Compass

-​ Compass card suspended in kerosene or alcohol

-​ Usually two north seeking magnets attached to the float
-​ Must swung every 12 months for IFR flight
-​ Variation (difference between the true and magnetic north)
-​ Isogonic Lines (lines of equal variation)
-​ Agonic Lines (zero variation)
-​ Deviation (caused by the influence of the magnetic fields due to the metal of the
aircraft and the electronic equipment)
-​ True to magnetic (add west and subtract east), Magnetic to True (add east and
subtract west)
-​ Northerly Turning error, caused by magnetic dip, greatest on headings of north or
south, North lags and south leads. When turning a heading near north, the compass
will lag
-​ Acceleration north and deceleration south, greatest on east or west headings

Altimeter (static pressure source )

-​ It is an aneroid barometer which measures the pressure of the atmosphere.
-​ As the static pressure decreases, the aneroid capsule expands, climb
-​ As the static pressure increases, the aneroid capsule contracts, descent
-​ Large needle (hundreds), small needle (thousands), smallest needle (ten thousand)
-​ From high to low, look down below, the altimeter will read high, lower than indicated
-​ From low to high, look up, the altimeter will read low, higher than indicated
-​ Colder than standard temperature, lower than indicated (lower pressure)
-​ Higher than standard temperature, greater than indicated (higher pressure)

Blocked Pitot No effect (not connected)

Blocked static Freezes at a constant reading

-​ Flying into an area of low pressure, drift to the right

-​ All IFR, CVFR, VFR aircraft are to be set to 31.00 in Hg when flying below 18000 ft
ASL when the altimeter setting exceeds 31.00 in Hg
-​ The increase in wind speed will decrease local pressure, altitude over read as
much as 3000 ft
-​ We must be registering the altitude of the aerodrome/airport within ± 50 ft
-​ pitot/ static instruments must be inspected every 24 months

​ Indicated Altitude
-​ Read directly off the altimeter

​ Pressure Altitude
-​ Altitude that is indicated when it is set to 29.92

​ True Altitude
-​ Height above sea level, charts are in true altitude
​ Absolute Altitude
-​ Actual height above the earth’s surface

​
Density Altitude
-​ Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature
-​ hot days, low pressure and high humidity lead to high density altitude

Alternate Static Source

-​ IFR flight requires both pitot heat and alternate static source
-​ ALT indicate higher than actual altitude
-​ VSI will momentarily indicate a climb
-​ ASI will indicate greater than normal speed

Airspeed Indicator
-​ speed through the air (not over the ground)
-​ Connected to the pitot and the static pressure sources
-​ It measures the difference between the pressure in the pitot and static pressure
system.
-​ When the plane is in motion, pressure in the pitot pressure is increased by dynamic
pressure. (pitot pressure is the sum of atmospheric pressure and dynamic pressure)
-​ The pitot pressure source is connected to the aneroid capsule.
-​ If the instrument static pressure line becomes disconnected inside a pressurised
cabin during cruising flight, the altimeter and airspeed indicator will both read low

Blocked Pitot (acts like Over read as a/c keeps Under reads in descent
an altimeter) climbing after blockage below the blockage
altitude

Blocked Static Under reads as a/c keeps Over reads in descent

climbing after blockage below the blocage altitude

Partially Blocked (drain .ASI Indicates 0 Indicates 0

hole is still open, allow
the dynamic pressure to
leak out)

Position Error
-​ As the aircraft travels through air turbulent eddies are created that can give incorrect
readings

Instrument Error
-​ Caused by the airspeed indicator itself

Compressibility Error
 -​ Caused by higher airspeeds, greater than 250 kts

Density Error
-​ Caused by changes in altitude and temperature
-​ At sea level, IAS equals TAS
-​ As altitude increase, TAS is greater than IAS
-​ Add 2% to IAS for every 1000 feet of pressure altitude increase

White Arc
-​ Vso - Vfe

Green Arc
-​ Vs - Vno

Yellow Arc
-​ Vno - Vne

Red line
-​ Vne

IAS
-​ Uncorrected speed that is read directly off the indicator

CAS
-​ IAS corrected for instrument and position error

TAS
-​ CAS corrected for air density error, it must increase with altitude increase

Stall speeds
-​ As the bank angle increases, stall speed increases
-​ As C of G moves forward, stall speed increases and vice versa
-​ As the weight increases, stall speed increases
-​ Turbulence increases the stall speed
-​ Contamination on surface increases the stall speed, reduced drag by 30% and
increased lift by 40% (SDL)

​ Multi Engine Speeds

-​ Vmc (minimum control speed), retain control of the aeroplane and maintain straight
flight with max rudder deflection and not more than 5 degrees of bank
-​ At speeds below Vmc, the aeroplane will yaw and roll towards the failed engine

-​ Decision Speed (V1)

- beyond which the aircraft is committed to fly and cannot stop on the remaining
runway
 -​ Rotation speed (Vr)
- speed at which to start flying

-​ Take off safety speed (V2)

- speed at which the aircraft can safely be flown on one engine

-​ Design Flap Speed (Vf)

- maximum speed at which wing flaps may be extended

-​ Intentional one engine inoperative speed (Vsse)

- A speed above both Vmc and Vs

- Manoeuvring Speed (Va)

​ - the max speed at which the application of full available aerodynamic control will not
overstress the aircraft

-​ Maximum Flap Extended Speed (Vfe)

- the max speed permissible with the wing flaps in a prescribed extended position

​ Landing gear extended (Vle)

-​ Max speed permissible with the landing gear extended

Best rate of climb (Vy), Vyse

-​ Most altitude in the shortest time

Best angle of climb (Vx) , Vxse

-​ Most altitude in the least distance

Stall speed clean configuration (Vs)

-​ Stall speed with gear and faps up

Stall speed Landing configuration (Vso)

-​ Stall speed with gear and flaps down

VSI
-​ Shows the rate which the aeroplane is ascending or descending
-​ Operates the change in barometric pressure which occurs with any change in height.
-​ Connected to the static air pressure system
-​ There is a lag of from 6 to 9 seconds before it will indicate the correct rate of climb or
descent. If pitch changes are made slowly, the lag is minimal. If pitch changes are
made largely, the amount of lag in the instrument will be sizable.
-​ A sudden pitch change will show the aircraft the opposite meaning

Blocked Pitot Not affected - not connected

Blocked static Freezes at a constant reading of zero

Attitude Indicator (rigidity in space), rhv
-​ Reference when the natural horizon cannot be seen because of clouds, fog, rain or
other obstructions to visibility.
-​ Shows the relationship between the wings and nose of the airplane and the horizon
of the earth
-​ Powered by vacuum system, requires 4 or more inches of mercury vacuum to
operate and 5 minutes to get up to operational speed
-​ Over the limits, the gyro will tumble. During aerobatic manoeuvres, the gyro should
be caged.
-​ The gyro wheel is mounted horizontally and spins its vertical axis

Heading indicator (rigidity in space),rvh

-​ Indicate the heading of the aeroplane, enable the pilot to steer the heading with the
least effort
-​ Must be synchronised with the magnetic compass at the beginning of the flight
-​ The gyro wheel is mounted vertically and spins it horizontal axis at 12000 rpm

Turn and Bank (precession),pvh

-​ Combines two instruments (needle and ball)
-​ The needle indicates the direction and rate of turn, only identify yaw
-​ The ball indicates the amount of bank in the turn. It is controlled by gravity
and centrifugal force
-​ The turn needle is created by a gyro wheel operated either electrically or by a
venturi tube or vacuum pump.
-​ Rotate around 9000 rpm
-​ Operation of the turn needle (gyroscopic precession)
-​ The gyro wheel is mounted vertically and rotates about its horizontal axis.

Skid
-​ Not enough bank or too much rudder is applied
-​ The centrifugal force is greater than the force of gravity
-​ The ball go outside of the inclinometer

Slip
-​ Too much bank or insufficient rudder is applied
-​ The centrifugal force is lesser than the force of gravity
-​ The ball go inside of the inclinometer

Turn Coordinator (precession)

-​ Is canted at 35 degrees
-​ Gyro gimbal is connected to the little aeroplane
-​ Indicate both yaw and roll
-​ If the altitude indicator has failed, it keeps the wings level in straight flight
-​ Shows the rate of roll and turn
 -​ Reacts to roll then to yaw
-​ Rate one turns
-​ The turn indicator indicates the rate of the turn
-​ 3 degrees per second or 360 degrees in two minutes

Gyroscopic basic principles

-​ The gyroscope is a rotor, or spinning wheel, rotating at high speed on a universal
mounting (gimbal)
-​ Based on gyroscopic inertia (rigidity in space) and precession
-​ Rigidity in space is the tendency of the rotating body, if undistributed, to
maintain its plane of rotation
-​ Precession is the tendency of the rotating body, when a force is applied
perpendicular to its plane of rotation
-​ Gyro instruments are powered by electrical or vacuum system (power driven
pump or a venturi)

Instrument Flying
-​ Attitude + Power = Performance
-​ Attitude and tachometer are the control instruments
-​ Attitude + Altimeter + VSI are the pitch instruments
-​ Attitude + turn + heading are bank instruments
-​ AL and HI and ALT and VSI are not reliable during unusual attitude recoveries
-​ Airspeed + Turn coordinator are reliable during unusual attitude

Compass deviation
-​ Can be reduced by placing the a/c in isolated area
-​ Orient a/c to a known magnetic bearing
-​ Use corrector magnets to eliminate (fill out card)
-​ Must be swung annually recorded in journey log

Turning errors
-​ During a turn from a Northerly heading, the compass briefly indicates a turn in the
opposite direction.
-​ As for aircraft turning from a Southerly heading, the compass indicates a turn in the
correct direction, but at a considerably faster rate than is actually occurring.
-​ Overshoot turns on north, and undershoot turns on south