can be taken in Rajya Sabha
President feels that the party in power is likely to after his consent.
face destability and may disincline to assent to a Removal
Bill passed and neither communicate it to the
• The Vice-President can be removed from his office by a
Council of Ministers nor send it back for
resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by a majority of all
Parliament for reconsideration. The Bill lies in the then members of the Rajya Sabha and agreed to by the
President’s office for an indefinite period. In case House of People (Lok Sabha). Regarding Vice-President,
of a Money Bill the President may assent to it or there is no formal impeachment.
decline to do so but cannot send it back to • The Vice-President may also resign from his office by
Parliament. In case of Constitutional Amendment writing to the President.
Bills, the President is bound to give his/her assent
to it e.g. APJ Abdul Kalam with holding Office of Vice-Presidents of India
Profit Bill. Vice-President Tenure
Dr Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan 1952-1962
IMPORTANT FACTS Dr Zakir Hussain 1962-1967
●
Presidents who died on their posts—Zakir Hussain Varahagiri Venkatagiri 1967-1969
and Fakruddin Ali Ahmed. Gopal Swarup Pathak 1969-1974
●
Only President elected unopposed— Neelam BD Jatti 1974-1979
Sanjeeva Reddy. Justice Mohammed Hidayatullah 1979-1984
●
President who served as Speaker of Lok Sabha R Venkataraman 1984-1987
before becoming President—Neelam Sanjeeva
Dr Shanker Dayal Sharma 1987-1992
Reddy.
KR Narayanan 1992-1997
●
Only Chief Justice who acted as President—Justice
Hidayatullah. Krishan Kant (Died) 1997-2002
●
Only President who was elected twice—Dr Bhairon Singh Shekhawat 2002-2007
Rajendra Prasad. Mohammed Hamid Ansari 2007-2017
M. Venkaiah Naidu 2017 till date
960 CDS Pathfinder

Council of Ministers Prime Ministers of India

Tenure
• Council of Ministers is formed as soon as Prime Minister Name
is sworn in. Only Prime Minister alone can constitute From To
Council of Ministers. After 91st Amendment Act, 2003, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru 15.08.1947 27.05.1964
Article 75(1)(A) states that, strength of Union Council of Gulzari Lal Nanda 27.05.1964 09.06.1964
Ministers shall not be more than 15% of total strength of Lal Bahadur Shastri 09.06.1964 11.01.1966
the Lok Sabha. Gulzari Lal Nanda 11.01.1966 24.01.1966
• The Council of Ministers consist of three categories of Indira Gandhi 24.01.1966 24.03.1977
Minister namely; Cabinet Minister, Ministers of State and Morarji Desai 24.03.1977 28.07.1979
Deputy Ministers. Charan Singh 28.07.1979 14.01.1980
• The Council of Ministers shall be collectively responsible Indira Gandhi 14.01.1980 31.10.1984
to the House of People. There are three types of Rajiv Gandhi 31.10.1984 01.12.1989
Ministers VP Singh 21.12.1989 10.11.1990
i. Cabinet Ministers They are incharge of important Chandra Shekhar 10.01.1990 21.06.1991
portfolios. They are the real policy makers. The PV Narsimha Rao 21.06.1991 16.05.1996
cabinet meetings are not attended by other
Atal Bihari Vajpayee 16.05.1996 01.06.1996
ministers.
HD Deve Gowda 01.06.1996 21.04.1997
ii. Minister of State One, who hold independent
I K Gujral 21.04.1997 19.03.1998
charge of some ministries or are placed under a
Atal Bihari Vajpayee 19.03.1998 13.10.1999
Cabinet Minister.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee 13.10.1999 22.05.2004
iii. Deputy Ministers One, who assist Cabinet
Dr Manmohan Singh 22.05.2004 25.05.2014
Ministers and Ministers of States.
Narendra Modi 26.5.2014 Till date
• A person can remain a minister without being a member
of either house maximum upto 6 months.
Powers and Functions
The Prime Minister • In Relation to the Council of Ministers If a
difference in opinion arises between the Prime Minister
• The position of Prime Minister in the Council of and any of his subordinate ministers, he can ask the
Minister is described as ‘Primus Inter Pares’ i.e. first minister to resign or can advise President to dismiss
among the equals. He is the real executive as President is him.
nominal executive.
• In Relation of President Regarding the appointment
• The Prime Minister is the head of the Union of important officials like Attorney General of India,
Government. All the executive powers of the Central CAG, Chairman of UPSC, EC, Chairman of Finance
Government are formally vested with the President of Commission, etc the Prime Minister can advice the
India, but these powers are actually exercised by the President.
Council of Ministers under the leadership of the Prime
• He advises the President with regard to summoning and
Minister.
proroguing of the sessions of the Parliament.
• The Prime Minister is appointed by the President.
• He can recommend dissolution of Lok Sabha to
[Article 75]
President at any time.
• Prime Minister allocates portfolios among the ministers
and he also can drop any minister. Deputy Prime Minister
• The Prime Minister is the chairperson of the Planning There is no mention of Deputy Prime Minister in the
Commission. Constitution. Deputy Prime Minister is appointed mostly
• The Prime Minister, who is not a member of Parliament due to political compulsion. Sardar Patel was the first
has to acquire its membership within 6 months of his Deputy Prime Minister during Prime Minister Nehru’s
appointment. time. Morarji Desai, Charan Singh, Jagjivan Ram, YB
• Even a Rajya Sabha member can become a Prime Charan, Devilal and LK Advani also worked as Deputy
Minister. Prime Minister during the period of various Prime
Minister’s.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 961

Attorney General Presiding Officer

The Attorney General of India is appointed by the • Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya
President of India under Article 76 of the Constitution. A Sabha. He presides over the proceedings of the Rajya
person qualified to be a Judge of Supreme Court is Sabha as long as he does not act as the President of
appointed to such a post. He is the first legal officer of the India during a vacancy in the office of the President of
Government of India. India.
He is consulted in all important cases. He also appears in • Also a Deputy Chairman is elected from among its
the Supreme Court on behalf of Government of India to members.
conduct cases. He has the right of audience in all the • In Rajya Sabha any bill can originate, apart from Money
courts and can take part in the proceedings of either house Bill (including budget).
of Parliament, but he is not entitled to vote. He holds • Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and is not subject to
office during the pleasure of the President. He is dissolution unlike Lok Sabha.
prohibited to take appointment as director in any company
without permission of government, but he is not debarred Special Powers of the Rajya Sabha
from private legal practice. • A resolution seeking the removal of the Vice-President
can originate only in the Rajya Sabha.
• If, the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a majority of
PARLIAMENT not less than two-third of the members present and
According to Article 79, the Parliament consists of the voting that it is necessary in the national interest that
President, the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the Parliament should make laws with respect to any matter
enumerated in the State List. It shall be lawful for
House of the People (Lok Sabha). Though, the President is
Parliament to make law for a period of not more than
not a member of either of the house, he is an integral part
1 year. (Article 249)
of it.
• If the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a majority of
Rajya Sabha (Article 80) not less than two-third of the members present and
voting, then it is necessary in the national interest to
• Maximum Strength 250 (Out of these, President create one or more All-India Services, Parliament by
nominates 12 members amongst persons having special law, provides for such service or services. (Article 312)
knowledge or practical experience in the fields of
literature, science, art and social service). Lok Sabha
• Presently, the Parliament, by law has provided for 233
• Maximum Strength 550 + 2 (530 : States, 20 : UTs).
seats for the States and the Union Territories. The total
membership of Rajya Sabha is 245. • Present Strength of Lok Sabha (543 +2).
• All the states and only 2 Union Territories, Delhi and • Lok Sabha is not a permanent body and is subject to
Puducherry are represented in the Rajya Sabha. dissolution.
• Representatives of the state are elected by members of • The normal tenure of the Lok Sabha is 5 years, but it
State Legislative Assemblies on the basis of proportional may be dissolved earlier by the President.
representation through a single transferable vote. States
are represented on the basis of their population. Tenure
• There are no seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and • The life of the Lok Sabha can be extended by the
Scheduled Tribes in Rajya Sabha. Parliament beyond the 5 years term, when a
proclamation of emergency under Article 352 is in force.
Membership But, the Parliament cannot extend the normal life of the
Conditions to be a member of Rajya Sabha are as follow Lok Sabha for more than 1 year at a time, but in any
case such extension cannot continue beyond a period of
• Citizen of India.
6 months after the proclamation of emergency comes to
• 30 years of age. an end.
• Be a parliamentary elector in the State, in which he is • Quorum for Either House Article 100 (c) Quorum is
seeking election. the minimum number of members required to be present
• Others as prescribed by Parliament from time-to-time. before it can transact any business. It is 1/10th of the
• For 6 years, as one-third members retire every 2 years. total number of members.
962 CDS Pathfinder

Membership Deputy Speaker

Conditions to be a member of Lok Sabha • The Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha is the
• Citizen of India. Vice-Presiding Officer of the Lok Sabha, the
• At least 25 years of age.
Lower House of Parliament of India. He acts
as the Presiding Officer in case of leave or
• Must not hold any office of profit.
absence caused by death or illness of the
• He must not be of unsound mind/insolvent. Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
• He must be a registered voter in any parliamentary constituency.
• The Deputy Speaker is elected in the very first
A member can be disqualified meeting of the Lok Sabha after the General
• if, he voluntarily gives up the membership of party. Elections for a term of 5 years from among
• if, he over rules the ‘whip’. the Members of the Lok Sabha.
• if, he remains absent for 60 days without intimation.
Powers of Lok Sabha
Presiding Officers • Money and the Financial Bills originate only in
• Presiding officer in Lok Sabha is the Speaker (in his/her absence, Lok Sabha. The confidence and no confidence
Deputy Speaker). The members among themselves elect him/her. motions can be introduced in Lok Sabha only.
• Article 352 says that the Lok Sabha in a
• The Speaker continues in office even after the dissolution of the
Lok Sabha till a newly elected Lok Sabha meets. special sitting can disapprove the continuance
of National Emergency, even when the Rajya
The speaker has to vacate his office earlier in any of the following Sabha rejects such a resolution.
three cases
i. If he ceases to be a member of the Lok Sabha; Power, Privileges and Immunities
ii. If he resigns by writing to the Deputy Speaker; of the Members of Parliament
iii. If he is removed by a resolution passed by a majority of all the Parliamentary privileges are special rights,
members of the Lok Sabha. Such a resolution can be removed immunities and exemptions enjoyed by the two
only after giving 14 days’ advance notice. Houses of Parliament, their committees and
• Usually the Speaker, after his election cuts-off all connections with their members. Without these privileges the
his party and acts in an impartial manner. He does not vote in the Houses can neither maintain their authority,
first instance, but exercises his casting vote only to remove a dignity and honour nor can protect their
deadlock. members from any obstruction in the discharge
• Charges his salary from the Consolidated Fund of India. of their Parliamentary responsibilities.
Parliamentary privileges don’t extent to the
• The majority of the total membership can remove speaker after
President who is also an integral part of the
giving a 14 days notice. During this time, he does not preside over Parliament.
the meetings. After his removal, continues in office till his
successor takes charge. Parliamentary privileges can be classified into two
broad categories, which are as follows
Powers and Functions of Speaker i. Those that are enjoyed by each House of
• The Speaker presides at the meetings of the House of the People Parliament collectively.
as well as joint setting of two Houses of Parliament. ii. Those that are enjoyed by the members
• The Speaker gives permission to the members to speak in the individually.
house. Some of the privileges and immunities enjoyed by
• If, the Quorum (presence of only one-tenth of the total strength the members of the Parliament, are as follows
of the house) is not complete, the Speaker can adjourn the house.
• Freedom of speech in the House subject to the
• He decides as to whether a bill is a Money Bill or not.
rules framed by the House. The members are
• He appoints the Chairman as well as Deputy Chairman of all the not permitted to discuss the conduct of the
committees of the house. Speaker takes the final decision as to judges of the Supreme Court and High Court,
disqualify a member on grounds of defection. except when the removal of a Judge is being
considered by Parliament.
PRO-TEM SPEAKER
• Immunity from proceedings in any court in
The first meeting after election, in which Speaker and Deputy respect of publication of any report, paper or
Speaker is elected by Members of Parliament is head under the
proceedings under the authority of either
seniormost Member of Parliament, he is called Pro-Tem
Speaker. House of Parliament.
• Exemption from liability to serve as Jurors.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 963

Sessions of Parliament Mechanisms of Parliamentary

• Begins with the consent of the President. Proceedings
• Gap between two sessions should not be more than Question Hour
6 months. The Parliament generally meets in three
The first hour of a sitting of the Lok Sabha devoted to
sessions in a year, which are as follow
questions and that hours is called the Question Hour.
i. Budget Session (February-May) It is the longest
session. The questions are of three types
ii. Monsoon Session (July-August). i. A Starred Questions It is one to which a member
desires an oral answer from the Minister in the House
iii. Winter Session (November-December) It is the and is required to be distinguished by him/her with
shortest session. an asterisk. Answer to such a question may be
Termination of Sitting followed by supplementary questions by members.
The sitting of a house may be terminated by ii. An Unstarred Question It is one to which written
Dissolution The Lok Sabha is subject to dissolution. answer is desired an oral answer from the Minister in
Dissolution takes place when the President exercises the House and is required to be distinguished by
him/her with an asterisk. Answer to such a question
his power under Article 85(2). It can be dissolved by
may be followed by supplementary questions by
efflux of time i.e. on the expiry of its term of 5 years
members.
of the terms as extended during a proclamation of
iii. Short Notice Question A member may give a notice
emergency.
of question on a matter of public importance and of
Prorogation It means the termination of a session of the urgent character for oral answer at a notice less than
house by an order made by the President under 15 days prescribed as the minimum period of notice
Article 85 (2) (a) of the Constitution. for asking a question in ordinary course. Such a
Adjournment It does not put an end to the existence of question is known as Short Notice Question.
a session of Parliament, but it merely postpones the Zero Hour
further transaction of business for a specified time,
hours, days or weeks. Adjournment generally does not The period follows the question hours and it starts at the
noon and its duration is one hour (from 12 noon to 1pm).
have any effect on pending business.
During the Zero Hour various issues of public importance
Joint Session are raised without prior notice.
• It is ordered by the President to consider a particular
bill in case Parliamentary Proposal
– Bill passed by one house and rejected by the other.
Some parliamentary proposal in Lok Sabha are as follows
– The amendments made by the other house are not
Calling Attention Motion With the prior permission of
acceptable to the house where the bill originated. the Speaker, any Member of the Parliament may call
– When a bill remains pending or unpassed for more
the attention of a minister to a matter of urgent public
than 6 months. importance. The minister may make a brief statement
• Joint session of Parliament is presided over by the about the matter or he may ask for time to make a
Speaker of the Lok Sabha. In his absence, by the Deputy statement later.
Speaker, or in his absence by the Deputy Chairman of
Privilege Motion It is a motion moved by a member of
Rajya Sabha or in his absence any other member of the
Parliament. He charges the minister with committing a
Parliament who is acceptable to both the houses.
breach of the privilege of the house by withholding or
• Deadlock over the bill is resolved by a majority of the
distoring facts.
members of both the Houses of Parliament present and
voting. Adjournment Motion It is introduced in the Parliament
to draw attention of the house to a definite matter of
• No fresh amendment can be done in joint session.
urgent public importance and needs the support of 50
• There is no provision of joint session for passing Money
members to be admitted. It can only be moved in
Bills and Constitutional Amendment Acts. Lower House of the Parliament. It should not raise
In Indian history, only three bills have been referred to the any matter which is under adjudication by a court.
joint sitting
No-Confidence Motion It is a resolution introduced by
i. Dowry Prohibition Bill — 1961 the opposition claiming that the house has lost its
ii. Banking Service Commission Bill — 1978 confidence in the government. If it is passed, then
iii. POTA Bill — 2002 government must resign from the office.
964 CDS Pathfinder

It can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha. Rajya President Assent to the Bills
Sabha does not enjoys this power because Article • After a Bill has been passed by both the Houses of
75 says that Council of Minister shall be Parliament, it is presented to the President for his/her assent.
collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. This
• The President may either assent to the Bill, withhold his/her
motion requires the support of 50 members to be assent or return the Bill, if it is not a Money Bill, with a
admitted. message for reconsideration of the Bill or any specified
Censure Motion The motion seeks to censure the provisions thereof, or for considering the desirability of
government for its lapses. If the censure motion is introducing any such amendments as he may recommend in
passed against the government, it should pass a his/her message.
confidence motion as soon as possible to regain the • The President may either give or withhold his/her assent to
confidence of the house. And government, does not a Money Bill. A Money Bill cannot be returned to the
need to resign immediately unlike in case of House by the President for reconsideration.
No-Confidence Motion. It can be moved against an • Also, the President is bound to give his/her assent to
individual minister for specific policies or actions. Constitution Amendment Bill passed by Parliament by the
This motion should state the reason for its prescribed special majority and where necessary, ratified by
adoption. It is in practice since 1954. the requisite number of State Legislatures.

Legislative Procedure in Parliament CONSOLIDATED FUND OF INDIA

[ARTICLE 266 (1)]
The proposal for a law is called Bill. Until a bill is
passed through a proper procedure, it cannot be a law
●
All revenues received by the government by way of
or an act. Only Speaker of Lok Sabha decides whether taxes like income tax, central excise, customs and other
receipts flowing to the government in connection with
the bill is a Money Bill or an Ordinary Bill.
the conduct of government business i.e. non-tax
Ordinary Bill revenues are credited into the Consolidated Fund
constituted under Article 266 (1) of the Constitution of
• All the bills other than Financial bills, Money bills
India.
and the Constitutional Amendment are Ordinary ●
All loans raised by the government by issue of public
bills. notifications, treasury bills (internal debt) and loans
• An Ordinary Bill can be introduced in any of the obtained from foreign government and international
two Houses of Parliament. The Ordinary Bill can be institutions (external debt) are credited into this fund.
introduced by either a Minister of the Government All expenditure of the government is incurred from this
or any Member of the House. fund and no amount can be withdrawn from the fund
without authorisation from the Parliament; Article 114
Money Bill (in effect that of Lok Sabha).
No Money Bill can be introduced without the consent CONTINGENCY FUND OF INDIA (ARTICLE 267)
of the President of India (Article 110). ●
The Contingency Fund of India records the transactions
• It can be introduced only in Lok Sabha. The Speaker connected with Contingency Fund set by the
certifies a bill to be a Money Bill and his decision is Government of India under Article 267 of the
final in this regard. (Article 110) Constitution of India.
• Money Bills relate to bills seeking imposition or
●
This fund acts more or less like an imprest account of
abolition of taxes, matters pertaining to borrowing of Government of India and is held on behalf of President
money by the government, custody and maintenance by the Secretary to the Government of India, Ministry
of Finance, Department of Economic Affairs. At
of consolidated funds etc.
present, it is 500 crore.
• When, the Money Bill is passed by the Lok Sabha, it
is sent to the Rajya Sabha for its recommendations. PUBLIC ACCOUNT [ARTICLE 266(2)]
Rajya Sabha can delay, it only for 14 days. It’s final ●
In the public account, constituted under Article 266 (2)
approval lies with Lok Sabha only. of the Constitution, the transactions relate to debt other
than those included in the Consolidated Fund in India.
Financial Bill ●
The transactions under debt, deposits and advances in
• Any bill dealing with revenues or expenditure, but this part are those in respect of which government
not certified as, Money Bill by the speaker is a incurs a liability to repay the money received or has a
claim to recover the amounts paid.
Financial Bill.
●
The receipts under public account do not constitute
• Financial Bill only be introduced in Lok Sabha on
normal receipts of government. Parliamentary
the recommendation of President. authorisation for payments from the public account is
therefore not required.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 965

Budget in Parliament Estimates Committee

• ‘Budget’ is the popular name for the ‘annual financial • The origin of this committee can be traced to the
statement’ that has been dealt with in Article 112 of the standing financial committee set-up in 1921.
Constitution. The budget is a statement of the estimated
• The first Estimates Committee in the
receipts and expenditure of the Government of India in a
post-independence era was constituted in 1950 on
financial year.
the recommendation of John Mathai.
• Till 2016, the Government of India has two budgets– the
• Originally, it had 25 members but in 1956 its
Railway Budget and the General Budget. On the
membership was raised to 30. All the 30 members
recommendations of Bibek Debroy Committee, the
are from Lok Sabha only.
Government of India has announced that there will be single
General Budget 2017 onwards. The Finance Minister • These members are elected by the Lok Sabha every
presents the General Budget. year from amongst its own members, according to
the principles of proportional representation by
Parliamentary Committees means of a single transferable vote.
• Committees have been created so that members of • The function of the committee is to examine the
Parliament can discuss and debate on the working of a estimates included in the budget and suggest
certain department of the government. Most of the ‘economies’ in public expenditure.
committees function under the direction of the Speaker and
essentially of the Lok Sabha. Committee on Public Undertakings
• Committees are classified under two heads, which are as • This committee was created in 1964 on the
follow recommendation of the Krishna Menon Committee.
i. Adhoc Committees They are created for a temporary • Originally, it had 15 members (10 from the Lok
period. They can be divided into two categories, i.e. Sabha and 5 from the Rajya Sabha). However, in
Inquiry Committees and Advisory Committees. 1974, its membership was raised on 22 (15 from the
Lok Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha).
ii. Standing Committees They are broadly classified into
the following categories: Committees of Enquires • The members of this committee are elected by the
Committees to Scrutinise, Financial Committees, Parliament every year from amongst its own
Committees of Administrative Character, Committees members according to the principle of proportional
with provision of facilities to member. representation by means of a single transferable vote.
• The term of office of the members is one year. A
• The Chairman of all the committees (except the Joint
minister cannot be elected as a member of the
Committees on salaries and allowances of MPs) are
committee.
appointed by the Speaker from amongst the members of the
committees. In case, Speaker is a member of a committee, he
becomes Ex-officio chairman of the committee. THE STATE EXECUTIVE
Public Accounts Committee It deals with the government at state level. It consists
• This committee was set-up first in 1921 under the provisions of Governor and Council of Minister headed by Chief
of the Government of India Act of 1919 and has since been Minister.
in existence.
• At present, it consists of 22 members (15 from the Lok Governor
Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha). The Constitution provides for an office of the
• The members are elected by the Parliament every year from Governor in the states under Article 153.
amongst its members according to the principle of
proportional representation by means of the single, Appointment
transferable vote. Thus, all parties get due representation in • Appointed by the President, on the advice of the
it. Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister.
• The function of the committee is to examine the annual Same person can be appointed Governor for more
audit reports of the Comptroller and Auditor General of than one state.
India (CAG), which are laid before the Parliament by the • Constitution prescribes a 5 years term, but it is
President. subject to the pleasure of the President.
966 CDS Pathfinder

Qualification and Oath • His powers are exercised by the Council of Ministers
headed by the Chief-Minister. But the Governor can
Under Article 158, the Constitution lays down the
exercise certain discretionary powers independently also.
following conditions for the Governors office
• He must be a citizen of India. Other Powers
Receives and tables the report by Controller Auditor
• He should be more than 35 years of age.
General, Act as Chancellor of state universities and
• He should not be a member of either House of appoints Vice-Chancellor.
Parliament and the State Legislature.
• He must not hold any government office of profit. Chief Minister
• The oath to the Governor is given by the Chief Justice
• Acticle 164(1) Appointed by Governor, generally the
of High Court (Article 159).
majority party leader is appointed. A Chief Minister is
Powers the elected Head or Government of the State and is
vested with most of the executive power.
Executive Powers • He enjoys the supports of legislators of the political
• Appoints the Council of Ministers (on the advice of party or coalition commanding an assembly majority.
CM). • The Governor is the Nominal Executive (de-jure
• Appoints the Advocate General, the Chairman and executive) and the Chief Minister is the Real Executive
Members of the State Public Service Commission. (defacto executive).
• Acts as the representative of the President. • There are no educational or other qualification about his
Legislative Powers appointment. Under the Constitution, all that is needed
is that such a person is a citizen of India and possesses
• He summons and prorogues the session of the State
such qualifications, as are required for becoming a
Legislative.
member of the Legislative Assembly.
• He can dissolve the State Assembly before the expiry of
its full term.
• Such a person could be Member of either House of the
Legislature or even an outside though in case he is not a
• He addresses the first session of the Legislature after
Member of State Legislative can be appointed CM, but he
every election and first session every year. has to get himself elected within 6 months otherwise
• He can issue ordinances, appoints 1/6th members of would have to be removed.
Legislative Council on the advice of Chief Minister. • The Governor may first appoint the Chief Minister then
• Nominates one member from the Anglo-Indian ask him to prove his majority in the Legislative
community (if not properly representated). Assembly within a reasonable period.
• Gives assent to the bills to make it a law. • If the Chief Minister resigns, entire ministry resigns.
The Governor has three alternatives, which are as follows :
i. He can give his assent to the Bill. Advocate General
ii. He can return it (other than a Money Bill) for • Article 165 of the Constitution provides for the office of
reconsideration, suggestion, alterations. But, such bills the Advocate General for the states. He is the highest
when passed again, have to be given assent. law officer in the state and appointed by the Governor.
iii. He may reserve the bill for the assent of the • He must be a person who is qualified to be appointed a
President. judge of a High Court. The term of office of the
Advocate General is not fixed by the Constitution. He
Financial Powers holds office during the pleasure of the Governor.
Ensures that the budget is laid. Money Bills can be
introduced on his recommendation only.
Judicial Powers THE STATE LEGISLATURE
• He is consulted by the President of India for the
• Every State has a Legislature. Some of the State
appointment of judges in the High Court.
Legislatures have two houses Legislative Assembly
• Appoints judges of courts below the High Court, can (Vidhan Sabha), the Lower House and Legislative
grant pardon, (same point) reprieve or remission of Council (Vidhan Parishad), the Upper House.
punishment for offence against state laws.
• States having Bicameral Legislature Uttar Pradesh,
Emergency Powers Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Maharashtra, Karnataka and
• The Governor exercises important power during Andhra Pradesh. State Legislative Council can be created
emergency, which is also known as ‘President Rule’ and abolished by the Parliament on the recommendation
(Article 356). of Legislative Assembly.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 967

Legislative Council The Union Territories

• The states are the members of the federal system in India
It is known as Upper House, it cannot be dissolved. The
maximum strength of the council is fixed at one-third of and share a distribution of power with the centre. On the
the total strength of the Assembly and minimum other hand, the union territories are those areas which are
strength is Legislative Council are elected in accordance under the direct control and administration of the Central
with the system of proportional representation by means Government.
of the Single Transferable Vote. • Articles 239 to 241 in Part VIII of the Constitution deal
with the union territories.
Strength and Election • Every Union Territory is administered by the President
• It cannot be larger than one-third of the Legislative acting through an administrator appointed by him.
Assembly of the State. One-third are elected by the • The President can specify the designation of an
local government bodies like Zila Parishad, administrator; it may be Lieutenant Governor or Chief
Municipalities. Another one-third are elected by Commissioner or Administrator.
Members of Legislative Assembly of the state.
• At present, it is Lieutenant Governor in the case of Delhi,
One-twelfth are elected by a constituency of graduates
Puducherry and Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
and another one-twelfth by teachers of secondary
Administrator in the case of Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar
schools, colleges and universities.
Haveli, Daman and Diu and Lakshadweep.
• One-sixth of the total members are nominated by the
• The Union Territories of Puducherry (in 1963) and Delhi
Governor from the persons of special knowledge or
(in 1992) are provided with a Legislative Assembly and a
practical experience of literature, science, art,
Council of Ministers headed by a Chief Minister.
cooperative movement and social service.

Qualifications and Tenure Jammu and Kashmir (Special Status)

• Article 370 gives temporary, transitional and special
A citizen of India, age not below 30 years. Chairman
and Vice-Chairman elected from among its members. 6 provisions to Jammu and Kashmir. Special status has been
years tenure with one-third members retiring every 2 given to this state at the time of its accession to India.
years. • Jammu and Kashmir has its own separate Constitution
which was formed by its own Constituent Assembly.
Legislative Assembly • The Parliament of India has no power to form laws regarding
• Like the Lok Sabha, the Legislative Assembly is not a
Jammu and Kashmir on the subjects of State List. Besides, this
all the residuary powers invest in the legislatures of Jammu and
continuing chamber. Its normal term is 5 years from
Kashmir.
the date of its first meeting after the General Election.
It can be dissolved before its term too. Term can be • It exercises dual citizenship. Person, who does not belong
extended by 1 year during national emergency. to the State of Jammu and Kashmir cannot purchase any
• The Constitution says that the Governor may appoint
immovable property in this state.
ane member from the Anglo-Indian Community if it • In case of constitutional breakdown, besides the President
is not adequately represented in the house. Rule, the Governor’s Rule can also be imposed for a
• Rest of the member are elected directly by the people
maximum period of six months.
from the territorial constituencies. Article 170(1) holds • The Union of India has no power for the proclamation of
that the Legislative Assembly of each state shall Financial Emergency in Jammu and Kashmir.
consist of not more than 500 and not less than 60, • The Indian Parliament has no power to change the name,
members chosen by direct election from territorial boundary or territory of Jammu and Kashmir without the
constituencies in the State. consent of State Legislature.
• Only National Emergency proclaimed on grounds of war
Strength and external aggression shall have automatic extension to
The strength of Legislative Assemblies cannot be more Jammu and Kashmir. On the contrary, National
than 500 and not less than 60. Emergency proclaimed on the basis of armed rebellion
shall not be automatically extended to Jammu and
Qualifications Kashmir.
• A citizen of India, age not less than 25 years. Speaker • Articles 19 (1) and 31 (2) have not been abolished for this
and Deputy Speaker chosen from among its members. state and hence, right to property shall stands guaranteed
• Must not possess other qualifications prescribed by to the people of Jammu and Kashmir.
Parliament, under the Representation of People Act, • Part IV (DPSP) and Part IV A (Fundamental Duties are
1951. not applicable to the State of Jammu and Kashmir).
968 CDS Pathfinder

JUDICIARY Term and Removal of a Judge

• The judges hold the office upto the age of 65 years. A Judge of
• We have an integrated judicial set-up (taken from Supreme Court can only be removed from office by an order
Government of India Act, 1935) in our country. of the President after an address by each House of Parliament
The Constitution of India is the supreme legal supported by a majority of the total membership of the house
document. and by a majority of not less than two-third of the members
• It’s Part V and Part VI dealing with Union and present and voting on the ground on
State Governments respectively. i. proved misbehaviour ii. incapacity
• Indian Constitution has established an integrated The Constitution of India has ensured that
judicial system with the Supreme Court at the • they can be removed by Parliament (by complex procedure).
top.
• after retirement, they cannot practise in any Indian Court.
• Judiciary is independent of other two organs of
the state i.e. executive and legislature. Salary
Independence of the judiciary does not imply
• Salary is given from consolidated fund, which is not deducted
arbitrariness or absense of accountability.
(except during financial emergency).
• Judiciary is a part of the democratic structure of • Chief Justice’s salary ` 1 lakh.
the country. It is therefore, democratic traditions
and to the people of the country. Independence of Judges
• The organisation of the subordinate judiciary • Decisions and actions of judges cannot be criticised.
varies from state to state.
• Any type of conduct of judges cannot be discussed in
Parliament except in the case of removal.
Supreme Court of India • Chief Justice of India is appointed on seniority basis.
(Articles 124-147)
Jurisdiction
• The Supreme Court came into being on 28th
The functions and responsibilities of the Supreme Court are
January, 1950. Supreme Court is a federal court. defined by the Constitution.
It’s only seat located at Delhi. It’s bench can be The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court may be categorised as
established at other places also.
• It is the Apex court of justice in India. Having
Original Jurisdiction (Article 131)
one Chief Justice + Not more than 30 other • Disputes between the Government of India and one or more
judges (after amendment, earlier 25). states.
• Dispute between the Government of India and one or more
Appointment states on one side and one or more state on the other side.
The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by • Disputes between two or more states (e.g. Cauvery water
the President. The Chief Justice is appointed by the dispute between Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Puducherry).
President after consultation with such judges of the
Supreme Court and High Court as he/she deems PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION (PIL)
necessary. In PIL the court gives judgement in public interest on such
matters as the basic needs of life, exploitation,
Qualifications environment, child labour, exploitation of women etc. If
A citizen of India. Any person who has been a some person or institution just informs the court. The court
judge of a High Court for 5 years (or) an eminent investigate the matter and decides in the context of facts.
jurist or has been a practising advocate in High Such cases constitute what is PIL?
Court for 10 years.
SP Gupta vs Union of India Case, 1982, Supreme Court held that
Functions any member of the public can approach the courts for violation
It hears certain appeals of civil and criminal cases of Fundamental Rights of others, (who may not have sufficient
from the High Court. It hears disputes between the resources to reach the courts) even through a post card, PN
Union Government and the states. It can issue writs Bhagwati and CR Krishna Aiyar were the prominent justices to
for the enforcement of any of the Fundamental have laid down the conditions for such appeals, popularly called
Rights conferred by the Constitution. Public Interest Litigation (PIL). But PILs must work for public
interest alone. The concept of PIL originated in USA.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 969

Writ Jurisdiction Election Jurisdiction

• The Constitution has constituted the Supreme Court as The Supreme Court has obligation to decide on the
the guarantor and defender of Fundamental Rights of disputes regarding the election of the President and the
the citizen. Vice-President.
– Habeas Corpus Implies that a person imprisoned or Court of Record (Article 129)
detained by the law can enquire from the court of law, All the decisions and proceedings of the Supreme Court
under what authority he has been imprisoned or are kept as records and are quoted as precedents in the
detained. court. The court can punish for its own contempt, if any
– Mandamus Literally means a ‘Command’ issued by one does not abide by its decision. So, the Supreme Court
the court commanding a person or a public authority is called a ‘Court of Record’.
to do or forbade to do something in the nature of
Power of Judicial Review
public duty.
Supreme Court has power to make Judicial review of
– Quo Warranto An order issued by the court to
constitutionality of legislative enactments and executive
prevent a person from holding office to which he is orders of both centre and state. If the orders are found
not entitled and to out him from that office. violative, they can be declared null and void.
– Certiorari It is a writ, which orders the removal of a
suit from an inferior court to superior court. High Courts
– Prohibition By a higher court to stop proceedings in a
lower court on the ground of overstepping of The Constitution provides High Court for every state. But
jurisdiction or isolation of the rules of natural justice. even two or more states can have a common High Court if
provided by the Parliament.
Advisory Jurisdiction (Article 143)
i. Presently there are 24 High Courts in India (21+3
As the highest court in the country, the Supreme Court State High Courts). Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura
can be consulted by the President on certain issues, if the are the new High Courts.
President feels that an important legal question or fact of
ii. The High Court consists of a Chief Justice and some
public interest has come to him he can ask the Supreme
other judges appointed by the President of India.
Court for its advice. The Supreme Court in such cases
would consider it and give its opinion to the President, but iii. There is no upper limit on the number of judges.
such an opinion is not binding on the President.
Qualifications
Appellate Jurisdiction
He/she must be a citizen of India. Must have held a
(Articles 132 (1), 133 (1) or 134) judicial office for at least 10 years or be a distinguished
Three type of appeals can be made to the Supreme Court, jurist in the opinion of the President.
these are as follows : Or
i. There can be an appeal against any decision or order
He should have for at least 10 years been an advocate in
of a High Court, if the High Court gives a certificate
High Court or of two or more such courts in succession.
that it involves some question of interpretation of the
Constitution. Appointment
ii. There can be an appeal against civil cases decided by a
• For the appointment of the Chief Justice of a High
High Court, if the High Court gives a certificate that
Court the President consults the Chief Justice of India
the case involves a substantial question of law.
and Governor of the concerned state. Other judges are
iii. In respect of criminal cases too there can be an appeal also appointed according to the same procedure.
to the Supreme Court. If a High Court has on appeal
• The Constitution bench of Supreme Court held that the
reversed an order of acquittal of an accused person
opinion of Chief Justice (Supreme Court and High
and sentenced him to death or if by withdrawing a
Court) will be given priority in both the appointment as
case from the lower court to itself it has sentenced a
well as transfer of senior judges.
person to death, one can go for an appeal to Supreme
Court.
Term, Boundation and Removal
Review Jurisdiction (Article 137) • A judge of High Court holds office till he attains the
The Supreme Court can review any judgement given by age of 62 years. Their term can be shortened, if he gives
itself. The Supreme Court is also given the power under our resignation and can be cut short if removed by the
Constitution to transfer a case that is being decided in any President.
court and bring it to itself. If it feels that an important • Retired Judge of a High Court can practice in the High
question of law is involved, Parliament can confer on the Court from where he has been retired and only in the
Supreme Court more powers by passing a law. Supreme Court.
970 CDS Pathfinder

• Judges of one High Court can be transferred to another High

Court.
Subordinate Courts
• They can be removed through the same procedure as followed Articles 233 to 237 in Part VI of the Constitution
in the case of a Judge of the Supreme Court (Parliament passes makes the provision to regulate the organisation of
subordinate courts and to ensure their
the resolution by a two-third majority of its members present
independence from the executive. The appointment,
and voting).
posting and promotion of district judges in a state
are made by the governor of the State in
Jurisdiction of High Court consultation with the High Court.
At present, a High Court enjoy the following jurisdiction and
powers Lok Adalat
• Original jurisdiction • Writ jurisdiction
Lok Adalat is one of the alternative dispute
• Appellate jurisdiction • Supervisory jurisdiction
redressal mechanisms, it is a forum where disputes
• Control over subordinate courts or cases pending in the court of law or at
Jurisdiction and Seats of High Courts pre-litigation stage are settled or compromised
amicably. Lok Adalats have been given statutory
Established status under the Legal Services Authorities Act,
Name Territorial Jurisdiction Seat
in the Year 1987. The First Lok Adalat was held in Gujarat in
Madhya 1956 Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur (Benches at 1982.
Pradesh Gwalior and Indore)
Bombay 1862 Maharashtra, Dadra and
Nagar Haveli, Goa,
Mumbai (Bench at
Nagpur, Panaji and
LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT
Daman and Diu Aurangabad)
• It deals with the Panchayats and Municipalities.
Calcutta 1862 West Bengal and Kolkata (Circuit Bench at It consists of two parts
Andaman and Nicobar Port Blair)
islands i. It contains 29 subjects related to Panchayati
Madras 1862 Tamil Nadu and Chennai Raj (Administrative powers) and added by
Puducherry 73rd Amendment Act, 1992, contains a new
Allahabad 1866 Uttar Pradesh Allahabad (Bench at schedule ‘Schedule Eleven’.
Lucknow) ii. It contains 18 subjects related to
Karnataka 1884 Karnataka Bengaluru Municipalities (Administrative powers) and
Patna 1916 Bihar Patna added by 74th Amendment Act, 1992,
contains a new schedule, ‘Schedule Twelve’.
Orissa 1948 Odisha Cuttack
Panchayati Raj in India signifies the system of
Guwahati 1948 Assam, Nagaland, Guwahati (Benches at rural local self government. Local government
Mizoram and Arunachal Kohima and Aizawl and
Pradesh itanagar) is a subject of the State List.
Rajasthan 1949 Rajasthan Jodhpur (Bench at Jaipur) Various recommendation for Panchayati Raj
Andhra 1954 Andhra Pradesh and Hyderabad
Institution,are as follows :
Pradesh Telengana • Balwant Rai Mehta Committee 1957
Kerala 1958 Kerala and Lakshadweep Ernakulam establishment of three tier Panchayati Raj
Jammu and 1928 Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar and Jammu
System, which includes Zila Parishad at District
Kashmir level, Panchayati Samiti at Block level and Gram
Gujarat 1960 Gujarat Ahmedabad Panchayat at Village level.
Delhi 1966 Delhi Delhi
• Ashok Mehta Committee The three tier system
should be replaced by two tier system that is Zila
Punjab and 1875 Punjab, Haryana and Chandigarh
Haryana Chandigarh Parishad at District level and below it the Mandal
Panchayat consisting of a group of village
Himachal 1971 Himachal Pradesh Shimla
Pradesh comprising a population of 15000 to 20000.
Sikkim 1975 Sikkim Gangtok • LM Singhvi Committee 1986 The Panchayati
Raj Institution should be constitutionally
Uttarakhand 2000 Uttarakhand Nainital
recognised, protected and preserved.
Jharkhand 2000 Jharkhand Ranchi
• PESA (Panchayat Extention to Schedule Areas)
Chhattisgarh 2000 Chhattisgarh Bilaspur Act, 1996 or PESA law enacted by the
Manipur 2013 Manipur Imphal Government of India they cover the schedule
Meghalaya 2013 Meghalaya Shillong areas which are not covered in the 73rd
Amendment of Panchayati Raj Act of Indian
Tripura 2013 Tripura Agartala
Constitution.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 971

Panchayats Constitutional Bodies

The idea of Panchayati Raj forms the basis of Constitutional body is the body that has its name mentioned
Gandhian philosophy that considers village councils as in the Constitution of India. It derives power directly from
the units of self-governance. Rajasthan was the first the Constitution. Any type of change in mechanism of this
state to set-up Panchayati Raj on 2nd October, 1959 body needs constitutional amendment. Such bodies are as
followed by Andhra Pradesh. follows

Duration and Election Election Commission

• Its duration five years from the day appointed for its • The Election Commission is a permanent and an
first meeting. independent body established by the Constitution of India
• Before the expiry of its duration. directly to ensure free and fair elections in the country.
• Before the expiry of a period of 6 months from the • Article 324 of the Constitution provides that the power of
date of its dissolution. Provided that where the superintendence, direction and control of elections to
remainder of the period for which the dissolved Parliament, state legislatures, the office of President of India
• Panchayat would have continued is less than and the office of Vice-President of India shall be vested in
6 months, it shall not be necessary to hold any the election commission.
election for such period. • The Election Commission shall consists of the Chief
• Minimum age required to contest for election is 21 Election Commissioner and such number of other election
years. commissioners, if any, as the President may from time to
time fix. They hold office for a term of 6 years or until they
Reservation of Seats attain the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
Seats shall be compulsorily reserved for women • He can be removed by the President on the basis of a
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Seats to be resolution passed to that effect by both the Houses of
reserved for backward classes is left at the discretion of Parliament with special majority, either on the ground of
the State Government one-third of the seats are proved misbehaviour or incapacity.
reserved for women. In some states like Bihar, 50%
seats are reserved for women. NATIONAL PARTY
It should secure not less than 6% of the total valid votes
Municipalities polled in its state during a general election. Besides, it has
attained at least 4 members to Lok Sabha.
• They are eight types of urban local body in India –
Notified Area Committee, Town Area Committee, STATE PARTY
Municipal Corporation, Municipality, Cantonment It should secure not less than 6% of the total valid votes in
Board, Township, Port trust and Special Purpose that state in general election, besides attaining at least two
Agency. members to the Legislative Assembly of that state at the
last assembly elections.
• The first municipal corporation was established in
Madras Presidency in 1688.
Public Service Commission
Duration and Election The Public Service Commission is divided into two categories
• Election must be held before the expiry of its namely; Union Public Service Commission and State Public
duration of 5 years. Service Commission.
• Election must be held before the expiration of a Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
period of 6 months from the date of its dissolution. • It is the central recruiting agency in India. Articles 315 to
323 in Part XIV of the Constitution deal with the UPSC.
Reservation of Seats
• The UPSC consists of a chairman and other members
• There will be the reservation of seats for the
appointed by the President of India. The strength of the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in every Commission has been decided by the President.
municipality in proportion of their population to the
total population in the municipal area. • The chairman and members of the Commission hold office
for a term of six years or until they attain the age of 65
• It also provides for the reservation of not less than
years, whichever is earlier.
one-third of the total number of seats for women
(including the number of seats reserved for women • The chairman or a member of the UPSC can be removed
belonging to the SCs and STs). from office by the President only in the manner and on the
grounds mentioned in the Constitution.
972 CDS Pathfinder

State Public Service Commission (SPSC) • 13th Finance Commission, headed by Vijay Kelkar,
• Parallel to UPSC at the Centre, there is a SPSC in a submitted its report for the period 2010-15. Finance
state. It consists of a chairman and other members Commission, headed by YV Reddy, has been appointed. Its
appointed by the Governor of the State. report will apply for the period 2015-20.
• The chairman and members of the Commission hold • The 14th Finance Commission has been specifically asked
office for a term of six years or until they attain the to recommend how non-priority PSUs be relinquished,
age of 62 years, whichever is earlier. besides its other constitutional duties.

National Commission for Functions

Scheduled Castes It is duty of the Finance Commission to make
• The National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SCs)
recommendations to the President as to :
is a constitutional body in the sense that it is directly • the distribution between the Union and States of net
established by Article 338 of the Constitution. proceeds of the taxes which are divisible between the
Union and the States.
• The main function of the Commission is to investigate
and monitor all matters relating to the constitutional • the principles which should govern the grants-in-aid of a
and other legal sageguards for the SCs and to evaluate revenue to the states out of Consolidated Funds of India.
their working. • any other matter referred to the commission by the
• The Commission also has to investigate all matters President in the interest of sound finance.
relating to the constitutional and other legal
safeguards for the OBCs and the Anglo-Indian Comptroller and
Community and report to the President upon their
working. Auditor General of India
• They are appointed by the President by warrant under He is appointed by the President for control and audit of
his hand and seal. Their conditions of service and public accounts. He does not hold his office till the pleasure
tenure of office are also determined by the President. of the President. He is not eligible for further office.
• The Commission presents an annual report to the
President. It can also submit a report as and when it
Functions
thinks necessary. His main functions are as follows :
• He audits the account related to all expenditure from
National Commission for consolidated and contingency fund of India, each state and
Scheduled Tribes UT’s having a Legislative Assembly.
• The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (STs) • He acts as a guide, friend and philosopher of the Public
is a constitutional body in the sense that it is directly Account Committee of the Parliament.
established by Article 338-A of the Constitution. • To keep a vigilant watch on the finance of Union and the
• The 89th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2003 States.
bifurcated and combined National Commission for • To submit periodic reports to the President and Governors
SCs and STs into two separates bodies namely; of State for consideration of Parliament and State
National Commission for Scheduled Castes (under Legislature.
Article 338) and National Commission for Scheduled • To see that the amount voted by the legislature are spent
Tribes (under Article 338-A). under appropriate heads and they are not exceeded.
• The main function of the Commission is to investigate
and monitor all matters relating to the constitutional Non-Constitutional Bodies
and other legal safeguards for the STs and to evaluate Non-Constitutional bodies are the bodies that are established
their working. either by an executive resolution of the Government of India
or by a legislation enacted by the Parliament or even by any
Finance Commission (Article 280) official Gazette notification issued by the Central
Government.
Composition
• Under Article 280 of the Constitution, provision has Planning Commission
been made for the Constitution of a Finance The Planning Commission was an institution in the
Commission within two years of the commencement Government of India, which formulated India’s Five-Year
of the Constitution and thereafter on the expiry of Plans. The Government has replaced Planning Commission
5th year. It consists of a Chairman and four other with a new institution named NITI Aayog (National
members appointed by the President. Institution for Transforming India).
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 973

National Development Council Salient Features of Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act

• It is the open body for decision making and • Lokpal bill consist of a chairperson and a maximum of eight
deliberation on development matters in India members of which 50% shall be judicial members. 50% of
presided over by Prime Minister. members of Lokpal shall be from SC/ST/OBCs, minorities and
women.
• The council comprises the Prime Minister, the
Union Cabinet Ministers, Chief Ministers of all • The selection of chairperson and members of Lokpal shall be
States, Representation of the Union Territories through a selection committee consist of
and members of the planning commission. 1. Prime Minister
• It is an extra-constitutional and non-statutory 2. Speaker of Lok Sabha
body. It is the listed as an advisory body to 3. Leader of opposition in Lok Sabha
planning commission but its advice is not 4. Chief Justice of India or a sitting Judge of Supreme Court
binding. nominated by CJI.
5. Eminent jurist on the basis of recommendations of the first
NITI Aayog four members of the selection committee. Prime Minister
• The institution will serve as ‘Think Tank’ of the has been brought under the purview of the Lokpal.
Government, a directional and policy dynamo.
• NITI Aayog will provide governments and the National Human Rights Commission
central and state levels with relevant strategic and • The National Human Rights Commission is a statutory body.
technical advice across the spectrum of key It was established in 1993 under a legislation enacted by the
elements of policy. This includes matters of Parliament. The Commission is a multi-member body
national and international important PM is the consisting of a chairman and four members. The chairman
ex-officio chairman of NITI Aayog. should be retired chief justice of India. In case State Human
Functions of NITI Aayog Rights Commission, the chairperson should be a retired Chief
Justice of a High Court.
• To foster cooperative federalism through
• The chairman and members hold office for a term of
structured support initiatives and mechanisms
with the states on a continuous basis, recognising 5 years or until they attain the age of 70 years, whichever is
that strong states make a strong nation. earlier. After their tenure, the chairman and members are not
eligible for further employment under the Central or a State
• To develop mechanisms to formulate credible
Government.
plans at the village level and aggregate these
progressively at higher levels of government. National Commission for Minorities (NCM)
• To ensure, on areas that are specifically referred • The Union Government set-up the National Commission for
to it, that the interest of national security are Minorities under the National Commission for Minorities Act,
incorporated in economic strategy and policy. To 1992. Six religious communities namely; Muslims, Christians,
pay special attention to the sections of our Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis and Jains have been notified as
society that may be at risk of not benefitting minority communities by the Union Government.
adequately from economic progress.
• The Commission has one Chairperson and five Members
• To provide advice and encourage partnerships represented five minority communities. The Commission
between key stakeholders and national and consists of President, a Vice-President and five other members
international like-minded Think Tanks, as well as from minorities group.
educational and policy research institutions.

State Finance Commission CENTRE-STATE RELATION

There is a provision of State Finance Commission The Constitution of India, being federal in structure, divides all
to review the financial position of Panchayats and powers (legislative, executive and financial) between the centre and
recommended grant-in-aid. It shall make the the states.
following recommendation to the governor.
The centre-state relations can be studied under three heads, which
Lokpal and Lokayuktas are as follow
i. Legislative relations
The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 was made by
the Parliament to provide for the establishment of ii. Administrative relations
body of Lokpal for the Union and Lokayukta for iii. Financial relations
state to inquire into allegations of corruptions It deals with the relations between union and states. The centres
against certain public functionaries and for matters and states are an essential feature of federalism.
concerning them.
974 CDS Pathfinder

Legislative Relations Western Zonal Council Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat and UTs
• The Constitution divides the subjects into the Union
of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman Diu. Headquarter
List (100 subjects), the State List (61 subjects) and the Mumbai
Concurrent List (52 subjects). Enumerated in the Southern Zonal Council Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Seventh Schedule under Article 246. Parliament has Karnataka, Kerala and UT of Puducherry. Headquarter
exclusive power to legislate on subjects mentioned in Chennai
the Union List. This list contains subjects like defence, North-Eastern Council It was created in 1971 by a
foreign affairs, atomic energy etc. separate Act of Parliament for Assam, Manipur, Tripura,
• State legislatures have exclusive power to legislate on Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.
subjects mentioned in the State List. The State List In 1994, Sikkim was included in it.
contains subjects like health, sanitation, public order,
agriculture etc. Both Parliament and State Legislatures ! The issues in centre-state relations have been under
can legislate on subjects mentioned in the Concurrent consideration. Time to time government appoints commission for
List. This list contains subjects like criminal law, betterment of the relation.
forests, education, marriage and divorce etc.
• Residual Powers (i.e. subjects not included in any of SARKARIA COMMISSION
the list) rest with Union Government. It was set-up in June, 1983, by the Central Government of
India to examine the relationship and balance of power
Administrative Relations between states and centre. It was headed by Justice
The states are expected to comply with the Laws of the Rajinder Singh Sarkaria, a retired Judge of the Supreme
Court of India.
Parliament and not impede the exercise of the Executive
Powers of the Union (Articles 256 and 257). In this PUNCHHI COMMISSION
regard, the Union Government can issue necessary In April, 2007, a new commission was set-up to re-examine
directives to the states. All disputes between states centre-state relations. The commission was headed by
regarding the use, distribution or control of water are former Chief Justice of India MM Punchhi.
decided by the centre (Article 262).

Financial Relations Inter-State Council

• The states are greatly dependent on the Central • Inter-State Council serves a purposeful mechanism to bring
Government for finance. The State Governments have various autonomous executive agencies of the state
been provided independent sources of revenue, but machinery, both the union and the states, and coordinate
these are inadequate. amongst them the ways and means of execution and
• The Union Government has the power to borrow implementation of policies concerning common interests,
from within India or outside, subject to the limits laid both regional as well as national.
down by the Parliament, the borrowing power of the • Although a provision was made in the Constitution under
states is subject to several limitations and the cannot Article 262 for the formation of such Inter-State Council,
borrow from outside India. it was not until 1990, a formal Inter-State Council was
established.
Zonal Councils • This measure was taken after the Sakaria Commission

Six zonal councils have been established to discuss and pitched for the formation of such a council.
advise on matters of common interest. The Union Home
Minister has been nominated to be the common Types of Emergency
Chairman of all Zonal Councils. Set-up under State The President is empowered to promulgate three kinds of
Reorganisation Act, 1956. emergencies which are as follows :
Northern Zonal Council Consist of Punjab, i. On the ground of threat to the security of India or of
Rajasthan, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, any part of the territory by war or an external
Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh and Delhi. aggression or an armed rebellion (Article 352) known as
Headquarter New Delhi National Emergency.
Central Zonal Council Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, ii. On the ground of the failure of the constitutional
Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. Headquarter machinery in a state. (Article 356) known as the
Allahabad President’s Rule or State Emergency.
Eastern Zonal Council Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal iii. On the ground of threat to the financial stability or
and Odisha. Headquarter Kolkata credit of India or any part of the territory (Article 360),
known as Financial Emergency.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 975

National Emergency (Article 352) • The National Emergency and Financial Emergency have
no time limit. They can continue to be extended without
• If the President is satisfied that a grave emergency exists
any limit. But the State emergency has a time limit. It
whereby the security of India or any part of India is
cannot go beyond 3 years.
threatened, whether by a war or an external aggression
or an armed rebellion, he/she may proclaim a state of
emergency for the whole of India or part of the territory
E-Governance
thereof. The word electronic in the term e-Governance implies
• A proclamation of emergency can be made by the technology driven governance. e-Governance is the
President, even before the actual occurrence of war or application of Information and Communication
external aggression or armed rebellion, if he/she is Technology (ICT) for delivering government services.
satisfied that there is an imminent danger. e-Governance is basically a move toward SMART
• When a national emergency is declared on the ground of Governance i.e. Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive and
‘war’ or ‘external aggression’ it is known as External Transparent Governance.
Emergency. On the other hand, when it is declared on There are four types of interactions in e-Governance
the ground of ‘armed rebellion’ it is known as Internal 1. G2B : Government to Business
Emergency.
2. G2C : Government to Citizens
President’s Rule or State Emergency 3. G2E : Government to Employees
(Article 356) 4. G2G : Government to Government
• The President’s Rule can be proclaimed under Articles
DIGITAL INDIA
355, 356 and 365. Article 355 says it shall be the duty
of the union to protect every state against external It is a flagship e-Governance programme of Government
aggression and internal disturbance and to ensure that of India with a vision to transform India into a digitally
empowered society and knowledge economy.
the government of every state is carried on in accordance
with the provisions of this Constitution. The focus is to bring transformation to realise
IT +IT IT
• Article 356 says that if the President, on receipt of a
report from the Governor of a State or otherwise, is (Indian Talent) (Information Technology) (India Tomorrow)
satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the
Government of the State cannot be carried on in Mission Mode Projects (MMPs)
accordance with the provisions of this Constitution,
he/she may issue a proclamation. A Mission Mode Project (MMP) is an individual project
within the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) that
• Article 365 administration says that whenever a state focuses on one aspect of e-Governance, such as banking,
fails to comply with or give effect to any direction from land records or commercial taxes etc. Within NeGP,
the centre, it will be lawful for the President to hold that Mission Mode Project implies that projects have clearly
a situation has arisen in which the government of the defined objectives, scopes and implementation timelines
state cannot be carried on in accordance with the and milestones, as well as measurable outcomes and service
provisions of the Constitution. levels. NeGP comprises 31 Mission Mode Projects
(MMPs), which are further classified as State, Central or
Financial Emergency (Article 360) Integrated Projects. Each State Government can also define
• Article 360 provides that if the President is satisfied that five MMPs specific to its individual needs.
a situation has arisen whereby the financial stability of
India or the credit of India or of any part of India is E-Panchayat
threatened, he/she may make a declaration to that effect.
The Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India has
Under such situation, the executive and legislative powers
initiated e-Panchayat, a flagship project, computerisation of
will go to the center. This article has never been invoked
till date. Gram Panchayats on a mission mode basis. After a
detailed system study by NIC (National Informatics
• The proclamation of Financial Emergency shall
Centre), the department prioritised the applications to be
ordinarily remain in force for a period of 2 months. automated for Gram Panchayats. The application areas are
However, it can continue to stay beyond 2 months if
birth and death registrations, house tax assessment and
before the expiry of the 2 months period, the
demand collections and trade licences. The applications
proclamation has been approved by both the Houses of
the Parliament. were developed and implemented in 475 Gram Panchayats
identified by department. The software is web enabled and
• If, at the time of proclamation of Financial Emergency,
hosted on NIC central servers. The capacity building had
the Lok Sabha stands dissolved, the proclamation needs been taken up at various levels by conducting State and
to be approved by the Lok Sabha within 30 days of its
District level workshops and the e-Panchayat project was
meeting after its reconstitution, provided in the meantime
initiated by Commissioner PR&RE in 2005.
the Rajya Sabha has approved it.
976 CDS Pathfinder

E-Choupal Indian Judiciary by ICT enablement of Courts. Such

e-court was established first time in Hyderabad High
It is an India-based business initiative by ITC (India
Court on 18th July, 2016.
Tobacco Company) Limited that provides internet access
to rural farmers. The purpose is to inform and empower Official Languages (Articles 343-351)
them and, as a result to improve the quality of agricultural
goods and the quality of life for farmers. ITC Limited is a Article 343 mentions that the official language of the
consumer product and agribusiness conglomerate in India Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. Article 348
known for their production of cigarettes, speciality paper, mentions that English will be language to be used in the
food products and packaging services. Supreme Court and in the high courts and for acts, bills,
etc. This part is related to the official languages,
Mobile Governance promotion of Hindi as well as mother tongues at least in
Mobile Government or m-Government, is the extension of primary education.
e-Government to mobile platforms and also the strategic
use of government services and applications which are only Amendment
possible using cellular/mobile telephones, laptop • An Amendment (Article 368) of the Constitution can be
computers, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) and wireless initiated only by the introduction of a bill for purpose
internet infrastructure. in either House of Parliament and not in the State
Legislatures.
E-Courts
• The bill can be introduced either by a minister or by a
The e-Courts project was conceptualised on the basis of
private member and does not require prior permission of
the ‘National Policy and Action Plan for Implementation
the President.
of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
the Indian Judiciary 2005’ submitted by e-Committee • Each house must pass the bill separately. No provision
(Supreme Court of India), with a vision to transform the of joint setting.

IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS

An amendment to the Constitution can be initiated in either House of the Parliament and there is no provision of joint
session here. President has to, under all conditions, provide his consent to such a bill. He cannot withhold his assent nor
can be return it.
• 1st Amendment, 1951 to overcome certain practical • 42nd Amendment, 1976 provided supremacy of
difficulties related to Fundamental Rights. Also added 9th Parliament and gave primacy to Directive Principles over
Schedule (Act and Regulation), Land Reform Act. Fundamental Rights. It also added 10 Fundamental Duties
• 7th Amendment, 1956 necessitated on account of to the Constitution. The Preamble of the Constitution was
reorganisation of states on linguistic basis and introduced also altered to ‘Sovereign’, ‘Socialist’, ‘Secular’ and
changes in the 1st and 4th Schedule. ‘Democratic Republic’. It is also called Mini Constitution.
• 9th Amendment, 1960 gave effect to transfer certain • 44th Amendment, 1978 restored the normal duration of
territories to Pakistan following the 1958 Indo-Pak the Lok Sabha and Legislative Assembly to 5 years. The
agreement. Right to Property was deleted from Part III. Also
limited the power of the government to proclaim
• 10th Amendment, 1961 incorporated Dadra and Nagar
internal emergency. The national emergency shall not be
Haveli in India.
proclaimed except on the written recommendation of the
• 12th Amendment, 1962 incorporated Goa, Daman and Cabinet.
Diu in India. • 52nd Amendment, 1985 10th Schedule was added
• 13th Amendment, 1962 created Nagaland as a state. through this (Anti-Defection Law).
• 14th Amendment, 1963 incorporated Pudicherry in • 61st Amendment, 1989 reduced the voting age from 21
India from France. to 18 years for the Lok Sabha as well as Assemblies.
• 18th Amendment, 1966 reorganised Punjab into Punjab, • 62nd Amendment, 1989 extended reservation of seats
Haryana and UT of Chandigarh. for SC/ST till AD 2000.
• 27th Amendment, 1971 established Manipur and Tripura • 69th Amendment, 1991 accorded a special status to the
as states and Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh as UT. Union Territory of Delhi as a National capital territory
• 31st Amendment, 1973 increased the elective strength of of Delhi.
Lok Sabha from 525 to 545. The upper limit of • 70th Amendment proposed to grant statehood to Delhi.
representatives of state went up from 500 to 525.
GENERAL STUDIES Indian Polity 977

• 73rd Amendment, 1992 (Panchayati Raj) to provide • 93rd Amendment Added clause (5) to Article 15
among other things Gram Sabha in villages, Constitution making special provisions for advancement of any
of Panchayats at the village and other levels, direct socially and educationally backward classes.
elections to all seats in Panchayats and reservation of seats • 94th Amendment, 2006 To provide for a Minister of
for the SC and ST and fixing of tenure of 5 years for Tribal Welfare in newly created Jharkhand and
Panchayats. Chhattisgarh states and deletion of Bihar’s name.
• 74th Amendment, 1992 (Nagar Palika) To provide for, • 95th Amendment, 2010 To extend the reservation of
among other things, Constitution of three types of seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha and States
municipalities, reservation of seats in every municipality Assemblies from 60 to 70 years.
for the SC and ST, women and the backward classes.
• 96th Amendment, 2011 Substituted ‘Odia’ for ‘Oriya’.
• 76th Amendment Act, 1994 It provides reservation in
• 97th Amendment, 2012 To give right to form
educational institutions and posts in state services.
co-operative societies and give a framework for their
• 84th Amendment, 2001 Creation of the new states of working.
Chhattisgarh, Uttaranchal and Jharkhand.
• 98th Amendment, 2013 To empower the Governor of
• 86th Amendment, 2002 Article 21 (A), which makes Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-
primary education a Fundamental Right to children Karnataka region.
between age of 6-14 years was added.
• 99th Amendment, 2014 National Judicial
– Article 45 of Directive Principle.
Appointments Commission was established. But on
– 11th Fundamental Duties were added through this. 16th October, 2015 Supreme Court struck down the
• 91st Amendment, 2003 The provision of 10th Schedule NIAC as unconstitutional.
(Anti-Defection Law) pertaining to exemption from • 100th Amendment, 2015 To the acquiring of
disqualification in case of split of 1/3rd member of the territories by India and transfer of territories to
legislature party has been deleted. It means that defectors Bangladesh in pursuance of the agreements and its
have no more protection on grounds of splits. protocol between India and Bangladesh.
• 92nd Amendment Act, 2003 Four languages were added • 101st Amendment, 2016 It is related to goods and
in 8th Schedule—Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali. services tax.