MEKELLE UNIVERSITY

ETHIOPIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY-MEKELLE

ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CHAPTER TWO
TRANSFORMERS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The most important tasks performed by transformers are:-
i. Changing voltage and current levels in electrical power systems
ii. Matching source and load impedances for maximum power transfer in electronic and control
circuit and
iii. Electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another )
Transformers are used extensively in ac power systems. AC electrical power can be generated at
one central location, its voltage stepped up for transmission over long distances at very low
losses and its voltage stepped down again for final use.

2.2 PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER ACTION AND CONSTRUCTION

There are basically two types of transformer, the core-type and the shell-type. The two types
differ from each other by the manner in which the windings are wound around the magnetic core.
The magnetic core is a stock of thin silicon-steel laminations about 0.35mm thick for 50Hz
transformers. In order to reduce the eddy current losses, these laminations are insulated from one
another by thin layer of varnish. In the core-type, the windings surround a considerable part of
steel core as shown in Figure 2.1(a). In shell-type the steel core surrounds a major part of the
windings as shown in Figure 2.1(b). For a given output and voltage rating, core-type transformer
requires less iron but more conductor material as compared to a shell-type transformer.
H.V.
Winding Yoke

L.V

H.V   
 Limb or 
L.V 2 2 2
Leg 2
H.V

L.V

L.V.
Winding

1
 (a) (b)
Figure 2.1 Constructional details of single-phase (a) core-type transformer (b) Shell-type transformer
In core-type transformer, the flux has a single path around the legs or yokes. Figure 2.1(a). In
shell-type transformer, the flux in the central limb divides equally and returns through the outer
two legs as shown in Figure 2.1(b).
There are two types of windings employed in transformers. The concentric coils are used for
core-type transformer as shown in Figure 2.1(a) and interleaved (or sandwiched) coils for shell-
type transformers as shown in Figure 2.2(b).
One type of laminations for the core and shell type of transformers is illustrated in Figure 2.2 (a)
and (b) respectively. In both core and shell-type transformers, the individual laminations are cut
in the form of long strips of L's, E’s and I's as shown in Figure 2.3 .

Butt Joints

Butt
Joints

1st, 3rd, 5th… layers 1st, 3rd, 5th… layers

Butt Joints

Butt
Joints

2nd, 4th, 6th… layers 2nd, 4th, 6th… layers

(b)
Figure 2.2 two adjacent layers for (a) core and (b) shell type transformers

Figure 2.3 long strips of E’s, L’s and I’s laminations

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In order to avoid high reluctance at the joints where the laminations are butted against each
other, the alternative layers are stacked as shown in Figure 2.4.
Butt Joints

Figure 2.4 Arrangement of butt joints in magnetic core

During the transformer construction first the primary and secondary winding are wound, then the
laminations are pushed through the coil openings, layer by layer and the steel core is placed. The
laminations are then tightened by means of clamps and bolts.
Low-power transformers are air cooled whereas larger power transformers are immersed in oil
for better cooling. In oil-cooled transformer, the coil serves as a coolant and also as an insulation
medium.
PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER ACTION


V1 P N1 N2 S

Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of a two-winding transformer

The primary winding P is connected to an alternating voltage source, therefore, an alternating
current Im starts flowing through N1 turns. The alternating mmf N1Im sets up an alternating flux 
which is confined to the high permeability iron path as indicated in Figure 2.5. The alternating
flux induces voltage E1 in the primary P and E2 in secondary S. If a load is connected across the
secondary, load current starts flowing.

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2.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER AND PHASOR DIAGRAM
2.3.1 IDEAL TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER
For a transformer to be an ideal one, the various assumptions are as follows
1. Winding resistances are negligible.
2. All the flux set up by the primary links the secondary windings i.e. all of the flux is
confined to the magnetic core.
3. The core has constant permeability, i.e. the magnetization curve for the core is linear.

A. EMF Equation of A Transformer

Let the voltage V1 applied voltage primary be sinusoidal (or sine wave). Then the current Im and,
therefore, the flux  will flow with the variations of Im . That is, the flux  is in time phase with
the current Im and varies sinusoidal. Let sinusoidal variation of flux  be expressed as
  m Sin t
Where m is maximum of the magnetic flux in Weber and  = 2f is the angular frequency in
rad/sec and f is the supply frequency in Hz.
The emf e1 in volt, induced in the primary of N1 turns by the alternating flux is given by
d
e 1   N1
dt
  N1mCos  t

 N1m sin( t  )
2
 
Its maximum value, E1max occurs when Sin t   is equal to 1.
 2
 E1m  N1m

 
and e  E1m sin t  
1
 2
 The RMS value of the induced emf E1 in the primary winding is
E 2
E1  1m  fN1m
2 2
 2fN1m (2.1)
 4.44 fN1m
Since the primary winding resistance is negligible hence e1, at every instant, must be equal and
opposite of V1. That is,

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 d
v1   e1   N1
dt
or V1   E1
The emf induced in the secondary is
d
e2   N 2   N 2 m cos t
dt

 N 2  s in (  t  )
2

 Em 2 sin (  t  )
2
 Rms value of emf E2 induced in secondary winding is given by

E
E2  2m  2fN 2 m (2.2)
2
 4.44 fN 2 m
B. Voltage Transformation Ratio
From Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), we get
E1 N1
 k (2.3)
E2 N 2
The ratio is known as voltage transformation ratio.
I. If N2 > N1 i.e., K<1, then the transformer is called a step-up transformer.
II. If N2 < N1 i.e., K>1, then the transformer is known as a step-down
transformer.
Again in an ideal transformer
Input VA  Output VA
V1I1  V2 I 2

and
I1 V2 1
 
I 2 V1 k
Hence, the currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio of Eq. (2.3).

E E
Also, the ratio of 1  2  2  f m and this shows that the emf per turn in each of the
N1 N 2
windings is the same.
Example 2.1 A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050 secondary turns. The net
cross-sectional area of the core is 55 cm2. If the primary winding be connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz

5
single phase supply, calculate (i) the maximum value of flux density in the core and (ii) the
voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Solution
Voltage applied to the primary = 400 V
Induced emf in the primary, E1  voltage applied to the primary, V1 = 400 V
Number of turns in the primary N1 = 350
Net cross-sectional area Ai = 55 cm2
= 55 10-4 m2
Frequency of the supply f = 50 Hz
Induced emf in the primary is given by
E1  4.44f m N1  4.44f Bm Ai N1 E1 =
Maximum value of flux density in the core,
400
Bm 
4.44  50  55  10 4  350
 0.93 T ( Wb / m 2 )
Number of turns in the secondary winding, N2 = 1050
For an ideal transformer,
E1 N1

E2 N 2
Voltage induced in the secondary winding,
N2
E 2  E1 
N1
1050
 400 
350
 1200 V

Example 2.2 The required no-load voltage ratio in a single phase 50 Hz, core type transformer
is 6600/500. Find the number of turns in each winding, if the flux is to be 0.06 Wb.
Solution
6000
No-load voltage ratio =
500
No-load voltage of low voltage winding = 500 V
Flux = 0.06 Wb
Frequency f = 50Hz

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Induced emf in the low voltage winding (secondary) of the transformer is given by,
E2  4.44f m N 2
or 500  4.44  50  0.06  N 2
Number ut turns in the low voltage,
500
N2 
4.44  50  0.06
 37.5 ( not possible)
The number of turns in each winding should be a whole number, moreover each winding in the
core type transformer is accommodated on both the limbs. i.e. half number of turns of each
winding on one limb. As such the number of turns in each winding should be even.
Considering these facts , the number of turns in low voltage winding, N2 = 38
Number of turns in high voltage winding
V1 6600
N1 = N 2 × = 38 ×
V2 500
= 501.6 ( not possible)
Considering all the factors mentioned above, the number of turns in the high voltage winding
N1=500. Here the number of turns finally taken is 500 and not 502, because the high voltage
winding will be split up into a number of coils. With 250 turns on each limb, high voltage
winding on one limb can be split into 5 coils of 50 turns each.

2.3.2 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

The equivalent circuit for any electrical engineering devices can be drawn if the equations
describing its behavior are known. If any electrical device is to be analyzed and investigated
further for suitable modifications, its appropriate equivalent circuit is necessary. The equivalent
circuit for electromagnetic devices consists of a combination o1 resistances, inductances,
capacitances, voltages etc. Such an equivalent circuit (or circuit model) can, therefore, be
analyzed and studied easily by the direct application of electric circuit theory.
As stated above equivalent circuit is simply a circuit representation of the equations describing
the performance of the device. In the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6(a) (rl +jx1) and (r2 + jx2) are
the leakage impedances of the primary and secondary windings respectively. The voltage V1' is
treated as a voltage drop in the direction of I1. Recall that the magnitude of V1' does not change
appreciably from no load to full load in large transformers. The magnitude of V1' depends on f
,N1 and m, since V1'  E1 .

The primary current I1 consists of two components. One component I1' is the load component and
counteracts the secondary m.m.f. I2N2 completely. The other component is exciting current Ie
which is composed of Ic and Im. The current Ic is in phase with V1' and product V1' Ic gives core
loss. The resistance Rc parallel with V1' represents the core loss Pc, such that.

7
 V1' 
2
Pc  I c2 R c  V1' I c 
Rc

V1'
And Rc 
Ic

The current Im lags V1' by 90° and this can, therefore , be represented in the equivalent circuit by
a reactance Xm, such that

V1'
Xm 
Im
Rc and Xm are shown in Figure 2.6 (b), which is the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer. The
resistance Rc and reactance Xm are called core-loss resistance and magnetizing reactance,
respectively.
For minor changes in supply voltage and frequency, which is common under normal operation,
Rc and Xm are treated constant.
In Figure 2.6 (a) and (b) , the ideal transformer has been introduced to show the transformation
of voltage and current between primary and secondary windings . Even at this stage the
transformer magnetization curve is assumed linear, since the effect of higher order harmonic
can't be represented in the equivalent circuit.
R1 jX1 jX2 R2
+
+ + +
I1 I2

V1 E1 E2
V2

_ _ _ _

(a) Exciting current neglected

jx2 r2
r1 jx1 I1' N1 N2
+
+ + +
I1 Ie I2
Ic Im

V1 E2
E1 Rc jXm
V2

_ _ _
_
Ideal
transformer

(b) Exact equivalent circuit

8
 jx1 jx'2 r2'
r1 I1' N1 N2
+
+ + +
Ie
I1 N 
I1'  I 2  2 
Ic Im  N1 
N 
V1 E1 N  V2  1  V2
Rc jXm E 2  1   N2 
 N2 

_ _ _
_
Ideal
transformer

(c) Referred to primary

N1 N2 r1' jx1' jx2 r2

+ + N 
I e  1  I2
N   N2 
I1  1 
 N2  I'c I'm
N 
V1  2  N  V2
V1  N1  E1  2  Rc jXm E2
 N1 

_ _
_
Ideal
transformer

(d) referred to secondary

Figure 2.6 Development of the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer
In transformer analysis, it is usual to transfer the secondary quantities to primary side or primary
quantities to secondary side. Secondary resistance drop I2 r2 when transferred to primary side
must be multiplied by the turns ratio N1 /N2.

 Secondary resistance drop, when transferred to primary = I 2r2  1

N
N2

 N N  N 
  I1  1  r2  1  putting I 2  I1  1 
 N2  N2  N2 

 N  2 
 I1  1  r2   I1r2'
 N 2  
 
2
 N 
Where r2'  r2    1 
 N2 

If resistance r2' is placed in the primary circuit, then the relation between voltage V1 and V2 is
unaffected. This resistance r2' is called the secondary resistance referred to primary. Therefore,
the total resistance in the primary circuit is

9
 2
N 
re1  r1  r2   1   r1  r2'
 N2 
Hence re1 is called the transformer equivalent (or total) resistance referred to primary winding.
2
 N 
Similarly the primary resistance referred to secondary is r1    2  and the equivalent ( or total)
 N1 
resistance referred to secondary is
2
 N 
re2  r2  r1    2   r2  r1'
 N1 

Secondary leakage reactance drop I2 x2, when transferred to primary is

 N1   N  2 
I 2 x 2    I1  1  x 2   I1x '2
 N2   N 2  
 

The quantity x '2 is called the secondary leakage reactance referred to primary. Total primary
leakage reactance is
2
N 
x e1  x1  x 2   1   x1  x '2
 N2 
Where xe1, is called the equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to primary. Likewise, the
equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to secondary is
2
N 
xe2  x2  x1   2   x2  x1'
 N1 
The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to primary is
ze1  re1  jxe1

The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to secondary is

ze2  re2  jxe2

Following the above procedure, it can be shown that

2 2
N  N 
z e1   1  z e2 and z e2   2  z e1
 N2   N1 
In general, when values are referred to either circuit the following conditions should be kept in
mind
 The energy condition (i.e. the active and reactive) power should be remain unchanged

10
  The phase angle between voltage and current i.e. power factor, should be remain the
same and
 The referring factor must be the same for all values of the same type.

Approximate Equivalent Circuit: Approximate equivalent circuit is obtained from the exact
equivalent circuit Figure 2.6(e), if the shunt branch (Rc and Xm in parallel) is moved to the
.primary or secondary terminals as shown in Figure 2.8(a) and (b) respectively. It may be seen
from Figure 2.8 (a) that the exciting current Ie does not flow through rl and x1, whereas Ie does
flow through r1 and x1 in the exact equivalent circuit. Thus the primary leakage impedance drop
due to the exciting current, i.e. Ie( r1 +jx1) has been neglected in Figure 2.8 (a), though it is not so
actually.
It may also be seen from Figure 2.8 (b) that Ie flows through r2 and x2, whereas Ie does not flow
through r2 and x2 in the exact equivalent circuit. Thus the secondary leakage impedance drop due
to Ie, i.e. Ie (r2 + jx2) has been included, though Ie (r2 + jx2) is actually zero.
x1+x2=xe r1+r2=re
I1 I2
+ +
Ie

Ic Im
V1 V2
Rc jXm

_ _

(a)
r1+r2=re x1+x2=xe

+ +
Ie I2
I1
Ic Im
V1 V2
Rc jXm

_ _

(b)
r1+r2=re x1+x2=xe x1+x2=xe
+
+ + +
I1=I2 I1=I2

V1 V2 V1 V2

_ _
_ _

(c) (d)

11
Figure 2.8 (a) and (b) Approximate equivalent circuits of a transformer (c) and (d) Simplified forms of the
approximate equivalent circuit.

2.4 OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTS

These two tests on a transformer help to determine
i) The parameters of the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.13
ii) the voltage regulation and
iii) efficiency
The equivalent circuit parameters can also be obtained from the physical dimensions of the
transformer core and its winding details. Complete analysis of the transformer can be carried out,
once its equivalent circuit parameters are known. The power required during these two tests is
equal to the appropriate power loss occurring in the transformer.
2.4.1 Open Circuit (or No-Load) Test
The circuit diagram for performing open circuit test on a single phase transformer is given in
Figure 2.13 (a). In this diagram, a voltmeter, wattmeter and an ammeter are shown connected on
the low voltage side of the transformer. The high voltage side is left open circuited. The rated
frequency voltage applied to the primary, i.e. low voltage side, is varied with the help of a
variable ratio auto-transformer. When the voltmeter reading is equal to the rated voltage of the
L.V. winding, all three instrument readings are recorded.
Auto-
transformer Ie
A + Ie
W Ic Im

V1=E1 R Xm
c

L.V H.V _

(a) (b)
Figure 2.13 (a) Circuit diagram for open-circuit test on a transformer and (b) approximate equivalent circuit at no
load
The-ammeter records the no-load current or exciting current Ie. Since Ie is quite small (2 to 6%)
of rated current), the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible, and for all practical
purposes, the applied voltage V1 is equal to the induced emf E1. Consequently, the equivalent
circuit of Figure 2.6 (e) gets modified to that shown in Figure 2.13( b).
The input power given by the wattmeter reading consists of core loss and ohmic loss. The
exciting current being about 2 to 6 percent of the full load current, the ohmic loss in the
 2 2 
primary(  I e2 r1 ) varies from 0.04 percent    100 to 0.36 percent of the full-load
 100 100 
primary ohmic loss . In view of this fact, the ohmic loss during open circuit test is negligible in
comparison with the normal core loss (approximately proportional to the square of the applied
voltage). Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to transformer core loss.

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V1 = Applied rated voltage on L.V. side,
Ie = exciting current ( or no-load current) and
Pc = core loss
Then Pc  V1I e cos o
Pc
 No load p.f.  cos o 
V1I e
From phase diagram of Figure 2.7, it follows that
I c  I e cos o and I m  I e sin o
P
From Figure 4( b), I c  c
V1
V V1
R CL  1 
I c I e cos o
 Core loss resistant
V12 V2
  11
V1I e cos o Pc o

Also I c2 R CL  Pc
P Pc
 R CL  c 
I c2 I e cos o 2
Magnetizing reactance
V Pc
X mL  1 
I m I e sin o
The subscript L with Rc and Xm is used merely to emphasize that theses values are for the L.V.
side.
It must be kept is mind that the values of Rc and Xm, in general, refer to the side, in which the
instruments are placed (the L.V. side in the present case). A voltmeter is sometimes, used at the
open-circuited secondary terminals, in order to determine the turns ratio.
Thus the open-circuit test gives the following information: (i) core loss at rated voltage and
frequency, (ii) the shunt branch parameters of the equivalent circuit, i.e. Rc and Xm and (iii) turns
ratio of the transformer.

2.4.2 Short-Circuit Test

The low voltage-side of the transformer is short-circuited and the instruments are placed on the
high voltage side, as illustrated in Figure 2.14 (a).

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 Auto-
transformer
A

Short circuit
V

H.V L.V

Figure 2.14 (a) connection diagram for short circuit test on a transformer
r1 x1 x2 r2

Short circuit
Rc Xm

Figure 2.14 (b) Equivalent circuit with short-circuit on the secondary side
r1 x1 x2 r2

Isc

Short circuit
Vsc

Figure 2.14 (c) Transformer equivalent circuit with secondary short-circuited

The applied voltage is adjusted by auto-transformer, to circulate rated current in the high voltage
side. In a transformer, the primary m.m.f. is almost equal to the secondary m.m.f., therefore, a
rated current in the H.V. winding causes rated current to flow in the L.V. winding.
A primary voltage of 2 to 12% of its rated value is sufficient to circulate rated currents in both
primary and secondary windings. From Figure 2.14 (b) , it is clear that the secondary leakage
impedance drop appears across the exciting branch (RC and Xm in parallel). About half (1 to 6%)
of the applied voltage appears across the secondary leakage impedance and, therefore, across the
exciting branch. The core flux induces the voltage across the exciting branch and since the latter
is 1 to 6% of rated voltage, the core flux is also 1 to 6% of its rated value. Hence the core loss,
being approximately proportional to the square of the core flux, is 0.01 percent
 1 1   6 6 
   100 to 0.36 percent     100 of its value at rated voltage. The
 100 100   100 100 
wattmeter, in short circuit test, records the core loss and the ohmic loss in both windings. Since
the core loss has been proved to be almost negligible in comparison with the rated voltage core
loss, the wattmeter can be taken to register only the ohmic losses in both windings.

14
At rated-voltage, the exciting Current is 2 to 6% of full load current. When the voltage across the
exciting branch is 1 to 6% of rated voltage, the exciting current may be 0.02 percent
 2 1   6 6 
   100 to 0.36% percent     100 of its full-load current and can,
 100 100   100 100 
therefore, be safely ignored. As a result of this the equivalent circuit of Figure2.6(e), with the
secondary short-circuited, gets modified to that shown in Figure 2.14 (c)
Let VSC, ISC and PSC be the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings; then from Figure 2.14
(c), equivalent leakage impedance referred to H.V. side,
V
ZeH  SC
ISC
P
equivalent resistance referred to H.V. side, reH  SC and equivalent leakage reactance referred
2
ISC
2 2
to H.V. side, X eH  ZeH  reH
In reH, XeH and ZeH„, the subscript H is used to indicate that these quantities are referred to H.V.
side. These parameters can however, be referred to the L.V. side, if required.
In the analysis of transformer equivalent circuit, the values of equivalent resistance and
equivalent leakage reactance referred to either side are used. However, if the leakage impedance
parameters for both primary and secondary are required separately, then it is usual to take r 1 =
r2=½ re) and x1 = x2=½ xe, referred to the same side.
Thus, the short-circuit test gives the following information: (i) ohmic loss at rated current and
frequency and (ii) the equivalent resistance and equivalent leakage reactance.
Voltage regulation of a transformer can be determined from the data obtained from short-circuit
test. Data of both open-circuit and short-circuit tests is necessary (i) for, obtaining all the
parameters of exact equivalent circuit and (ii) for calculating the transformer efficiency.
How can a wattmeter connected on the H.V. side, record the ohmic in the L.V. winding also?
When rated current is made to flow in the H.V. winding, the 1.v. winding must also carry rated
current, because the transformer action requires I1N1= I2N2. The flow of rated current in the L.V.
winding causes ohmic loss, which must be supplied from somewhere. The only way to provide
L.V. winding loss is from the input to H.V. side. But the entire input power to H.V. side is
recorded by the wattmeter, therefore, the ohmic losses in both windings are given by the
wattmeter reading.
It has already been stated that open-circuit and short-circuit tests should be performed on the
L.V. side and H.V. side respectively only for the sake of convenience. This can he illustrated by
considering a 3300/220V, 33KVA, single-phase transformer.
Example 2.3 A 20 kVA, 2500/250 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer gave the following test
result
Open-circuit test (on L.V. side):250 V, 1.4 A, 105 W.
Short-circuit test (on H.V. side): 104 V, 8 A, 320 watts.

15
 Compute the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to high-voltage and low-
voltage sides. Also draw the exact equivalent circuit referred to the low -voltage side.
Solution
From open-circuit test:
105
No-load power factor, cos 0   0.3
250  1.4
0 = 72.55 and sin 0 =0.954
Ic = Ie cos 0 = 1.40.3 = 0.42 A
and Im = Ie sin 0 = 1.40.954 = 1.336 A

V 250
hence, R cL  1   595
I c 0.42
V 250
X mL  1   187 
I m 1.336
Alternatively, the value of RcL and XmL can be determined as follows:
V 2 2502
R cL  1   595
Pc 105
V 250
Now Ic  1   0.42 A
R cL 595
and I m  I e2  I c2  1.42  0.422  1.336 A
V 250
X mL  1   187 
I m 1.336
From short circuit test:
V 104
ZeH  sc   13
Isc 8
P 320
reH  sc   8
Isc 82
2

2 2
 x eH  ZeH  reH  132  52  12 
Equivalent circuit parameters referred to L.V. side are:
RcL = 595  XmL = 187 

2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
reL  reH     5   0.05  ; x eL  x eH     12   0.12 
k  10  k  10 
This equivalent circuit is shown in Figure below (a)

16
 x eL  0.12  reL  0.05 
0.025  0.06  0.06  0.025 

Ie Ie

R cL  595 X cL  187  595 187 

(a) (b)
Figure (a) approximate equivalent circuit referred to L.V. side and exact equivalent circuit referred to L.V. side.
Equivalent circuit parameters referred to H.V. side are:

R cH  R cL  k 2  595102  59,500

X mH  X mL  k 2  187102  18,700 
reH = 5 ; xeH = 12
An equivalent circuit showing these parameters can easily be drawn.
Exact equivalent circuit parameters referred to L.V. side are:
1 1
r1L  r1' H  reL  0.05  0.025
2 2
1 1
x1L  x1' H  x eL  0.12  0.06 
2 2
RcL = 595  and XmL = 187 
The exact equivalent circuit is shown in Figure (b)

2.5 TRANSFORMER REGULATION, LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

2.5.1 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Constant voltage is the characteristics of most domestic, commercial and industrial loads. It is
therefore, necessary that the output voltage of a transformer must remain within narrow limits as
the load and its power factor vary. This requirement is more stringent in distribution transformers
as these directly feed the load centers. The voltage drop in a transformer on load is chiefly
determined by its leakage reactance which must be kept as low as design and manufacturing
techniques would permit.
The voltage regulation is defined as voltage in secondary terminal voltage, expressed as a
percentage (per unit) of secondary rated voltage i.e.
E2  V2
Voltage regulation in p.u
sec ondary rated voltage

17
where E2 = Secondary terminal voltage at no load
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at any load
It is stipulated that the secondary rated voltage of a transformer is equal to the secondary
terminal voltage at no load, i.e. E2.
E  V2 E  V2
 Voltage regulation 2 in p.u  2  100 in percentage
E2 E2
At no-load, the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible, therefore, the secondary
N
no-load voltage E2  V1 2 . The expression for voltage regulation can also be written as
N1
N2 N
V1  V2 V1  V2 1
N1 N2
 100 in percentage   100 in percentage
N2 V1
V1
N1
Here V1 is the primary applied voltage.
The change in secondary terminal voltage with load current is due to the primary and secondary
leakage impedances of the transformer. The magnitude of this change depends on the load power
factor, load current, total resistance and leakage reactance of a transformer.
A distribution transformer should have a small value of voltage regulation (i.e. good voltage
regulation) so that the terminal voltage at the consumers does not vary widely as the load
changes. For a transformer of large voltage regulation (i.e. poor voltage regulation), the voltage
at the consumers' terminals will fall appreciably with increase in load. This has a detrimental
effect on the operation of fluorescent tubes, T.V. sets, refrigeration motors, etc since these are
designed to operate satisfactorily at a constant voltage. Thus distribution transformer should be
designed to have a low value of leakage impedances.

2.6 PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

When electric power is supplied to a locality a single transformer, capable of handling the
required power demand is installed. In some cases, it may be preferable to install two or more
transformers in parallel, instead of one large unit. Though two or more transformers may be
expensive than one large unit, yet this scheme posses certain advantages described below.

1. With two or more transformers, power system becomes more reliable. For instance if one
transformer develops a fault, it can be removed and the other transformers can maintain
the flow of power, though at reduced load.

2. Transformers can be switched on or off, depending upon the power demand. In this
manner, the transformer losses decrease and the system becomes more economical and
efficient in operation.

18
 3. The cost of standby (or spare) unit is much less when two or more transformers are
installed.

In any case, in the long run, electric power demand may become more than rated KVA capacity
of already existing transformer or transformers. Under such circumstances, the need for extra
transformer arises; the extra unit must be connected in parallel.

Note that the parallel operation of transformers requires that their primary windings , as well as
secondary windings are connected in parallel . In this section only the parallel operation of
single-phase transformers is considered.

The various conditions which must be fulfilled for the satisfactory parallel operation of two or
more single-phase transformers are as follows:

a. The transformer must have the same voltage ratios, i.e with the primaries connected to
the same voltage sources; the secondary voltage of all transformers should be equal in
magnitude.

b. The equivalent leakage impedance in ohms must be inversely proportional to their

respective KVA ratings. In other words, per unit (pu) leakage impedance of transformers
based on their KVA rating must be equal.

c. The transformer must be connected properly as far as their polarities are concerned.

Out of the conditions listed above, condition (c) must be strictly fulfilled. If the secondary
terminals are connected with wrong polarities, large circulating currents will flow and the
transformers may get damaged.

A1 A2 A1 A2

A B
+ - + -
a1 a2 a1 a2
V

Figure 2.18 Two single-phase transformers in parallel

Figure 2.18 shows single-phase transformers in parallel, connected to some voltage source on the
primary side. Zero voltmeter reading indicates proper polarities. If the voltmeter reads the sum of
two secondary voltages, the polarities are improper and can be corrected by reversing the
secondary terminals of any one of the transformers.

19
2.7 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy is invariably done through the use of
three-phase systems because of its several advantages over single-phase systems. As such, a
large number of three-phase transformers are inducted in a 3-phase energy system for stepping-
up or stepping – down the voltage as required. For 3-phase up or down transformation, three
units of 1-phase transformers or one unit of 3-phase transformer may be used. When three
identical units of 1-phase transformers are used as shown in Figure 2.19(a), the arrangement is
usually called a bank of three transformers or a 3-phase transformer bank. A single 3-phase
transformer unit may employ 3–phase core-type construction Figure 2.20(b) or three phase shell
type construction.
Input

A B C

P S P S P S
P P P

I II III

S S S
a b c

Output

(a) (b)

Figure 2.19 (a)Three-phase transformer bank, both windings in star;(b) three-phase core-
type transformer
A single-unit 3-phase core-type transformer uses a three-limbed core, one limb for each phase
winding as shown in Figure 2.19(b). Actually, each limb has the L.V. winding placed adjacent to
the laminated steel core and then H.V. winding is placed over the 1.v. winding. Appropriate
insulation is placed in between the core and 1.v. winding and also in between the two windings.
A 3-phase core-type transformer costs about 15% less than a bank of three 1-phase transformers.
Also, a single unit occupies less floor space than a bank.
2.7.1 Three-Phase Transformer Connections
Three-phase transformers may have the following four standard connections
(a) Star-Delta ( Y-) (b) Delta-Star (-Y)
(c) Delta-Delta (-) (d) Star-Star (Y-Y)
These connections are shown in Figures 2.20 and 2.21, where V and I are taken as input line
voltage and line current respectively. Primary and secondary windings of one phase are drawn
parallel to each other. With phase turns ratio from primary to secondary as
N1/N2= a, the voltages and current in the windings and lines are shown in Figures 2.21 and 2.22.
The various connections are now described briefly.

20
 (a) Star-delta (Y-) Connection This connection is commonly used for stepping down the
voltage from a high level to a medium or low level. The insulation on the h.v. side of the
transformer is stressed only to 57.74%   
1
x 100 of line to line voltage
 3 
For per-phase m.m.f. balance, I2N2 =I1N1
Here primary phase current, I1 = primary line current I
N1
Secondary phase current , I 2  I  aI
N2 1
Secondary line current  3 I 2  3 . aI
Also, voltage per turn on primary = voltage per turn on secondary
V 1 V2
.
3 N1 N 2

N2 V V
Secondary phase voltage, V2  . 
N1 3 a. 3
V
Secondary line voltage = secondary phase voltage =
a. 3

V V
Input VA = 3 . I = output VA = 3. . aI  3 VI
3 a. 3
Phase and line values for voltages and currents on both primary and secondary sides of star-delta
transformer are shown in Figure 2.20(a)

I 3aI aI
V I 3
V I
3 3a V
V aI aI
I 3 a 3V
V
3 a

(a)
(b)

Figure 2.20 (a) Star-delta connection and (b) delta-star connection of 3-phase transformers

(b) Delta-Star (-Y) connection:- This type of connection is used for stepping up the
voltage to a high level. For example, these are used in the beginning of h.v. transmission lines so
that insulation is stressed to about 57.74% of line voltage
Delta-star transformers are also generally used as distribution transformers for providing mixed
line to line voltage to high-power equipment and line to neutral voltage to 1-phase low-power
equipment. For example, 11kV/400V, delta-star distribution transformer is used to distribute
power to consumers by 3-phase four-wire system. Three-phase high–power equipment is

21
 connected to 400V, three line wires, whereas 1-phase low-power equipment is energized from
231 V line to neutral circuits.
For per  phase m.m.f . balance , I 2 N 2  I1 N1
1
Here primary phase current , I1  ( primary line current I )
3
N 1
Secondary phase current, I 2  1 I1  a
N2 3
V2 V1
Also 
N 2 N1
N V
Secondary phase voltage, V2  2 .V1 
N a
1
V
 Secondary line voltage  3.
a
I V I
Input VA  3. V .  3 VI  Output VA  3. . a  3 VI
3 a 3
Phase and line values for voltages and currents on primary as well as secondary sides of a 3-
phase delta-star transformer are shown in Figure 2.21(b).
(c) Delta-Delta (-) Connection
This scheme of connections is used for large 1.v transformers. It is because a delta-connected
winding handles line voltage, so it requires more turns per phase but of smaller cross-sectional
area. The absence of star point may be a disadvantage in some applications.
In case a bank of three transformers is used, then one transformer can be removed for
maintenance purposes while the remaining two transformers (called an open-delta or V-
connection) can still deliver 58% of the power delivered by the original 3-phase transformer
bank.
For per phase mmf balance, I2N2 = I1N1:
1
primary phase current, I1  ( primary line current I)
3
N aI
Secondary phase current, I 2  1 I1 
N2 3
 aI 
Secondary line current,  3   aI
 
 3

22
 V2 V
Also  1 
N2 N1
N V
Secondary phase voltage , V2  2 V1  ( Here V1  V)
N1 a
V
Secondary line voltage  V2 
a
I V aI
Input VA  3V .  output VA  3. ,  3 VI
3 a 3
Phase and line value for voltages and currents on both primary and secondary sides of a 3-phase
delta-delta transformer are shown in Figure 2.22 (a).

I kI kI

V V I V
k 3 kI V
I kI V 3k
V k
3 3

(a) (b)

Figure 2.21(a) Delta-delta connection and (b) Star-star connection of three-phase transformers.
(d) Star-Star (Y-Y) Connection
This connection is used for small h.v transformers . As stated before, with star connection, turns
per phase are minimum and the winding insulation is stressed to 57.74% of line voltage. Star-
star connection is rarely used in practice because of oscillatory neutral problems.

For per  phase m.m.f .balance ,

I 2 N 2  I1 N1
Pr imary Phase Current, I1  primary line current, I
N
Secondary phase current, I 2  1 I1  aI
N2
 Secondary line current
N V
sec ondary phase voltage , V2  2 V1 
N1 3a
V V
Secondary line voltage  3 V2  3 . 
3. a a
V V
Input VA  3 . I  output VA  3. . aI  3 VI
3 3. a
Phase and line values of voltages and currents on both sides of a star-star transformer are shown
in Figure 2.22(b)

23
 Example 2.8 A 3-phase transformer is used to step-down the voltage of a 3-phase, 11kV feeder
line. Per-phase turns ratio is 12. For a primary line current of 20A, calculate the secondary line
voltage, line current and output KVA for the following Connections:
(a) star-delta (b) delta-star (c) delta-delta (d) star-star. Neglect losses.
Solution
(a) Three-phase transformer with star-delta connection is shown in Figure 2.23(a)
V 11000
phase voltage on primary, VP1  L1  V
3 3
phase current on primary, I P1  I L1  20A
VP1 VP2
Here,  and I p1  12  I p2  1
12 1
11000
 Phase voltage on sec ondary, Vp2   529.25V
3 x 12
Line voltage on sec ondary , VL2  Vp2  529.25V
Phase current on sec ondary I p2  12 I p1  12  20  240A
Line current on sec ondary I L2  3 I p2  3  240  415.68A
3Vp2 .I p2 11000 1
Output KVA   3.  240 x  381.04KVA
1000 3 x 12 1000

(b) Delta-star connection of 3-phase transformer is shown in Figure 2.23 (b)

V p1 VL1 11000
Phase voltage on sec ondary VP 2    V  916.67V
12 12 12
11000
Line voltage on sec ondary VL 2  3 V p 2  3   1587.67V
12
20
Phase current on primary I p1  I L1 / 3  A
3
20
Phase current on sec ondary I p1  12 I p1  12   138.568A
3
Line current on sec ondary, I L 2  I p 2  138.568A
11000 12 x 20
Output KVA  3    381.04KVA.
12 1000 x 3
(c) Delta-delta connection of 3-phase transformer is shown in Figure 2.23(c)

24
 VL1 11000 Vp1
Phase voltage on sec ondary, VP2   V  916.7V 
12 12 12
Line voltage on sec ondary, VL2  VP2  916.7V
20
Phase current on primary, I P1  A
3
20
Phase current on sec ondary, I P2  12 I P1  12  A
3
12  20
Line current on sec ondary, I L2  3 I P2  3 .  240A
3
11000 12x 20 1
Output KVA  3     381.04KVA .
12 3 1000

I L1  20A I L2
12:1 I L1  20A
12:1
VP1 I P1 VP 2  VL2
VP 2
VL1  11000 V I P2 I P1
I P2
VL 2
VL1  11000 V

(a) (b)

I L1  20A I L2  3I P 2 I L2
12:1 12:1
VP1 I P1
VP 2  VL 2 VL1  11000 V I P2
VP 2
VL 2  3VP 2
VP1  11000 V I P2
I P1

(d)
(c)

Figure 2.22 for Example 2.8

(d) 3-phase transformer with star-star connection is shown in Figure 2.23(d)
V 11000
Phase voltage on sec ondary , VP2  P1  V
12 3 x 12
11000 11000
Line voltage on sec ondary, VL2  3 VP2  3  V
3 x 12 12
Phase current on Pr imary, I P1  I L1  20A
Phase current on sec ondary, , I P2  12 I P1  12  20  240A
Line current on Secondary, I L2  I P2  240A
3  11000 240
Output KVA    381.04KVA
3  12 1000

Example 2.9 An 11000/415V, delta-star transformer feeds power to a 30 kW, 415V, 3-phase
induction motor having an efficiency of 90% and full-load pf 0.833. Calculate the transformer
rating and phase and line currents on both high and low voltage sides.

25
 30
Transformer kVA rating   40KVA
0.9 x 0.833
Total load in VA 40,000
Solution Line current on l.v. side of transformer    55.65A
3 x line voltage 3 x 415
.
For star connected 1.v. winding, phase current in 1.v. winding = line current on 1.v side =
55.65A.
40,000
Line current on HV, side of transformer =  2.1A
3 x 11000
For delta connected HV winding, phase current in HV winding:
1 1
= (line current on h.v. side) = x 2.1 = 1.212A
3 3

26