Chapter 2 Railway Line & Sub grade

RAILWAY ENGINEERING
(CENG 5242)
Contents
CHAPTER 2
Part-I
RAILWAY LINE & SUBGRADE
 Economic survey and route selection of railway line
 Main technical standards
 Plane section design
Longitudinal section design
Part II
 Standard sub-grade sections and design
 Drainage of roadbed
 Safeguards & strength of roadbed
1 2

Introduction
2.1 Economic survey and route selection
• Rail line is the foundation of operation. Railway Development Stages：Three economic survey stages
• Rail line is a whole structure consisted of the roadbed, 1. Earlier stage: research, feasibility study, survey and preliminary
bridge, building ,and rail. design work.
• Center line of the route is all about every Thing! 2. Basic construction stage ：Perform precise measurements,
– Economy(cost) Develop technical and construction designs, Begin construction
– Safety following approved designs and Conduct inspections and put
– Type of structures to design etc… all determined by CL. the railway into operation.
– Station location 3. Evaluation & Feedback Stage：(several years later), to
track evaluate the design and construction quality by investigate
sleeper the engineering quality, technical index and economic benefits.
• Railway line is a line of
transportation made up Ballaste
by rail exclusively for the d bed Construction + maintenance
use of railway vehicles.
Road
bed
Typical ballasted
track section 3 Study and design Feedback & evaluation
4
 Survey and Economic Classification of Railways Route selection…
- Railway classification is determined based on Route selection criteria： Balancing these
- the annual volume of freight and passenger transport. - shortest , direct route, parameters and
This directly influences survey methods and route - detour unsuitable geology, link important sites
requirements
selection.
- Cost effective (user & construction)
According to the economic importance, Chinese classification - Minimum earthwork,
Railway Volume of freight - Locally available materials,
Status
level and passenger - Environmental friendly
Level Ⅰ play the backbone role ≥20Mt - aesthetic value etc.
play the backbone role ＜20Mt
Level Ⅱ Play the contact and
≥10Mt
auxiliary role
Level Ⅲ Serve for a region ＜10Mt
5 6

Selection of main technical standards Selection of main technical standards…

3) Numbers of main lines
1) Design speed
shall be determined after technical and economic -double track or single track railway
comparisons in terms of the project role in railway Depends on Traffic Demand, Train Frequency, Speed, Safety,
passenger and fright transport network, transport Topography and Land Availability
demand, engineering specifications to meet the
demand of travel time target. 4) Minimum plane curve radius
2) Maximum gradient ⚫Minimum plane curve radius is the minimum one to be
used in a projected railway.
⚫The maximum gradient is the steepest grade allowed to be used
on a railway line. ⚫Minimum plane curve radius shall be determined
⚫The maximum gradient shall be determined according to the according to railway classification, designed speed, traffic
design speed, locomotive power, traffic organization mode, safety organization mode, safety and ride comfort, and
and ride comfort, annual volume of traffic, etc. engineering working conditions, etc
7 8
 Selection of main technical standards… Selection of main technical standards…
5) Available length of arrival and departure line 7）Tonnage Ratings
⚫ It is typically measured from the entry signal to the
stopping limit before an obstruction
• Definition: The maximum weight a railway track can safely
⚫Arrival-departure lines at stations are designated for
train reception and departure. support, including train weight and cargo.
⚫Their available length is the maximum usable length for
stopping trains without affecting adjacent line operations Key Factors Affecting Tonnage Ratings
• Track Structure – Rail type, sleeper spacing, and ballast quality.
like (train passing, shunting, switching,.)
• Axle Load Capacity – The maximum weight per axle (e.g., 22.5 tons/axle).
6) Kind of traction and types of locomotives(or EMU type) • Subgrade Strength – Soil conditions affecting load-bearing capacity.
⚫There three kinds of traction in railway industry, Electric • Bridges & Tunnels – Structural limits on heavy loads.
• Maintenance Standards – Higher-rated tracks require frequent maintenance.
traction, Diesel traction and Steam traction.
⚫Kind of tractive energy greatly influences the railway with respect Crucial in railway design as they determine track strength,
to traffic capacity, line standard and economy. material selection, and structural capacity to ensure safe
9 and efficient train operations. 10

Railway system interaction

involves the coordination of trains, tracks, stations, and personnel Railway Alignment Design and
to ensure efficient and safe transportation of goods and
passengers. Geometry
Traction power
(electrical calculation)
Communication signal
(earthing and electrical Traction power
（ pantograph
connection)
net interaction）

Train control
（vehicle/communication
signal）

Civil engineering
(tunnel,
bridge,sound
barrier) Topics
Track/turnout •HorizontalAlignment and
Wheel-rail
(vehicle/track) •Profile/Vertical geometry
subgrade 11 •Subgrade structure 12
 Alignment
Permanent way
⚫Railway alignment means space position of the
The railway permanent way refers to the fixed central line of railway permanent way.
infrastructure of a railway, including the track,
⚫It is defined by a series of central points
rails, ties (sleepers), ballast, and subgrade,
which provide the foundation for train movement. connected longitudinally, forming the center
line.

Planar and longitudinal section of alignment

13 14

Plane section of Railroad line Plane and profile sections

• The planar projection of centre line is called plane
Centre line is used to show the place of a line in space. section of the rail; and its vertical projection is
called longitudinal section of the rail.
Line AB is the center line of the track as well as longitudinal • The plane section of the rail is consisted of straight
section of the track. line and curve (circular curve and easement curve).
Railway Cross
Section

plane section of the rail longitudinal section

of the rail
15 16
Requirements of the curve: Requirements…..
Guarantee safety and riding comfort; (i.e. against coupler
separation, coupler break off, derailment, train running Economical;
delay and unexpected stopping, etc. e) The location and overall design shall consider
Economical; side slope protection, waterproofing and drainage in
a) Meet the overall plan railway networks. a system-engineering way
b) Enhance construction quality and transport efficiency and f) Detour all kinds of unfavorable geologic body (or
reduce maintenance costs. engineering improvement measures)
c) Cover major cities for passengers’ convenience and trip g) The subgrade construction shall avoid high filling, deep
attraction. or long cutting
d) Coordinate with the overall plan of urban, local traffic, h) As for deep gully sections located in complex terrain and
farmland and water conservancy, and other relevant unfavorable geologic areas, line design shall be
engineering constructions to make proper arrangements. compatible with design requirements of bridges or
culverts.
i) The design shall be in accordance with environmental
A coupler a mechanism that connects rail vehicles
(locomotives and cars) together to form a train 17 protection, conservation policies 18

1. Plane design Cont’d

Railway horizontal line is composed of straight or tangent
segments with curves (arcs of simple circles) connecting tangents of The locus of the center of gravity
differing directions. The horizontal alignment is a composition of position of the car body exists will
curves and straight lines, and rate of curvatures. take three trajectories:
① curvature is zero: straight line；
② curvature is constant: circle curve；
③ curvature is variable: transition curve.

The main components of

Plane design:
1. Curves
2. Tangent/ straight lines
3. Easement/spiral curves
4. Cant / Superelevation
Composition of plane design 19 20
1. Plane design Composition of plane design
- circular curve
Constituent parts of the curve
When out of consideration of easement
The curve is set when the line turns curve:
or when to straight lines intersect. tangent length:
It includes： curve length:
 curve radius, R
 corner curve, α External length:
 curve length, L
R m
 Tangent length, T arc length of L 0: L  
180
 easement curve length, L0 . Types of curves
- simple/single
21
- common 22

When considering Easement curve: Horizontal curve (AREMA)

The degree of curvature, D, is the angle through which the track
𝜋 𝛼 − 2𝛽 𝑅 𝜋𝛼𝑅 turns in 100 feet (used in the U.S.). Radius (used in Europe and
Curve Length 𝐿= + 2𝑙 ≈ +𝑙 𝑚
180 180 other parts of the world)
External 𝛼 Curve Length
Distance 𝐸 = 𝑅 + 𝑃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 − 𝑅 𝑚 R = 5729.57/D
2 R = 5730/D (rounded), R in feet L = (I/D) x 100 (in feet)
𝛼
Tangent Length 𝑇 = 𝑅 + 𝑃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 +𝑚 𝑚
2 R = 1750/D, R in meter
length of
tangent
𝑚= − ≈ 𝑚
• Smaller radius of
inset 𝑝= (𝑚) curve means larger
degree of the curve
and vise versa.
Common curve

23 24
 Principles of determining minimum radius Centrifugal Force:
Relations between the swing surface of the steering wheel and the Centrifugal force is the outward force that you feel when moving in
longitudinal axle of the car body a curve.
 angle is zero (Vehicle moves in a straight line) • When a body moves on a circular curve, it has a
tendency to move in a straight direction tangential to
 angle is constant (The vehicle follows a simple curve) the curve.
 angle is variable (The vehicle follows an easement curve) • This tendency of the body is due to the fact that the body
is subjected to a constant radial acceleration.

The harmful effect of Curve

Radius:
This radial acceleration produces a force known as a
• Limit the speed of train;
centrifugal force whose value is given by the
• Increase wheel abrasion; following relation:
• Increase rail equipment;
• Increase maintenance costs.
25 26

Superelevation Superelevation
Raising the outside rail a distance h(mm)
above the inside rail. Methods; Class Activity
1. Elevate outside rail by h or
Drive Superelevation formula for Railway?
2. Elevate outside rail by h/2 and lower
inside rail by h/2

Function of superelevation
 To counteract the effects of overturning force (Fc)
 both wheels bear equally on the rails
 both rails will be equally stressed and wear
 acceptable traveling comfort
 high track stability and safe train operation
27 28
 Superelevation Superelevation
G=gauge distance
e= superelevation = h
𝛽1 = 𝛽2

P=

𝛽2
𝛽1

29 30

Superelevation Maximum allowable superelevation

Practical Formula for Railway Superelevation From the requirements of safety operation and stability of train and
To account for real-world conditions and safety factors, the traveling comfort of passengers (when it negotiates the curve or stops at
railway superelevation formula is often written as:
the curve in case of emergency)
where:
• with some eccentricity factor of safety of center of mass of the
•e = superelevation in mm
train, 𝒉𝒎𝒂𝒙 should be limited to some value
𝑮𝑽𝟐 •G = gauge width in mm
𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝑹 •V = speed in km/h
•R = curve radius in meters
• On any curve there is always unbalanced superelevation.
Three types of balance conditions:
•127 is a constant derived from unit
conversions.

Standard gauge track, G=1500 mm

overbalance or equilibrium Underbalance or

31 cant deficiency or balance cant excess)
32
 Unbalanced superelevation
Cant Deficiency: When speed exceeds design speed
Due to speeds up and down trains vary considerably
• Occurs when the actual cant of the track is less than the required cant
On any curved track, once the
superelevation is fixed on the basis of for a specific train speed.
average speed, it is unalterable. But the • Results in increased forces on the train, higher wear on the track and
actual speed of the trains may be either wheels, and passenger discomfort.
greater or smaller than its average value; as a
result, it will not match with the
superelevation and will unavoidably give rise
to the unbalanced centrifugal acceleration.
- Deficient Superelevation; (overbalance) Cant Surplus: When speed is less than design speed
𝑉 • Occurs when the cant (tilt) of the track is greater than required for the
ℎ = 11.8 −ℎ
𝑅 given train speed.
- Surplus Superelevation: (underbalance)
• Causes instability, with potential for the train to lean inward or lose
𝑉
ℎ = ℎ − 11.8 traction, especially at higher speeds.
𝑅 33
34

Maximum allowable superelevation - AREMA Calculation Deficient superelevation

• On lines for mixed service
In general condition, 70 mm，
In difficult conditions, 90 mm,
In existed line, 110 mm
• On lines for passenger traffic

Surplus superelevation
• Mixed Line: For general condition (30
mm), difficult condition, 50 mm
Equilibrium cant
• Passenger Line: Allowable max. deficient
𝑒 = 0.0007𝐷𝑉
cant (mm)
Condition well good general Difficult
Source: AREMA
hs 10-15 20 30 50
35 36
 Minimum Radius of Curve Minimum Radius of Curve
The maximum speed at equilibrium Can't The maximum speed at equilibrium Cant
hR V - speed of train，km/h； hR V - speed of train，km/h；
V  V 
1 1 .8 h - elevation of outer rail，mm； 1 1 .8 h - elevation of outer rail，mm；
R - curve radius ，m R - curve radius ，m

The maximum speed allowed on curve

V 
h m ax  hq  R
The minimum speed allowed on curve
1 1 .8
Where:
Where:
•Vmax = Maximum speed allowed on the curve (in meters per second)
V min = Minimum speed allowed on the curve
•hmax = Maximum superelevation (in meters)
h = Superelevation (cant) in meters – (Design)
•hq = Additional cant (or cant deficiency, depending on context) (in meters)
hd = Cant deficiency (in meters),
•R = Radius of the curve (in meters)
R = Radius of the curve (in meters)

37 38

Example Example
 Calculate the superelevation and maximum permissible  Calculate the superelevation and maximum permissible speed for a 2o standard
gauge transitioned curve on a high-speed route with a maximum speed of 100
speed for a 2o standard gauge transitioned curve on a kmph. The speed for calculating the equilibrium superelevation as decided by the
high-speed route with a maximum speed of 100 kmph. chief engineer is 80 kmph and the booked speed of goods trains is 65 kmph.

The speed for calculating the equilibrium superelevation Solution

as decided by the chief engineer is 80 kmph and the i. R = = = 875m
iv. Superelevation for goods train
(65kmph)
booked speed of goods trains is 65 kmph. ii. Superelevation for equilibrium speed ∗
h= =
∗
= 56.74 mm
G=1500mm V=80km/hr R=875m
Cant Excess = 86.38-56.74 = 29.64mm
Exercise h= =
∗
= 86.38 mm
∗
 Calculate the superelevation, maximum permissible 29.64 mm<75mm Permissible

speed, and transition length for a 3o curve on a high- iii. Superelevation for maximum speed
(100kmph)
speed broad gauge (i.e 1750mm) section with a ∗
h= = = 134.13 mm
maximum speed of 140 kmph. The equilibrium speed ∗

to be 100 kmph and the booked speed of the mixed Cant Deficiency = 134.13-86.38= 47.75 mm
service train to be 50 kmph.
39 47.75mm<100mm Permissible 40
 Example
 Calculate the superelevation and maximum permissible speed for a 2o standard
Minimum Radius
gauge transitioned curve on a high-speed route with a maximum speed of 100
kmph. The speed for calculating the equilibrium superelevation as decided by the 1. Ridding comfort
chief engineer is 80 kmph and the booked speed of goods trains is 65 kmph. 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝑽𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏𝟏 = 𝒎
Solution 𝒉𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝒉𝒅
2. Counterbalance Centrifugal force
v. Max Speed Potential or Safe Speed as per Therorethical Considerations 𝟏𝟏.𝟖(𝑽𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝟐𝒂 )
High speed train: 𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏𝟏 = (𝒎)
𝒉𝒅
𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒅 ∗𝑹 𝟖𝟔.𝟑𝟖 𝟒𝟕.𝟕𝟓 ∗𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝟏𝟏.𝟖(𝑽𝟐𝒂 𝑽𝟐𝒎𝒊𝒏 )
𝑽= = = 99.73 Low speed train: 𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏𝟐 = (𝒎)
𝟏𝟏.𝟖 𝟏𝟏.𝟖 𝒉𝒔
𝟏𝟏.𝟖(𝑽𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝟐𝒎𝒊𝒏 )
The maximum permissible speed is the minimum of the ff: Thereby: 𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏𝟑 = (𝒎)
𝒉𝒔 𝒉𝒅
Max Speed = 100km/hr
Safe Speed = 99.73 km/hr

Therefore, The maximum permissible speed 99.73 km/hr 𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙{𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏𝟏 , 𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏𝟐 , 𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏𝟑 }
41 42

Factors for Minimum Radius Factors for Maximum Radius

Selection: Selection:
1. Operational Speed
[Link] Characteristics 2. Land Constraints
[Link] Speed 3. Integration with Infrastructure
[Link] Standards 4. Project-Specific Goals
[Link] Clearances 5. Regulatory Standards
[Link] Design Criteria 6. Economic and Environmental
[Link] Design Factors
7. Terrain and Topography
[Link] and Analysis 8. Alignment Design Principles
[Link] Engineer 9. Project-Specific Constraints Negative superelevation
Input

43 44
What is negative superelevation in railway tracks?
Negative Superelevation is when the outer rail of a curve is
lower than the inner rail, tilting the track in the opposite
direction. It usually occurs on curves for trains traveling in the
opposite direction or on sharp, low-speed curves to prevent
instability.

46
45