MEKELLE UNIVERSITY

ETHIOPIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY-MEKELLE

ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO MACHNERY PRINCIPLE
Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical device used today in industry,
research, or the home. Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, televisions, computers,
tape recorders, and telephones all employ magnetic effects to perform a variety of important
tasks.
All electromagnetic devices make use of magnetic fields in their operation. These magnetic
fields may be produced by permanent magnets or electromagnets. Magnetic fields are created by
alternating- and direct-current sources to provide the necessary medium for developing generator
action and motor action. Throughout this book we will be studying the application of magnetic
fields to electromechanical energy conversion processes as demonstrated in rotating electric ma-
chinery. Also, transformers provide energy transfer from one electric circuit to another via the
changing magnetic field. It will become apparent that there is both transfer and storage of energy
in the magnetic fields of the various electromagnetic devices. Hence all electromagnetic devices
are constructed with appropriate magnetic circuits.
1.1. ELECTROMAGNETIC RELATIONSHIPS
A. Magnetic Lines of Force
The "quantity of magnetism" which exists in a magnetic field is the magnetic line of force, or
more simply, the magnetic flux. In the SI system magnetic flux is measured in units called
webers, abbreviated Wb, and its symbol is  ( (the Greek lowercase letter phi). The weber is
defined in terms of an induced voltage, so that the definition of the unit will be postponed until
we study electromagnetic induction. Although there is no actual flow of magnetic flux, we will
consider flux to be analogous to current in electric circuits.
B. Magnetic Flux Density
The total magnetic flux that comes out of the magnet is not uniformly distributed, as can be seen
in Figure 1.2. A more useful measure of the magnetic effect is the magnetic flux density, which
is the magnetic flux per unit cross-sectional area. We will consider two equal areas through
which the magnetic flux penetrates at right angles near one end of the permanent magnet along
its centerline. From the illustration it becomes apparent that there is a greater amount of magnetic
flux passing through an area that is nearer the magnet pole. In other words, the magnetic flux
density increases as we approach closer to the end of the magnet. However, it must be noted that
the magnetic flux density inside the magnet is uniformly constant. Magnetic flux density is
measured in units of tesla (T) and is given the symbol B. One tesla is equal to 1 weber of
magnetic flux per square meter of [Link] can state that

B 1.1
A

1
 where B = magnetic flux density, T
 = magnetic flux, Wb
A = area through which  penetrates perpendirularly, m2
Example 1.1 The total magnetic flux out of a cylindrical permanent magnet is found to be
0.032 mWb. If the magnet has a circular cross section and a diameter of 1 cm, what is the
magnetic flux density at the end of the magnet?
Solution
The total flux = 0.032 x 10-3 Wb, cross-sectional area of magnet:

D2 (0.01) 2
A   78.53  10 6 m 2
4 4
 0.032  103
B   0.407T
A 78.53  10 6
Note that this magnetic flux density exists only at the immediate end of the magnet. As we move
away from the end of the magnet, the magnetic flux spreads out, and therefore the magnet flux
density decreases.
C. Magnetomotive Force
We have seen that an increase in the magnitude of current in a coil or a single conductor results
in an increase in the magnetic flux. If the number of turns in a coil are increased (with the current
remaining constant), there is an increase in magnetic flux. Therefore, the magnetic flux is
proportional to the products of amperes and turns. This ability of a coil to produce magnetic flux
is called the magnetomotive force. Magnetomotive force is abbreviated MMF and has the units
of ampere-turns (At). The magnetomotive force is given the symbol Fm. Strictly speaking, the
units of MMF are amperes because turns are dimensionless quantities. However, from a
pedagogical standpoint, we prefer and shall use throughout this book the units of ampere-turns
(At) for MMF. We may write
Fm  NI 1.2
where Fm = magnetomotive force (MMF), At
N = number of turns of coil
I = excitation current in coil, A
Magnetomotive force in the magnetic circuit is analogous to electromotive force in an electric
circuit.
Example 1.2 The coil in Figure 1.7 has 1000 turns wound on a cardboard toroid. The mean (or
average) diameter D of the toroid is 10 cm, and the cross section is 1 cm. The total magnetic flux
in the toroid is 3Wb when there is an excitation current of 10 mA in the coil.
(a) What is the magnetic flux when the current is increased to 20 mA?
(b) What is the magnetic flux density within the coil when the current is 20 mA?

2
Solution
(a) If we double the current to 20 mA. then

Fm  NI  1000 20  103  20At

and  must double to 6 Wb.
(b) For a toroid. the magnetic flux is assumed to be uniform across the interior cross-
sectional area of the coil. From Eq. (1.1),
 6  106
B   76 mT
A (  / 4)(1  10 2 )2

Figure 1.7 Toroid coil.

D. Magnetic Reluctance
In Example 1.2 we have seen that doubling the driving force (MMF) in the circuit results in a
doubling of the output quantity (magnetic flux). We consider this ratio of MMF to magnetic flux:
Fm
 m 1.3

where Fm  NI , the MMF, At
 = magnetic flux, Wb
m= reluctance of the magnetic circuit. At/Wb
Transposing, we have
Fm  m
which shows us that the magnetic flux is directlv proportional m the magnetomotive force. This
equation represents Ohm's law of magnetic circuits. The proportionality factor m, is called the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit and is obviouslv, analogous to resistance in an electric circuit.
Assuming that a coil has fixed turns and a constant excitation current, the amount of magnetic
flux produced will depend on the material used in the core of the coil. A much larger amount of
flux can be produced in an iron-core coil than in an air-core coil. Thus we see that the reluctance
of the magnetic circuit depends on the material properties of the magnetic circuit. For our

3
purposes, the materials are classified as either magnetic or nonmagnetic. Only the ferrous
(irons and steels) group of metals, including cobalt and nickel, are magnetic materials. All other
materials, such as air, insulators, wood, paper, plastic, brass, and bronze, including vacuum, are
nonmagnetic materials. The strength and pattern of the magnetic field in nonmagnetic
materials would be identical to that of air or vacuum (free space). In our discussions we will
assume that the magnetic properties of air and vacuum are the same. We consider some of the
peculiar characteristics of magnetic materials in subsequent sections.
The reluctance of a homogeneous magnetic circuit may be expressed in terms of its physical
dimensions and magnetic property as follows:
l
m  1.4
μA
where m = reluctance of the magnetic circuit, At/Wb
l = average or mean length of the magnetic path, m
A = cross-sectional area of the magnetic path, m2
 = 0r , absolute (or total) permeability of the magnetic path, H/m
Reluctance is in essence magnetic resistance, that is, the property of a magnetic circuit which is
reluctant or unwilling to set up magnetic flux. The reciprocal of reluctance is termed as
permeance, which is anologous to conductance in electric circuits.
E. Permeability
Permeability is the magnetic property that determines the characteristics of magnetic materials
and nonmagnetic materials. The permeability of free space and nonmagnetic materials has the
following symbol and constant value in SI units:
0  4 107 H / m
As we can see, the reluctance of magnetic materials r is much lower than that of air or
nonmagnetic materials 0 . From the inverse relationship of reluctance and permeability, we
determine that the total permeability of magnetic materials is much greater than that of air.
However, the value of permeability varies with the degree of magnetization of the magnetic
material and, of course, the type of material. Since the permeability of magnetic materials r is
variable, we must employ magnetic saturation (B-H) curves to perform magnetic circuit
calculations. Permeability in magnetic circuits is somewhat analogous to conductivity in electric
circuits.
Example 1.3 In Figure 1.7 we assume that the magnetic flux is practically uniform in the cross-
sectional area of the toroid. The mean path length is 0.314 m and the cross-sectional area through
which the flux exists is 78.5 x 10-6 m2. Calculate the number of ampere-turns required to set up
magnetic flux of 1 Wb.
Solution
The reluctance of the homogeneous magnetic circuit is
l 0.314
m    3.18  109 At / Wb
μA 4  10 7  78.5  106

4
 F = m = 3.18  109 1.0 = 3.18 109 At
This is obviously a very large number and we may conclude that the path reluctance is very high.
This means that it is comparatively difficult to establish a large magnetic flux in air. For
this reason, when we need high flux densities, it becomes necessary to use materials having high
values of permeability (such as iron or steel) for large portions of the magnetic paths.
F. Magnetic Field Intensity
One other important magnetic quantity is the magnetomotive force gradient per unit length of
magnetic circuit, or more commonly, the magnetic field intensity. Its symbol is H and from the
definition,
F
H= m 1.5
l
the unit is ampere-turns per meter (At/m). The former name for magnetic field intensity was
magnetizing force. We have seen that more ampere-turns (MMF) are required to set up the same
magnetic flux in magnetic circuits of air than in iron of similar configuration. Hence the
magnetic field intensity for the air path is much larger than for the iron path. In the toroid of
Figure 1.7, a magnetomotive force of 10 At acts along the mean path of 0.314 m. The magnetic
field intensity is
NI 10
H= = = 31.8At / m
l 0.314
Equation (1.5) transposed, Hl = NI is one form of Ampere's circuital law applied to a simple
magnetic circuit. Magnetic field intensity in maonetic circuits is analogous to potential or voltage
gradient in electric circuits.
We can derive a useful relationship for magnetic circuits by summarizing the equations
developed so far.

B
A
Fm  NI
Fm

m
l
m 
μA
Fm
H=
l
Thus
 F HlA
B  m   H
A m A lA
or B  H 1.6

5
 Equation (1.6) shows that the magnetic flux density is directly dependent on both permeability
and magnetic field intensity. Only in air or free space is the permeability (0) constant, and thus a
linear relationship between B and H exists. In the next section we consider ferromagnetic
materials in which the absolute permeability is not a constant but depends on the degree of
magnetization.
1.2. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND CALCULATIONS

1.2.1 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

A toroid of homogeneous magnetic material, such as iron or steel, is wound with a fixed number
of turns of insulated wire as shown in Figure 1.7. The magnetic flux () and the excitation
current (I) are related by Eq. (1.6):

B  H 
A
Thus
 NI

A l
where the constant is NI / l . At the outset, the sample of ferromagnetic material in the toroid was
totally demagnetized. In experimental measurements, the excitation current is varied and the
corresponding values of magnetic flux recorded. Then the calculated values of B and H are
plotted on linear scales as illustrated in Figure 1.8.
A. Magnetization (B-H) Curve
Typical magnetization or B-H curves for sheet steel, cast steel, and cast iron are plotted in Figure
1.8. The nonlinear relationship between magnetic flux density B (teslas) and magnetic field
intensity H (ampere-turns per meter) is illustrated. It is observed that the magnetic flux density
increases almost linearly with an increase in the magnetic field intensity up to the knee of the
magnetization curve. Beyond the knee, a continued increase in the magnetic field intensity
results in a relatively small increase in the magnetic flux density. When ferromagnetic materials
experience only a slight increase in magnetic flux density for a relatively large increase in
magnetic field intensity, the materials are said to be saturated. Magnetic saturation occurs
beyond the knee of the magnetization curve.

6
 Figure 1.8 Typical Magnitizations curves.

B. Relative Permeability
Transposition of Eq. (1.6) gives the absolute permeability as the ratio of the magnetic flux
density to the corresponding magnetic field intensity:
B

H
If we wish to compare the permeability of magnetic materials with that of air, we may use the
relative permeability r, which is defined by the equation

r 
0
Where  = absolute permeability of the material. H/m
0 = 410-7H/m = permeability of free space
r = relative permeability
From the typical magnetization curves of Figure 1.8, we can calculate the value of absolute and
relative permeabilities for any magnetic operating condition. When we do this we observe that
the value of relative permeability is not a constant but obtains a maximum value at about the
knee of the B-H curve.
Example 1.4 Calculate the absolute and relative permeabilities of cast steel operating at
magnetic flux densities of 0.7 T and 1.0 T.
Solution

7
From the saturation curve for cast steel, the values of H are 400 At/m and 800 At/m.
respectively. The absolute permeabilities are:
For 0.7 T:
B 0.7
   1.75  10 3 H / m or T / At / m
H 400
For 1.0 T:
B 1 .0
   1.25  10 3 H / m
H 800
The relative permeabilities are
For 0.7 T:
 1.75  103
r    1392.61
0 4  10 7
For 1.0 T:
 1.25  103
r    994.72
0 4  10 7
Thus we see that cast steel has at least 1000 times more ability to set up magnetic
flux lines than do nonmagnetic materials.

C. Series and Parallel Magnet Circuits

By definition, a series magnetic circuit contains magnetic flux, which is common throughout the
series magnetic elements. These series magnetic elements may consist of composite sectors of
ferromagnetic materials of different lengths and cross-sectional areas, and of air gaps. The
simplest series magnetic circuit would be of a toroid of homogeneous material and the steel core
of a transformer. More complex series circuits which contain air gaps are illustrated in Figure
1.6.
Parallel magnetic circuits are defined by the number of paths that the magnetic flux may follow.
Any of these paths or branches may consist of composite sectors of magnetic materials,
including air gaps. A detailed calculation for a typical parallel magnet circuit is demonstrated in
Section 1.5.
 Electric Circuit Analogs
In our discussion so far, we note the following analogous relationships between magnetic
quantities and electric quantities:
Electric circuit Magnetic circuit

8
 E (volts) Fm (NI ampere-turns)
I (amperes)  (webers)
R (ohms) m (ampere-turns/weber)
1  (henries/meter)
  (conductvity)

We can draw useful electrical analogs for the solution of magnetic circuit problems. In an
electrical circuit the driving force is the voltage, the output is the current, and the opposition to
establishing current is the resistance. In the same way, the driving force in the magnetic circuit is
the magnetomotive force, the output is the magnetic flux, and opposition to establishing the flux
is the reluctance.
Thus we have for the magnetic circuit of Figure 1.9a the analogous electric circuit and the
analogous magnetic circuit in Figure 1.9b and c, respectively. The iron and air portions of the
magnetic circuit are analogous to the two series resistors of the electric circuit. Analogous to the
electric circuit, the magnetomotive force must overcome the magnetic potential drops of the two
series reluctances in accordance with Kirchhoff's voltage law applied to magnetic circuits.

Therefore,
Fm  miron   mag  1.8
is the equivalent magnetic-potential-drop equation. Since the permeability of ferromagnetic
materials (iron) is a variable depending on the state of magnetization, we must use the B-H
curves to obtain the magnetic field intensity if the magnetic flux density is available. Hence we
can calculate the MMF drop for the iron from Eq. (1.5) as follows:
Fmiron  H iron l iron At 1.9
Finally, the general MMF-drop equation for series magnetic circuits is modified for calculation
purposes to the following form:
l ag 
Fm  H iron l iron  1.10
 0 A ag

(a)

9
 I Rl

+ Rag
E
-

(b)
1

+
NI ag
-

(c)
Figure 1.9 Iron-core toroid with air gap: (a) Magnetic circuit; (b) analogous electric circuit; (c) analogous
magnetic circuit.
Given the physical parameters of the series magnetic circuit and the value of magnetic flux or
magnetic flux density, the required magnetomotive force can be calculated in a straightforward
manner using Eq. (1.10).
The general principles of electric circuits embodied in Ohm's and Kirchhotf's laws are applied as
analogous equivalents to parallel magnetic circuits. With the presence of air gaps, most complex
magnetic circuits are solved using the seriesparallel equivalent [Link] analogous equivalents,
Kirchhoff's current law for magnetic circuits states that the sum of magnetic fluxes entering a
junction or node is equal to the sum of magnetic fluxes leaving the junction or node. Needless to
a say, magnetic flux must not be perceived as flowing.
 Fringing and Leakage Flux
In a series magnetic circuit containing an air gap, there is a tendency for the airgap flux to spread
out (i.e., to create a bulge) as shown in Figure 1.10. This spreading effect, termed fringing,
reduces the net flux density in the air gap.
Fringing
flux

Useful
flux

Figure 1.10 Fringing flux

Leakage flux is that flux in a magnetic circuit which is not useful or effective. Since a large
amount of leakage flux requires a greater magnetomotive force, the designer of electromagnetic
devices must minimize this ineffective flux.
1.2.2 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
We have seen that magnetic circuits may be represented by electric circuit analogs. Thus the
methods of solution for series and parallel electric circuits may be applied to magnetic circuit

10
problems. Typically, we will be required to calculate the magnetomotive force, flux, or
permeability for some given conditions. The major difference between the two types of circuits
is the nonlinear characteristics of ferrous magnetic materials. Thus it is necessary to make use of
B-H curves and graphical methods.
A. Calculation of Ampere Turns
Ampere turns for various parts of the magnetic circuit will be calculated separately. To calculate
the ampere turns for a particular part, the following procedure is followed in general:
1. The reluctance of the part is calculated using Eq. (1.4) as the case may be.
2. The magnetic flux  established in that part is calculated using Eq. (1.3).
3. Cross-sectional area of the part is calculated from the given dimensions.
4. Magnetic flux density is found by dividing the flux by the cross-sectional area, i.e.

B
A
5. Ampere turns per meter of the magnetic flux path length in that part at the flux density
calculated above is found by using the magnetization curve for the magnetic material of
that part.
6. Length of the magnetic flux path in that part is estimated from the given dimensions.
7. Total ampere turns for the part are obtained by multiplying ampere turns per meter by the
length of the flux path.
8. General procedure is now applied to various parts of the magnetic circuit.
9. Total ampere turns for the complete magnetic circuit can now be found by adding
algebraically the ampere turns needed by the various parts of the magnetic circuit.
B. Calculation of Ampere Turns for the Air Gap
Total ampere turns for the air gap is given by,
Fag =  (Flux)  ag (reluctance)
lg
Reluctance for air gap, ag (for which r=1) 
0  Ag

lg
Thus Fag   
0  A g
 lg
 
Ag 0
1
  Bg l g
0
1
  Bg l g (1.11)
4  10 7
Hence to calculate the ampere turns for the air gap, the following general procedure may be
followed:

11
 1. calculate the magnetic flux in the air gap,
2. calculate the gap area from the given data.

3. calculate gap density, Bg  , and
Ag
using Eq. (1.11), calculate the ampere turns needed for the air gap.

C. Series Magnetic Circuits

Example 1.5 Illustrates the method of solution for a simple one-material series circuit.
The circuit of Figure 1.11 is a magnetic core made of cast steel. A coil of N turns is wound on it.
For a flux of 560 Wb, calculate the necessary current, neglecting any fringing [Link] cross-
sectional area A is constant.
Solution
N = 550 turns
l1 = 20 cm = 20 10-2 m
l2 = 12 cm = 12 10-2 m
A = 4 cm2 = 4 10-4 m2
 =560 10-6 Wb

560  106
B  140  10 2  1.4T
4
4  10
For B = 1.4 T, H = 2200 At/m (from the B-H curve of Figure 1.7). The average or mean length
of the magnetic path is 20 + 12 + 20 + 12 cm = 64 = 0.64 m. Therefore,
Hl=NI=20000.64 At
2200 0.64
I  2.56 A
550

Figure 1.11 Magnetic circuit for Example 1.5

12
Example 1.6 The magnetic frame shown in Figure 1.12 is built up of iron of square cross-
section, 3 cm side. Each air gap is 2 mm wide. Each of the coils is wound with 1000 turns and the
exciting current is 1.0 A. The relative permeability of part A and part B may be taken as 1000
and 1200 respectively. Calculate the following: (i) reluctance of part A, (ii) reluctance of part B,-
(iii) reluctance of two air gaps, (iv) total reluctance of the complete magnetic circuit, (v) the
mmf, (vi) total flux, and (vii) flux density. Leakage and fringing may be neglected.
17 cm PART A


I 2 mm

N N
10 cm

PART B

20 cm

Figure 1.12 magnetic circuit of example

Solution
Figure 1.12 shows the given magnetic frame consisting of two iron parts A and B separated by
two air gaps of 2 mm each. Dotted line shows the mean magnetic circuit set up in this frame,
when the coils wound over it carries current. The magnetic circuit consists of four portions
connected in aeries, i.e. (i) magnetic flux path in part B, (ii) magnetic flux path in air gap, (iii)
magnetic flux path in part A and (iv) flux path in air gap. Hence the total reluctance of this
magnetic circuit will be equal to the sum of the reluctances of these four parts calculated
separately.
i) Reluctance offered by a magnetic path is given by,
lg

0  r A
lA
Reluctance for part A, A 
0  r A
Cross-sectional area of part A, whose cross-section is a square with 3 cm side, AA = 3  3 = 9
cm2 = 9  10-4 m2.
Length of mean path of flux in part A, lA = 17 + (1.5+1.5) = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Permeability,  0  4  107
Relative permeability r for part A = 1000
Thus reluctance of part A,
0.2
A 
4  10  1000 9  10 4
7

 17.6839 104 At / Wb

13
 lB
ii) Reluctance of part B, B 
0  r A B
Cross-sectional area of part B, AB = 9  10-4 m2 .
Relative permeability r , of part B = 1200
Length of mean path of flux in part B, lB = 17 + 8.5 + 8.5 = 34 cm = 0.34 m
Thus reluctance of part B,
0.34
B 
4  10  1200  9  10 4
7

 25.04  104 At / Wb
lg
iii) Reluctance of air gaps, ag 
0 A
Length of mean path of flux in the two air gaps, lg = 2 + 2 = 4 mm = 0.004 m.
0.004
ag 
Hence reluctance of two air gaps, 4  10 7  9  10 4
 353.5  104 At / Wb
iv) Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit,
  A   B  ag
 15.03  25.04  353.5  104
 393.57  104 At / Wb

v) The magneto motive force produced by two coils on iron part B, each having 1000 turns
and carrying a current of 1 A
= (2  1000)  1 (mmf = NI)
= 2000 At.
vi) As per Ohm's law for magnetic circuits, mmf = Flux  Reluctance
NI


2000

393.57  10 4
 5.08  10 4 Wb
vii) Flux density,

B
A
5.08  10 4
  0.564 Wb / m 2 [Tesla ]
4
9  10
Example 1.7 An electromagnet is of the form and dimensions as shown in Figure 1.13. It is
made of iron of square section 4 cm side. A flux of 1.1 mWb is required in the air gap.
Neglecting leakage and fringing, calculate the number of ampere turns required. Take the
relative permeability to be 2000 at this flux density.

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 Portion D 30 cm

2 mm

Portion C
25 cm

Figure 1.13 magnetic circuit of example

Solution
The magnetic circuit of the electromagnet shown in Figure 1.13 is completed by four parts
connected in series, viz. (i) iron portion C (ii) air gap, (iii) iron portion D, and (iv) air gap.
Total ampere turns required for this magnetic circuit, FT = ampere turns required for iron portion
C , FC + ampere turns required for air gap, Fag + ampere turns for iron portion D, FD + ampere
turns of air gap, Fag.
Or FT  FC  Fag  FD  Fag

Or FT  FC  FD  2Fag

i) Ampere turns required for iron portion C

Flux,  = 1.1  10-3 Wb
Cross-sectional area, = 4  4 = 16 cm2
= 1610-4 m2
Flux density,

B
A
1.1  10 3
  0.6875Wb / m 2
4
16  10
Relative permeability of iron = 2000
B
Thus ampere turns per meter of flux path length, H 
0  r
0.6875
HC 
Or 2   10 7  2000
 272 At / m
Length of mean flux path in the iron portion C, lC = 25 cm = 0.25 m
Ampere turns required for iron portion C, FC = HC lC = 272  0.25 = 68 At.
ii) The materials for portions C and D are the same. Section is also the same. Thus
ampere turns per meter of flux path length, HD = HC = H = 272 At/m.
Length of mean flux path in iron portion D, lD = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Thus, Ampere turns required for iron portion D, FD = H  lD = 272  0.3 = 82 At.

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iii) Ampere turns required for air gap,
1
Fag   Bg l g
0
1
  0.6875  0.002
4  10 7
 1094 At
Ampere turns required for two air gaps = 2  1094 = 2188 At
Total ampere turns required, FT = 68+ 82+ 2188 = 2318 At
D. Parallel Magnetic Circuits
Figure 1.14a shows a parallel magnetic [Link] are NI ampere-turns on the center [Link]
flux that is produced by the MMF in the center leg exists in the center leg and then divides into
two parts, one going in the path afe and the other in the path bcd. If we assume for simplicitv that
afe = bcd, the flux is distributed evenly between the two paths. Now
g = afe + bcd 1.11
Where g = flux in portion g
afe = flux in portion afe
bcd = flux in portion bcd
Equation (1.11) is actually the analog of Kirchhoff's current law, but now we can say that the
amount of flux entering a junction is equal to the amount of flux leaving the junction.
Another observation that we may make on this circuit is that the MMF drops around a circuit are
the same no matter what path we take. Thus the MMF drop around afe must be equal to the
MMF drop around bcd. This can be stated more precisely as
Hala + Hflf + Hele = Hblb + Hclc + Hdld 1.12

(a)

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 afe bcd
ma mb

ag

mf + mc

-
g
me md

(b)
Iafe Ibcd

Rg
Rf Rc
+
-
Re Ig Rd

(c)
Figure 1-14 Magnetic circuit with center leg: (a) Magnetic circuit; (b) equivalent magnetic circuit; (c)
analogous electric circuit.
The drop in MMF around either path afe or bcd must also be equal to the MMF drop along path
g. But g also has an "active source," the NI ampere-turns of the coil. The actual MMF existing
between X and Y is the driving force NI minus the drop Hglg in path g. Then we can write
(NI - Hglg) = Hala + Hflf + Hele 1.13
= Hblb + Hclc + Hdld
Again we can draw analogous magnetic and electrical circuits as in Figure 1.14b and c. For
Figure 1.l4b we may write
NI - mgg = bcd (mb + mc + md ) 1.14
= afe (ma + mf + me )
and in Figure 1.l0c we may write
E - RgIg = Ibcd (Rb + Rc + Rd ) 1.15
= Iafe (Ra + Rf + Re )
In the analogous magnetic circuit, note that NI is drawn in series with Rmg, although physically
the coil surrounds the central magnetic path.

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Example 1.8 In Figure 1-14a, the following dimensions apply:
lg = lf = lc = 12 cm
la = lb = le = ld = 14 cm
Aa = Ab = Ac = Ad = Ae = A = 1 cm2
Ag = 3 cm2
The material is sheet steel. The flux densitv in the center leg is 0.9 T. Calculate the MMF
required to produce this flux density.
Solution
The total flux in the center leg is 0.9  3  10-4 = 2.7  10-4 Wb. The flux divides into two parts,
the left-hand path through afe and the right-hand path through bcd. The flux density in path g is
Bg = 0.9 T and therefore Hg = 320 At/m. The flux density in section a is
2.7  104
Ba   1.35T
2  1  10 4
and therefore
Ha = 950 At/rn
Ha = Hb = Hc =Hd =He= Hf
Therefore,
NI = Hglg + Ha (la + lf + le )
= 320  12  10-2 + 950 ( 14 + 12 + 14 )  10-2
= 38.4 + 380 = 418.4 At
Example 1.9 We can add one more degree of complexity to the circuit of Figure 1.14a. In Figure
1.15 we cut an air gap in the center leg, and the air gap is 1.5 mm wide. All other dimensions
remain unchanged and the flux density in the center leg is still 0.9 T. Find the number of ampere-
turns on the center leg required to produce this flux density.
Solution
We can still use the equivalent-circuit concept as shown in Figure 1.14b, the only difference
being that NI is now in series with two reluctances in the center path, the air gap and the steel in
leg g.
(NI) - (MMF drop in air gap) - (MMF drop in section g )
= MMF drop in section b + c + d
= MMF drop in section a + f + e
In the center leg, the flux density is still fixed at 0.9 T. Therefore.
Bg = 0.9 T
The MMF drop per unit length in the center steel section is still Hg = 320 At/m, as before.
Therefore,
MMF drop in leg g = 320 (12 - 0.15)  10 -2 = 37.92 At
The MMF drop across the air gap is found from

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 Fmgap = Hgaplgap
For air
 = 0 = 410-7 Wb/(At/m) or H/m
Therefore,
0.9
H gap  7
 7.16  105 At / m
4  10

Figure 1.15 Parallel magnetic circuit with air gap.

The MMF drop across the gap

Hgap lgap= 7.16 105 1. 5 10-3 = 1.074103 At
Noting that the MMF drop across the path afe is still 380 At, as before,
NI  (37.92 + 1074) = 380 At
NI = 1491.91 At
By adding a very small air gap, the MMF required has increased by a factor of 3.57. This is
because the reluctance of the air is so high and the reluctance of unsaturated steel is very low.
This. in turn, is the reason why the largest part of a magnetic circuit is usually in iron and only a
small portion is in air.

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