1.

SOLUTION
Solution
Solution is the homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. Homogeneity means its
compositions and properties are uniform throughout the mixture. Solution consists of two
components solute and solvent.
 Solvent: The component which is present in larger proportion is termed as the solvent. It is usually
in the same physical state as the solution.
 Solute: one or more components which is present in smaller proportion are called solutes
Solutions containing only two components are called binary solutions. Here each component
may be solid, liquid or in gaseous state. Based on this, solutions are of the following types:
Types of Solution solvent Solute example
Gaseous solutions Gas Gas Air or Mixture of O2 and CO2
Gas liquid Humidity in air or Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas,
water-vapour in air
Gas Solid Vapours of iodine in air or Camphor in nitrogen gas or
naphthalene in air
Liquid solutions liquid Gas Oxygen dissolved in water or soda water (CO2 in water)
liquid liquid Alcohol in water or dilute acids
liquid Solid Sugar in water or Salt in water or glucose in water
Solid solutions Solid Gas H2 in palladium
Solid liquid Sodium amalgam ( sodium in mercury)
Solid Solid Copper in gold
Method of expressing concentration of solution
The concentration of a solution means the amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent. The
concentration of the solution expressed in any of the following ways.
i. Mass percentage (w/w): the mass of a component present in 100 mass unit of the solution is
called its mass percentage.
Mass of solute 𝑊𝐵
Mass percentage of solute = x 100 = x 100
Mass of solution (𝑊𝐴 +𝑊𝐵 )
WA= mass of solvent, WB= mass of solute
e.g. 10% aqueous solution of glucose by mass means that 10 g of glucose is dissolved in 90 g of
water resulting in a 100 g solution.
 Concentration described by mass percentage is commonly used in industrial chemical
applications.
ii. Volume percentage (v/v): the volume of a component present in 100 volume unit of the
solution is called volume percentage.
Volume of solute 𝑉𝐵
Volume percentage of solute = x100 = x100
Volume of solution (𝑉𝐴 +𝑉𝐵 )
VA= Volume of solvent, VB= Volume of solute
e.g. 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mL of ethanol is dissolved in
90 mL of water such that the total volume of the solution is 100 mL
 Concentration of solutions containing liquids is commonly expressed in this unit.
iii. Mass by volume percentage (w/v): it is the mass of solute dissolved in 1L of the solution
Mass of the component in the solution
Mass/volume % of a component = x100
Total volume of the solution

 It is commonly used in medicine and pharmacy.

iv. Parts per million(ppm): it is the number of parts by mass of a solute per million parts of the
Mass of solute
solution. PPM of a solute = x 106
Mass of solution
 When a solute is present in trace quantities (i.e. very small amounts), its concentration
is expressed in parts per million (ppm).
 The concentration of pollutants in water or atmosphere is expressed in terms of ppm.
 v. Molarity(M): it is the number of moles of the solute present per litre of the solution.
Unit: moles/litre(mol L-1 )or Molar (M)
Number of moles of solute Number of moles of solute
Molarity = = x 1000
Volume in litre of a solution Volume in ml of the solution
Mass of the solute x 1000
=
Molecular mass of solute x volume in ml of the solution
𝑊𝐵 x 1000
=
(𝑀𝐵 x V in ml
vi. Molality (m): it is the number of moles of the solute present per kilogram(1000 g) of the
solvent.
Unit : moles/kg (mol Kg -1 )or molal(m)
Number of moles of solute Number of moles of solute
Molarity = = x 1000
Mass of solvent in Kg Mass of solvent in g
Mass of the solute x 1000
=
Molecular mass of solute x Mass of solvent in g
𝑊𝐵 x 1000
=
(𝑀𝐵 x𝑊𝐴 in g
vii. Mole fraction ( ): the mole fraction of any component in a solution is the ratio of the number of
moles of that component to the sum of moles all the component present in the solution.
For a binary solution containing A and B then,
Number of moles of component A 𝑛𝐴
Mole fraction of A (A)= =
Total number of moles of A and B (𝑛𝐴 +𝑛𝐵 )
Number of moles of component B 𝑛𝐵
Mole fraction of B(B)= =
Total number of moles of A and B (𝑛𝐴 +𝑛𝐵 )
In the case of binary solutions A+B =1
in a given solution sum of all the mole fractions is unity. If there are n components, then
1+ 2 +3+…..+n = 1
Temperature independent concentration terms: Mass percentage, Parts per million, Molality and
Mole fraction
Temperature dependent concentration terms: Molarity, Volume percentage and Mass by volume
percentage
Solubility : The solubility of a substance is the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a
specific amount of solvent at a specified temperature. It depends upon the nature of solute and solvent
as well as temperature and pressure.
• It is observed that polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non polar solutes in non polar
solvents.
• In general, a solute dissolves in a solvent if the intermolecular interactions are similar in the two
• The general principle related to solubility is that “like dissolves like”.
Solubility of solid in a liquid : when a soild is added to the solvent there occur two process.
1. Effect of temperature: if the dissolution is
Endothermic sol H >0, solubility increases with temperature.
Exothermic sol H < 0, solubility decreases with temperature.
2. Effect of pressure: pressure does not affect the solubility of a solid in liquid.
Solubility of a Gas in a liquid
Solubility of gases in liquid is greatly affected by pressure and temperature.
1. Effect of temperature: The solubility of gases in liquid is exothermic. Thus solubility of gases
decreases with rise in temperature.
 When dissolved, the gas molecules are present in liquid phase and the process of
dissolution can be considered similar to condensation and heat is evolved during this process. The
dissolution process involves a dynamic equilibrium and thus follows Le Chatelier’s Principle. As
dissolution is an exothermic process, the solubility should decrease with increase of temperature.
2. Effect of pressure: The solubility of a gas increases with increase of pressure.
A quantitative relation between pressure and solubility of a gas in a liquid was first given by the
Scientist Henry, which is known as Henry’s law.
Henry’s law:
Henry’s law states that at constant temperature, the solubility of a gas is directly proportional to
the pressure of the gas.
If ‘m’ is the mass of a gas dissolved per unit volume of a solvent and ‘p’ is the pressure of the gas
at constant temperature. Then,
m∝p
Or
Henry’s law also state that the partial pressure of a gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to
the mole fraction () of the gas dissolve in a solution.
Mathematically P ∝ 
P= KH 

Partial pressure
KH- Henry’s constant
 Different gases have different KH values.

Mole fraction ()

Application of Henry’s law:
1. To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under high
pressure.
2. Scuba divers carry oxygen cylinders to breath under deep sea. At high pressure under water, the
solubility of atmospheric gases in blood increases. When the divers come towards surface, the
pressure gradually decreases. This releases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of
bubbles of nitrogen in the blood. This blocks capillaries and creates a medical condition known as
bends. This is pain full. To avoid bends the cylinders used by scuba divers are filled with air
diluted with helium (11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen)
3. At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level. This leads to
low concentrations of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitudes or climbers.
Low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly. This condition is
known as anoxia
Vapour pressure of liquid solutions
Liquid solutions are formed when solvent is a liquid. The solute can be a gas, a liquid or a solid.
Generally, the liquid solvent is volatile. The solute may or may not be volatile. Based on the volatility
of solute, the vapour pressure of the solution is greater or less than that of the solvent.
Vapour Pressure of Liquid-Liquid Solutions
A quantitative relationship between the vapour pressure and mole fraction of solute in a solution was
first given by a French chemist Francois Marte Raoult and it is known as Raoult’s Law.
Raoult’s law: The law states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of
each component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction. .
Consider a binary solution of two volatile liquids 1 and 2. Let P1 and P2 be the partial vapour pressures
of the two components 1 and 2 respectively and Ptotal be the total vapour pressure. Let 1 and 2 be the
mole fractions of the two components 1 and 2 respectively.
Then according to Raoult’s law, for component 1
P1 1 Or P1=P011
and for component 2,
P2 2 Or P2=P022
where P01and P02are the vapour pressures of the pure components 1 & 2 respectively.
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the total pressure (P total) will be the sum of the
partial pressures of the components of the solution.
Ptotal = P1 + P2
Substituting the values of P1 and P2, we get
Ptotal = P011 + P022
From this relation,
1. Total vapour pressure over the solution is related to the mole
fraction of any one component.
2. Total vapour pressure over the solution varies linearly with the
mole fraction of component 2.
Graph
A plot of P1 or P2 versus the mole fractions 1 and 2 for a
solution gives a straight lines (I and II) pass through the points P01
or P02 respectively when 1 and 2 equal unities. Similarly the
plot (line III) of Ptotal versus 2 is also linear. The maximum
value is P02 and minimum value is P01, assuming component 1 is
less volatile than component 2, i.e, P01 < P02

Raoult’s Law as a special case of Henry’s Law

According to Raoult’s law, the vapour pressure of a volatile component in a given solution is
given by Pi=P0ii. In the solution of a gas in a liquid, solubility of the gas is given by Henry’s law
which states that P=KH 
If we compare the equations for Raoult’s law and Henry’s law, we can see that the partial pressure of
the volatile component or gas is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution. Only the
proportionality constant KH differs from P01. Thus, Raoult’s law becomes a special case of Henry’s
law in which KH becomes equal to P01.
Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids
The vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by the vapour in equilibrium with its own
liquid. If a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the vapour pressure of the resulting solution
is always lower than that of the pure solvent. This is because in a pure solvent, there are only solvent
molecules, which can vapourise. But when a non-volatile solute is added to the solvent, a fraction of
the surface is occupied by solute molecules. So the number of solute molecules passing to the vapour
phase decreases and hence the vapour pressure also decreases. The decrease in the vapour pressure of
solvent depends on the quantity of non-volatile solute present in the solution and not on its nature.
Applying Raoult’s law in case of solvent (component1) P1  1
P1=P011 where P1- the vapour pressure of the solvent, P01- vapour pressure of the solvent in pure
form and 1 be its mole fraction of the solvent
Ideal and non- ideal solutions
Liquid- liquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non- ideal
solutions.
a) Ideal solutions
1. The solution which obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of
concentration are known as ideal solutions.
2. The enthalpy of mixing of the pure components to form the
solution is zero and the volume of mixing is also zero.
ΔmixH= 0 ΔmixV= 0
This means that no heat is absorbed or evolved when the
components are mixed. Also the volume of solution would be equal
to the sum of volume of two components.
3. A-A interaction = B-B interaction = A-B interaction
i.e,
Solvent – Solvent interaction= Solute- Solute interaction= Solvent – Solute interaction
Examples : a perfectly ideal solution is rare but some solutions are nearly ideal in behavior.
1. A solution of n-hexane and n-heptane.
2. A solution of bromo ethane and chloro ethane.
3. A mixture of benzene and toluene.
b) Non – Ideal solutions
When a solution does n’t obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration, then it is called
non-ideal solution. The vapour pressure of such a solution is higher or lower than predicted by
Raoult’s law.
Non-ideal solutions can be classified into two types
i. Solutions having positive deviation
If the vapour pressure is higher, then the solution exhibits positive deviation. In case of positive
deviation; from Rault’s law,
A-A interaction = B-B interaction > A-B interaction
i.e, the solvent – solute molecules are weaker than those between solute-solute and solvent- solvent
molecules. This means that in such solutions, molecules of A will find it easier to escape than in
pure state. This will increase the vapour pressure and
results in positive deviation.
Eg:
a) mixture of ethanol and acetone. In pure ethanol
molecules are hydrogen bonded. On adding acetone
the hydrogen bonds between some molecules break
down due to weakening of interactions, thus the
solution shows positive deviation from Raoult’s law.
b) Solution of carbon disulphate and acetone also show
positive deviation
ii. Solutions having negative deviations
In this type of solutions
A-A interaction = B-B interaction < A-B interaction
Solute – sovent inerations is stronger than solvent – solvent and solute- solute interactions.
Eg:
a) A mixture of phenol and aniline. In this case the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between
phenolic proton and lone pair of nitrogen atom of aniline is stronger than the respective
intermolecular hydrogen bonding between similar molecules.
b) A mixture of chloroform and acetone. This is because chloroform molecule is able to form
strong hydrogen bond with acetone molecule.
 H3 C Cl
C=O H C Cl
H3 C Cl
This decreases the escaping tendency of molecules for each component and consequently the
vapour pressure decreases resulting in negative deviation from Raoult’s law

Azeotropes
Some liquids on mixing form azeotropes. Which are binary mixture having the same composition in
liquid and vapour phase and boil at constant temperature. There are two type of azeotrops.
a) Minimum boiling azeotrope
The solution which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling
azeotrope at a specific compositon
Eg: Ethanol- Water mixture.
b) Maximum boiling azeotrope
The solution that shows large negative deviation from Raoult’s law and form maximum boiling
azeotrope at a specific composition.
Eg:Nitric acid and Water mixture.
Colligative properties
Colligative properties are those properties which depend only on the number of solute particles and not
on their nature. The important colligative properties are: Relative lowering of Vapour pressure,
Elevation of Boiling point, Depression of Freezing point and Osmotic Pressure.
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure.
When a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the vapour pressure of the resulting solution is
lower than that of the pure solvent. The difference between the vapour pressure of pure solvent and
that of the solution is called lowering of vapour pressure (∆P).
Consider a binary solution containing a non-volatile solute 2 dissolved in a solvent 1. Let P10 be the
vapour pressure of pure solvent 1 and P1 be the vapour pressure of solution. Then according to
Raoult’s law,
P1=P011
The lowering of vapour pressure of the solvent (∆P) = P01 – P1 = P01 – P011 = P01( 1-1)
We know that 1+2 =1 therefore 1-1 =2 then the above equation becomes
∆P = P01 2
∆P
= 2
𝑃01
𝑃01 − 𝑃1
= 2
𝑃01
 𝑃01 − 𝑃1
Here (P01- P1 )is the lowering of vapour pressure and is the relative lowering of vapour pressure.
𝑃01
Thus from the above equation we can say that,
“The relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containging a non-volatile solute is equal to the
mole fraction of the solute in the solution.”
Where 2 =𝑛 𝑛+𝑛2 1 2
Here n1 and n2are the number of moles of solvent and solute present in the solution. For a dilute
solution n2<< n1 such that n1+n2 n1
2 = n2 = W2/M2 = W2 M1 [ n2= W2/M2 and n1= W1/M2]
n1 W1/M2 W1 M2

𝑃01 − 𝑃1
thus the equation = 2 becomes,
𝑃01

𝑃01 − 𝑃1 𝑊2 𝑀1
= -----------------(a)
𝑃01 𝑊1 𝑀2

Here W1 and W2 are the masses of solvent and solute respectively and M1 and M2are the molecular masses of
solvent and solute respectively.
From (a) knowing all other quantities the molar mass of solute M2 can be calculated. The molecular mass of the
non- volatile solute is
M2 = P 01 W2 M1

(P01- P1 ) W1

2. Elevation of Boiling Point:

Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase of temperature. The boiling point of liquid is the
temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure.
When non-volatile solute is dissolved in a pure solvent,
the vapour pressure is lowered and the boiling point of the
solution becomes higher than that of pure solvent. The
difference between the boiling point of a solution(Tb) and
solvent(T0b) is called elevation of boiling point(Tb).
Thus Tb = Tb - T0b
For dilute solutions, the elevation of boiling point is
directly proportional to the molal concentration (molality)
of the solution. Thus
Tb ∝ m
Tb =Kb .m. Where Kb is a constant called molal
elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant the unit of
Kb is K kg mol-1
Tb = K b . x W2 x 1000 where m = W2 x 1000
M2x W1 M2 x W1
From this equation molar mass of solute can be calculated.
M2 = k b x W2 x 1000
Tb x W1
 [Link] freezing point(Tf): the freezing point of the liquid is
defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid
becomes equal to vapour pressure of its solid

According to Raoult’s law, when a non-volatile solute is added to a

pure solvent, its vapour pressure decreases. Now it would become equal to
that of solid solvent at lower temperature. Thus the freezing point of the
solvent decreases. The difference between the freezing point (f.p) of pure
solvent (T0f) and that of the solution (Tf)is called depression of freezing
point (Tf).
i.e, Tf = T0f - Tf
For dilute solutions, the elevation of boiling point is directly proportional
to the molal concentration (molality) of the solution. Thus
Tf ∝ m
Tf =Kf .m. Where K f is a constant called molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant. The unit
of Kf is K kg mol-1
Tf =K f x W2 x 1000 where molality m = W2 x 1000
M2 x W1 M2 x W1
From this equation molar mass of solute can be calculated.
M2 = Kf x W2 x 1000
Tf x W1
Osmosis
When a solution is separated from the pure solvent by means of a semipermeable membrane then the
solvent molecules flow from the solution of lower concentration to higher concentration.
The spontaneous flow of solvent from a solution of lower concentrationto higher
concentration through a semipermeable membrane (SPM) is called osmosis
Or
Osmosis is the process of flow of solvent molecules from pure solvent to solution through a
semipermeable membrane.
Semi permeable membrane: it is a membrane which permits the passage of solvent molecules but
does not prevent the solute molecules/ ions / particle to pass through it. A very efficient semi permeable
membrane is a thin film of Cupric Ferrocyanide Cu2[Fe(CN)6]
Examples for osmosis
a) Raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses water and shrink.
b) Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water
c) Blood cells collapse when suspended in saline water.
d) The preservation of meat by salting and fruits by adding sugar protect against bacterial action.
Through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat or candid fruit loses water, shrinks and
dies
4. Osmotic pressure:
Osmotic pressure can be defined as the excess pressure to be applied on the solution side to prevent
osmosis.
Or,
it is the pressure that just stops the flow of solvent molecules.
It is denoted by π. For dilute solutions, osmotic pressure is proportional to the molarity (C) and
temperature (T).
π = CRT
where C = n2/V
𝑛 W
Therefore, π = 2 RT Or, πV = n2 RT Or, πV = 2RT
𝑉 M2
 then
W
M2 = 2RT
πV
Advantages of osmotic pressure measurement over other colligative property measurement
• Osmotic pressure measurement can be done at room temperature, while other colligative property
measurement can be done at either higher or lower temperature than room temperature.
• Here molarity of the solution is used instead of molality, which can be determined easily.
• The magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even for very dilute solutions.
• This method can be used for the determination of molar masses of Biomolecules and for polymers.
Hypertonic And Hypotonic Solutions
A solution having higher osmotic pressure than another is called hypertonic solution.
While a solution having lower osmotic pressure than another is called hypotonic solution.
For e.g.:If we place our blood cells in a solution containing more than 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium
chloride solution, water will flow out of the cells and they would shrink. On the other hand, if they are
placed in a solution containing less than 0.9% (mass/volume) NaCl, water will flow into the cells and
they would swell.
Reverse osmosis:
The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than
the osmotic pressure and it is applied on the solution side. Now
the pure solvent flows out of the solution through the semi
permeable membrane. This phenomenon is called reverse
osmosis.
 Pure water is obtained from sea water is always byreverse
osmosis.
When pressure more than osmotic pressure is applied, pure water
is squeezed out of the sea water through the membrane. Commonly used SPM is cellulose acetate. It is an
artificial SPM
Abnormal molecular masses:
sometimes the molecular masses determined by the colligative properties are different from the
normal values. The wrong values of molecular masses obtained from colligative properties are called
abnormal molecular masses. This is due to
1. Association of solute molecules
2. Dissociation of solute molecules
Association of solute molecules: There are many organic molecules undergo association in non-
aqueous solutions.i.e. Two or molecules associate to from single molecule. In such causes, the
number of particles decreases and consequently molar mass will be greater than normal molar mass.
Eg:molecules of ethanoic acid in benzene, due to hydrogen bonding ethanoic acid molecules get
dimerise so in this case the number of particle is reduced, then Tb or Tf for ethanic acid will be
half of the normal value. The molar mass calculated on this basis of this Tb or Tf be twice the
expected value.

Dissociation of solute molecules: salts, acid, bases etc. have a tendency to ionise in solution. One
normal molecule gives two or more ions, as a result the number of solute particle increases than the
normal number. Thus molar mass is lower than the true value.
Van’t Hoff factor(i):
In order to correct the abnormal molar masses, van’t Hoff introduced a factor called van’t Hoff factor
i = Observed colligative property
caluculated colligative property
i= Normal molecular masses
 Abnormal molecular masses
i = Total number of moles of particle after association or dissociation
Total number of moles of particle before association or dissociation
i >1 (solute show dissociation.)
i <1 (solute shows association.)
i=1 (solute in normal)
For Eg:- NaCl in water dissociated to form Na+ and Cl- ions due the formation two ions Van’t Hoff
factor i =2
similarly for K2SO4 in water i = 3
for CaCl2 in water i = 3
for Acetic acid in benzene, i = ½( due to association)
van’t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative properties as follows:
𝑃01 − 𝑃1 i 𝑊2 𝑀1
• Relative lowering of vapour pressure, =
𝑃01 𝑊1 𝑀2
• Elevation of Boiling point (∆Tb) = [Link].m
• Depression of freezing point (∆Tf) = [Link] .m
• Osmotic Pressure (π) = [Link]

SOLUTIONS EXTRA QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following units is useful in relating the concentration of a solution with its vapour
pressure?
a. mole fraction b. parts per million c. mass percentage d. molality
Sol. a) mole fraction
Explanation: Mole fraction is useful in relating vapour pressure with a concentration of the
solution. According to Raoult's law, the partial vapour pressure of each component in the
solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction present in solution.
2. On dissolving sugar in water at room temperature solution feels cool to touch. Under which of the
following cases dissolution of sugar will be most rapid?
a. Sugar crystals in cold water. b. Sugar crystals in hot water.
c. Powdered sugar in cold water. d. Powdered sugar in hot water.
Sol.d) Powdered sugar in hot water.
Explanation: Since the solution is cool to touch, the dissolution process is endothermic.
Therefore, high temperature will favour dissolution. Further, powdered sugar has a large
surface area and provide faster dissolution.
3. At equilibrium, the rate of dissolution of a solid solute in a volatile liquid solvent is
a. less than the rate of crystallization b. greater than the rate of crystallisation
c. equal to the rate of crystallization d. zero
Sol.c) equal to the rate of crystallisation
Explanation: At equilibrium, the rate of dissolution of solid solute is equal to the rate of
crystallisation. As the number of solute particles going into the solution will equal to the solute
particle separating out.
4. A beaker contains a solution of a substance 'A'. Precipitation of substance 'A' takes place when a
small amount of 'A' is added to the solution. The solution is
a. saturated b. supersaturated c. unsaturated d. concentrated
Sol. b)supersaturated
Explanation: When a small amount of solute is added to its solution and it does not dissolve and
get precipitated then this solution is supersaturated solution. The supersaturated solution
usually contains more of the dissolved material.
5. The maximum amount of a solid solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount of a given liquid
solvent does not depend upon
a. Temperature b. Nature of solute c. Pressure d. Nature of solvent
Sol. c) Pressure
Explanation: The solubility of a solid in liquid does not depend on pressure because solid
particles are practically incompressible.
6. Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitude is due to
a. low temperature b. low atmospheric pressure
c. high atmospheric pressure d. both low temperature and high atmospheric pressure
Sol. b)low atmospheric pressure
Explanation:At high altitudes, the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level,
which leads to a low concentration of oxygen in the air as well as blood.
7. Considering the formation, breaking and strength of hydrogen bond, predict which of the following
mixtures will show a positive deviation from Raoult's law?
a. Methanol and acetone. b. Chloroform and acetone.
c. Nitric acid and water. d. Phenol and aniline.
Sol.a)Methanol and acetone.
Explanation:A mixture of Methanol and acetone shows positive deviation because methanol-
methanol and acetone-acetone interactions are stronger than methanol-acetone. The more
hydrogen bonds are broken the less number of new H-bonds are formed.
8. Colligative properties depend on
a. the nature of the solute particles dissolved in solution.
b. the number of solute particles in solution.
c. the physical properties of the solute particles dissolved in solution.
d. the nature of solvent particles.
Sol.b) the number of solute particles in solution.
Explanation:Colligative properties depend upon the number of solute particles in the solution
and independent of its nature relative to the total number of particles present in the solution.
9. Which of the following aqueous solutions should have the highest boiling point?
a. 1.0 M NaOH b. 1.0 M Na2SO4 c. 1.0 M NH4NO3 d. 1.0 M KNO3
Sol. b)1.0 M Na2SO4
Explanation:1.0 M Na2SO4 since it furnishes the maximum number of ions (2Na+ and SO4 2-) and
molecular mass is higher therefore boiling point is higher.
10. The unit of Ebullioscopic constant is
a. K kg mol¹ or K (molality)-1 b. mol kg K-¹ or K-¹(molality)
c. kg mol-1 K-1 or K-¹(molality)-1 d. K mol kg-¹ or K (molality)
Sol. a)K kg mol-¹ or K (molality)-1
11. In comparison to a 0.01 M solution of glucose, the depression in freezing point of a 0.01 M MgCl2
solution is
a. the same b. about twice c. about three times d. about six times
Sol. c)about three times
Explanation:0.01 M solution of glucose does not ionize whereas 0.01 M MgCl2 solution ionized in
3 ions (Mg2+ and 2Cl-) in the solution, hence the value of the colligative property for MgCl2
solution is about 3 times.
12. An unripe mango placed in a concentrated salt solution to prepare pickle shrivels because
a. it gains water due to osmosis. b. it loses water due to reverse osmosis.
c. it gains water due to reverse osmosis. d. it loses water due to osmosis.
Sol. d) it loses water due to osmosis.
Explanation:Water starts moving out of mango (lower concentration) to the salt solution or
brine
(higher concentration) due to osmosis as a result of mango shrivel.
13. At a given temperature, the osmotic pressure of a concentrated solution of a substance
a. is higher than that at a dilute solution. b. is lower than that of a dilute solution.
c. is same as that of a dilute solution.
d. cannot be compared with the osmotic pressure of the dilute solution.
Sol. a) is higher than that at a dilute solution.
Explanation:π = CRT
where C is the concentration of the solution and pi is the osmotic pressure. So, the higher the
concentration of solution at a given temperature the higher will be the osmotic pressure
14. Which of the following statements is false?
a. Two different solutions of sucrose of the same molality prepared in different solvents will have the
same depression in freezing point.
b. The osmotic pressure of a solution is given by equation II = CRT (where C is the molarity of the
solution).
c. Decreasing order of osmotic pressure for 0.01 M aqueous solutions of barium chloride, potassium
chloride, acetic acid and sucrose is BaCl2 > KCI > CH3COOH > sucrose.
d. According to Raoult's law, the vapour pressure exerted by a volatile component of a solution is
directly proportional to its mole fraction in the solution.
Sol.a)Two different solutions of sucrose of the same molality prepared in different solvents will
have the same depression in freezing point
15. The values of Van't Hoff factors for KCI, NaCl and K2SO4, respectively, are
a. 2, 2 and 2 b. 2, 2 and 3 c. 1, 1 and 2 d. 1, 1 and 1
Sol. b) 2, 2 and 3
Explanation:KCI (k+ and CI-) ionise to give 2 ions and NaCl (Na+ and CI-) ionise to give 2 ions
and K2SO4 (2K and SO4 2-) ionises to give 3 ions thus, van't Hoff factors for KCI, NaCl and
K2SO4 are 2, 2 and 3 respectively.
16. Which of the following statements is false?
a. Units of atmospheric pressure and osmotic pressure are the same.
b. In reverse osmosis, solvent molecules move through a semipermeable membrane from a region of
lower concentration of solute to a region of higher concentration.
c. The value of molal depression constant depends on the nature of the solvent.
d. Relative lowering of vapour pressure is a dimensionless quantity.
Sol. b)In reverse osmosis, solvent molecules move through a semipermeable membrane from a
region of lower concentration of solute to a region of higher concentration.
Explanation:In reverse osmosis, pure solvent molecules move through a semipermeable
membrane from a higher concentration of solute to lower concentration. Reverse osmosis is used
in the desalination of sea water.
17. Value of Henry's law constant KH
a. increases with increase in temperature. b. decreases with increase in temperature.
c. remains constant. d. first increases then decreases.
Sol. a)increases with increase in temperature.
Explanation:Value of Henry's law constant increases with an increase in temperature.
18. The value of Henry's constant KH is
a. greater for gases with higher solubility. b. greater for gases with lower solubility.
c. constant for all gases. d. not related to the solubility of gases.
Sol. b)greater for gases with lower solubility.
Explanation:The higher the value of KH at a given temperature, the lower is the solubility of a
gas in the liquid.
19. Consider Fig. and mark the correct option.
a. water will move from the side (A) to side (B) if a pressure lower than the osmotic pressure is
applied on piston (B).
b. water will move from the side (B) to side (A) if a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is
applied on piston (B).
c. water will move from the side (B) to side (A) if a pressure equal to osmotic pressure is applied on
piston (B).
d. water will move from the side (A) to side (B) if pressure equal to osmotic pressure is applied on
piston (A).
Sol. b) water will move from the side (B) to side (A) if a pressure greater than the osmotic
pressure is applied on piston (B).
20. We have three aqueous solutions of NaCl labeled as A, B and C with concentrations 0.1M, 0.01M
and 0.001M, respectively. The value of van't Hoff factor for these solutions will be in the order
а. iA < iB < iC b. iA > iB> iC
c. iA = iB = iC d. iA< iB > iC
Sol. c) iA = iB = iC
Explanation: The value of van't Hoff's factor will be i_{A} = i_{B} = i_{C} due to the complete
dissociation of strong electrolyte (NaCl) in dilute solutions. On complete dissociation value of
van't Haff factor for NaCl is 2.
21. On the basis of information given below mark the correct option.
Information:
a. In bromoethane and chloroethane mixture intermolecular interactions of A-A and B-B type are
nearly the same as A-B type interactions.
b. In ethanol and acetone mixture A-A or B-B type, intermolecular interactions are stronger than A-B
type interactions.
c. In chloroform and acetone mixture A-A or B-B type, intermolecular interactions are weaker than A-
B type interactions.
a. Solution (B) and (C) will follow Raoult's law. b. Solution (A) will follow Raoult's law.
c. Solution (B) will show a negative deviation from Raoult's law.
d. Solution (C) will show a positive deviation from Raoult's law.
Sol. b)Solution (A) will follow Raoult's law.
22. Two beakers of capacity 500 mL were taken. One of
these beakers, labelled as "A", was filled with 400 mL
water whereas the beaker labelled "B" was filled with 400
mL of 2M solution of NaCl. At the same temperature, both
the beakers were placed in closed containers of the same
material and same capacity as shown in Fig.
At a given temperature, which of the following
statement is correct about the vapour pressure of pure water and that of NaCl solution.
a. the vapour pressure in container (A) is more than that in a container (B).
b. the vapour pressure in container (A) is less than that in the container (B).
c. the vapour pressure is equal in both the containers.
d. the vapour pressure in container (B) is twice the vapour pressure in container (A).
Sol. a) the vapour pressure in container (A) is more than that in a container (B).
23. If two liquids A and B form minimum boiling azeotrope at some specific composition then
a. A-B interactions are stronger than those between A-A or B-B.
b. vapour pressure of solution increases because more number of molecules of liquids A and B can
escape from the solution.
c. vapour pressure of solution decreases because less number of molecules of only one of the liquids
escape from the solution.
d. A-B interactions are weaker than those between A-A or B-B.
Sol. d)A-B interactions are weaker than those between A-A or B-B.
Explanation:If A-B interactions will be weaker than A-A or B-B interaction then the result will be a
positive deviation. The solutions show a large positive deviation from minimum boiling azeotropes.
24. 4 L of 0.02 M aqueous solution of NaCl was diluted by adding one litre of water. The molality of
the resultant………..
a. 0.004 b. 0.008 c. 0.012 d. 0.016
Sol. d)0.016
Explanation:Apply the relation: M₁V₁ = M2V2 (number of mole of NaCl solution before and after
mixing with water is same)
Given: M₁ = 0.02 M, V₁ = 4 L, M2 = ?, V2 = 5 L (4L NaCl and 1L water)
Therefore 0.02 × 4 L = M2×5L
M2 = 0.08/5 = 0.016 M
25. On the basis of information given below mark the correct option.
Information: On adding acetone to methanol some of the hydrogen bonds between methanol molecules
break.
a. At specific composition, the methanol-acetone mixture will form minimum boiling azeotrope and
will show a positive deviation from Raoult's law.
b. At specific composition methanol-acetone mixture forms maximum boiling azeotrope and will show
positive deviation from Raoult's law.
c. At specific composition methanol-acetone mixture will form minimum boiling azeotrope and will
show negative deviation from Raoult's law.
d. At specific composition methanol-acetone mixture will form maximum boiling azeotrope and will
show negative deviation from Raoult's law.
Sol. a) At specific composition, the methanol-acetone mixture will form minimum boiling
azeotrope and will show a positive deviation from Raoult's law.
26. KH value for Ar, CO2 , HCHO and CH4 are 40.39, 1.67, 1.83 x 10-5 and 0.413 respectively.
Arrange these gases in the order of their increasing solubility.
a. HCHO < CH4 < CO2 < Ar
b. HCHO < CO2 < CH4 < Ar
c. Ar < CO2 < CH4 < HCHO
d. Ar < CH4 < CO2 < HCHO
Sol. c) Ar < CO2 < CH4 < HCHO
Explanation:The higher the value of KH, the lower is the solubility of the gases in the liquid.
27. Which of the following factor (s) affect the solubility of a gaseous solute in the fixed volume of
liquid solvent?
a. nature of solute b. temperature c. pressure
i. (a) and (c) at constant T ii. (a) and (b) at constant P
iii. (b) and (c) only iv. (c) only
[Link] (i) and (ii) are correct.
Explanation:At constant temperature, the solubility of a gaseous solute in a liquid depends on the
nature of solute and pressure. At constant pressure, solubility is dependent upon the nature of solute
and temperature.
28. Intermolecular forces between two benzene molecules are nearly of same strength as those
between two toluene molecules. For a mixture of benzene and toluene, which of the following are not
true?
a. mixH = 0 b. mixV = 0
c. These will form minimum boiling azeotrope. d. These will not form ideal solution.
Sol.(c, d) is incorrect
Explanation:△mixH = 0, △mixV = 0 As benzene and toluene will form an ideal solution. Also, ideal
solutions do not form minimum boiling azeotropes
29. Relative lowering of vapour pressure is a colligative property because
a. It depends on the concentration of a non electrolyte solute in a solution and does not depend on the
nature of the solute molecules.
b. It depends on the number of particles of electrolyte solute in a solution and does not depend on the
nature of the solute particles.
c. It depends on the concentration of a non electrolyte solute in solution as well as on the nature of the
solute molecules.
d. It depends on the concentration of an electrolyte or nonelectrolyte solute in solution as well as on
the nature of solute molecules.
Sol.(a, b) The relative lowering of vapour pressure depends on the concentration of non-
electrolyte solute particle in solution and number of particles of electrolyte solute. It does not
depend on nature (identity) of solute in both conditions
30. Van't Hoff factor i is given by the expression
a. i =Normal molar mass/ Abnormal molar mass
b. i =Abnormal molar mass/ Normal molar mass
c. i = Observed colligative property/ Calculated colligative property
d. i= Calculated colligative property/ Observed colligative property
Sol.(a, c)
31. Isotonic solutions must have the same
a. solute b. density
c. elevation in boiling point d. depression in freezing point
Sol.(c, d)
𝒏
Explanation:osmotic pressure π = CRT or ㅠ = RT . Isotonic solutions must have the same
𝒗
osmotic pressure at a given temperature hence must have the same volume and number of moles
i.e., the same concentration. Thus, the isotonic solutions have the same elevation in boiling point,
and depression in freezing point.
32. Which of the following binary mixtures will have same composition in liquid and vapour phase?
a. Benzene – Toluene b. Water-Nitric acid
c. Water-Ethanol d. n-Hexane - n-Heptane
Sol.(b, c) The non-ideal solution is binary mixtures with same composition in liquid and vapour
phase is azeotropes. There is two types of azeotropes. Water- nitric acid has maximum boiling
azeotrope and water-ethanol has a minimum boiling azeotrope.
33. In isotonic solutions
a. solute and solvent both are same.
b. osmotic pressure is same.
c. solute and solvent may or may not be same.
d. solute is always same solvent may be different.
Sol.(b, c) For isotonic solutions, osmotic pressure is the same, solute or solvent may or may not
be the same.
34. Components of a binary mixture of two liquids A and B were being separated by distillation.
After some time separation of components stopped and composition of vapour phase became
same as that of liquid phase. Both the components started coming in the distillate. Explain why
this happened.
Since both the components are coming in the distillate and composition of the liquid and vapour
phase become the same, this shows that liquids have formed azeotropic mixture. Therefore, these
components cannot be separated at this stage by distillation or fraction distillation.
34. Explain why on addition of 1 mol of NaCl to 1 litre of water, the boiling point of water
increases, while addition of 1 mol of methyl alcohol to one litre of water decreases its boiling
point.
NaCl is a non-volatile solute, therefore, the addition of NaCl to water lowers the vapour
pressure of water. As a result boiling point of water increases. On the other hand, methyl alcohol is
more volatile than water, therefore its addition increases the total vapour pressure over the solution. As
a result, the boiling point of water decreases.
36. Explain the solubility rule like dissolves like in terms of intermolecular forces that exist in
solutions.
A substance (solute) dissolves in a solvent if the intermolecular interactions are similar in both
the components.
For example, polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non-polar solutes in non-polar solvents.
Thus, we can say "like dissolves like" in term of intermolecular forces.
37. Concentration terms such as mass percentage, ppm, mole fraction and molality are
independent of temperature, however, molarity is a function of temperature. Explain.
Molarity (M) of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre (or
one cubic decimetre) of solution. since volume depends on temperature and changes with change in
temperature, therefore, the molarity will also change with change in temperature as molarity is a
function of temperature. On the other hand, mass does not change with change in temperature, and
therefore, concentration terms such as mass percentage, mole fraction and molality which do not
involve volume are independent of temperature.
38. Why are aquatic species more comfortable in cold water in comparison to warm water?
At a given pressure the solubility of oxygen in water increases with a decrease in temperature.
Therefore, the concentration of oxygen in the sea is more in cold water and thus the presence of more
oxygen at a lower temperature makes the aquatic species more comfortable in cold water.
39. a. Explain the following phenomena with the help of Henry's law.
i. Painful condition known as bends.
ii. Feeling of weakness and discomfort in breathing at high altitude.
b. Why soda water bottle kept at room temperature fizzes on opening?
a.
i. Deep-sea divers depend upon compressed air for breathing at high pressure underwater. The
compressed air contains N2 in addition to 02, which are not very soluble in blood at normal pressure.
However, at great depths when the diver breathes compressed air from the supply tank, more N₂
dissolves in the blood and other body fluids because the pressure at that depth is far greater than the
surface atmospheric pressure, therefore, increase pressure increases the solubility of atmospheric gases
in the blood. When the scuba divers comes towards the surface, the pressure decreases, N2 comes out
of the body quickly forming bubbles in the bloodstream. These bubbles restrict blood flow, affect the
transmission of
blood flow, affect the transmission of nerve impulses. The bubbles can even burst the capillaries or
block them and starve the tissues of O2 and create a medical condition called the bends which are
painful and life-threatening.
ii. At high altitudes, the partial pressure of O2 is less than that at the ground level. This results in a low
concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of the people living at high altitudes or climbers. The
low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly, symptoms of a
condition known as anoxia.
b. To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks, the soda water bottles are sealed under high
pressure. When the soda bottle is opened at room temperature under normal atmospheric conditions,
the pressure inside the soda bottle decreases to atmospheric pressure and excess CO2 fizzes out of the
bottle.
40. Why is the vapour pressure of an aqueous solution of glucose lower than that of water?
In pure liquid water, the entire surface of the pure liquid is occupied by the molecules of water.
When a non-volatile solute, such as glucose is dissolved in water some of the surfaces are covered by
non-volatile glucose molecules Therefore, the fraction of the surface covered by the solvent molecules
results in escaping. Hence, the number of solvent molecules escaping from the surface also gets
reduced and consequently, the vapour pressure of an aqueous solution of glucose decreases.
41. How does sprinkling of salt help in clearing the snow covered roads in hilly areas? Explain
the phenomenon involved in the process.
 When salt is spread over snow-covered roads, it lowers the freezing point of water due to the
addition of salt to such an extent that water does not freeze to form ice. As a result, the snow starts
melting from the surface, and therefore, it helps in clearing the roads in hilly areas. Hence, common
salt acts as a anti freezing agent
42. What is a semi-permeable membrane?
A membrane having the property that permits the flow of solvent molecules and not the solute
molecules is called the semipermeable membrane SMP. During osmosis and reverse osmosis, only
solvent molecules move across the semipermeable membrane.
43. Give an example of a material used for making semipermeable membrane for carrying out
reverse osmosis.
Film of cellulose acetate, potassium ferrocyanide, etc. are used as a semipermeable membrane
for carrying out the reverse osmosis.
44. Assertion (A): Molarity of a solution in liquid state changes with temperature.
Reason (R): The volume of a solution changes with a change in temperature.
a. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b. Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
c. A is true but R is false.
d. A is false but R is true.
Sol.a)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.