UNIT-5:

REFRIGERATION SYSTEM EQUIPMENT,

APPLICATIONS AND OTHER SYSTEMS
 Compressors
• It is the most important part of any vapour
compression refrigeration system and usually most
costliest.
• It removes low temperature and low pressure
refrigerant vapours from the cooling coil through the
suction line.
• It compresses these refrigerant vapours by increasing
the pressure and temperature resulting in an increase
of boiling point of the refrigerant,
• It discharges the refrigerant vapours of high
temperature and pressure to condenser through
discharge line.
Classification of Compressors

1. Based on Working Principle

 Classification of Compressors
2. Based on arrangement of compressor
motor or external devices
- Open Type
- Hermetic (or Sealed Type)
- Semi-Hermetic (Or Semi-Sealed Type)
Reciprocating Compressor
• A reciprocating compressor is
also called a piston compressor
which adopts the back and forth
piston motion in a cylinder
synchronized with suction and
discharge valves to compress the
vaporized refrigerant from a low
pressure and temperature to a
high pressure and temperature.
• The motion of the piston is
achieved via a crankshaft which
converts motor rotations to
piston reciprocations.
• Each operation cycle includes
three actions: suction,
compression and discharge. Each
crankshaft rotation can achieve
these three actions in sequence;
as a result, the gas displacement
is discontinuous which causes
Ankur Sachdeva, Assistant Provfeib rar (M
sso tiEo) n.
Scroll Compressor
• Scroll compressors use two offset
spiral disks nested together to
compress the refrigerant. The upper
disk is stationary while the lower disk
moves in orbital fashion.
• Scroll compressors are quiet,
smooth-operating units with few
moving parts and the highest
efficiency ratio of all compressor
types.
• A rotary-scroll compressor is used to
compress larger volumes of gaseous
refrigerant to a higher pressure and
temperature via a fixed and orbital
scroll.
• Scroll compressors are commonly
used in automobile air conditioning
systems and commercial chillers.
Working of Scroll Compressors
Centrifugal Compressor
• Centrifugal compressors use the
rotating action of an impeller wheel
to exert centrifugal force on
refrigerant inside a round chamber
(volute).
• Unlike other designs, centrifugal
compressors do not operate on the
positive displacement principle, but
have fixed volume chambers.
• They are well suited to compressing
large volumes of refrigerant to
relatively low pressures. The
compressive force generated by an
impeller wheel is small, so systems
that use centrifugal compressors
usually employ two or more
stages (impellers wheels) in series to
generate high compressive forces.
• Centrifugal compressors are desirable
for their simple design, few moving
parts, and energy efficiency when
operating multiple stages.
 Working of
Centrifugal Compressor
Open Type Compressor
• In this type, compressor and
motor works as two
separate units and they
have a distinct casing for
both of them.
• The compressor is
connected to the motor by
a belt or crankshaft.
• Open type compressors are
not leak proof as they are
most susceptible to the
leaks.
• They rely on shaft seals in
order to prevent leakage of
working fluids and then to
retain the internal pressure.
Hermetic (Sealed Type)
Compressor
• In hermetic compressors,
the motor and the
compressor are enclosed in
the same housing to
prevent refrigerant leakage.
• The housing has welded
connections for refrigerant
inlet and outlet and for
power input socket.
• As a result of this, there is
virtually no possibility of
refrigerant leakage from the
compressor.
 Semi-Hermetic
( or Semi-Sealed Type) Compressor
• Semi-hermetic compressor
also encloses the motor
compressor by common
housing.
• It prevents the leakage of
the fluid.
• In a semi-hermetic
compressor, the casing is
bolted together instead of
rigidly welding.
• The casing can be opened
to repair motor and other
components
Characteristics of Compressors
Applications of Compressors
TYPES OF CONDENSERS
 Condensers
• A condenser is a heat exchanger which removes
heat of the hot vapor refrigerant discharged from
the compressor.
• In condensers the refrigerant vapour condenses
by rejecting heat to an external fluid, which acts
as a heat sink.
• Normally, the external fluid does not undergo any
phase change, except in some special cases such
as in cascade condensers, where the external
fluid (another refrigerant) evaporates.
Condensers
• In a typical refrigerant
condenser, the refrigerant
enters the condenser in a
superheated state.
• It is first de-superheated
and then condensed by
rejecting heat to an external
medium.
• The refrigerant may leave
the condenser as a
saturated or a sub-cooled
liquid, depending upon the
temperature of the external
medium and design of the
condenser.
Classification of Condensers
Based on external fluid
(1) Air-cooled condensers
(2) Water-cooled
condensers, and
Air-Cooled Condensers
(3) Evaporative condensers

Water-Cooled Condensers

Ankur Sachdeva, Assistant Professor (ME) Evaporative Condensers

 Air-Cooled Condensers
• In air-cooled condensers, air is the external
fluid, i.e., the refrigerant rejects heat to air
flowing over the condenser.
• Air-cooled condensers can be further
classified into natural convection type or
forced convection type.
 Natural Convection Type
Air-Cooled Condenser
• In natural convection type, heat
transfer from the condenser is by
buoyancy induced natural
convection and radiation.
• Since the flow rate of air is small
and the radiation heat transfer is
also not very high, the combined
heat transfer coefficient in these
condensers is small.
• As a result a relatively large
condensing surface is required to
reject a given amount of heat.
• Hence these condensers are used
for small capacity refrigeration
systems like household
refrigerators and freezers.
• The natural convection type
condensers are either plate
Wire and Tube Type condenser surface type or finned tube type.
(Natural Convection Type)
Forced Convection Type
Air-Cooled Condenser
• In forced convection type
condensers, the circulation
of air over the condenser
surface is maintained by
using a fan or a blower.
• These condensers normally
use fins on air-side for good
heat transfer.
• Forced convection type
condensers are commonly
used in window air
conditioners, water coolers
and packaged air
conditioning plants.
 Water-Cooled Condensers
• In water cooled condensers water is the
external fluid. Depending upon the
construction, water cooled condensers can be
further classified into:
1. Double pipe or tube-in-tube type
2. Shell-and-coil type
3. Shell-and-tube type
Double Pipe Water-Cooled
Condenser
• These are also called as Tube-in-
tube type condensers
• Double pipe condensers are
normally used up to 10 TR
capacity.
• In these condensers the cold
water flows through the inner
tube, while the refrigerant flows
through the annulus in counter
flow.
• Headers are used at both the
ends to make the length of the
condenser small and reduce
pressure drop.
• The refrigerant in the annulus
rejects a part of its heat to the
surroundings by free convection
and radiation.
Shell and Coil Type Condenser
• These condensers are used
in systems up to 50 TR
capacity.
• The water flows through
multiple coils, which may
have fins to increase the
heat transfer coefficient.
• The refrigerant flows
through the shell.
• In smaller capacity
condensers, refrigerant
flows through coils while
water flows through the
shell
Shell and Tube Type Condenser
• This is the most common type of
condenser used in systems from 2
TR upto thousands of TR capacity.
• In these condensers the
refrigerant flows through the
shell while water flows through
the tubes in single to four passes.
• The condensed refrigerant
collects at the bottom of the
shell.
• The coldest water contacts the
liquid refrigerant so that some
sub-cooling can also be obtained.
• Vertical shell-and-tube type
condensers are usually used with
ammonia in large capacity
systems so that cleaning of the
tubes is possible from top while
the plant is running
Evaporative Condensers
• In evaporative condensers, both
air and water are used to
extract heat from the
condensing refrigerant .
• In these condensers, the water
is sprayed from top part on a
bank of tubes carrying the
refrigerant and air is induced
upwards.
• There is a thin water film
around the condenser tubes
from which evaporative cooling
takes place.
• The water spray countercurrent
to the airflow acts as cooling
tower.
• The role of air is primarily to
increase the rate of evaporation
of water.
TYPES OF EXPANSION DEVICES
Location of Expansion Device in
VCRS
 Functions
• Expansion valve is the term usually used in industry
for any device that meters or regulates the flow of
liquid refrigerant to an evaporator . The expansion
device performs the following functions :
• To reduce the pressure of liquid refrigerant coming
from the condenser.
• To maintain the desire pressure difference between
the high pressure and low pressure sides of the
system.
• To control the flow of refrigerant according to
variation of load on the evaporator
 Types of Expansion Devices
• Capillary Tube
• Hand Expansion Valve
• Automatic Expansion Valve
• Thermostatic Expansion Valve
• Low-Side Float
• High Side Float
Capillary Tube
• A capillary tube is a long, narrow
tube of constant diameter.
• Typical tube diameters of
refrigerant capillary tubes range
from 0.5 mm to 3 mm and the
length ranges from 1.0 m to 6 m.
• The refrigerant has to overcome the
frictional resistance offered by tube
walls. This leads to some pressure
drop
• The liquid refrigerant flashes
(evaporates) into mixture of liquid
and vapour as its pressure reduces.
• The density of vapour is less than
that of the liquid. Hence, the
average density of refrigerant
decreases as it flows in the tube.
• The mass flow rate and tube
diameter (hence area) being
constant, the velocity of refrigerant
increases
Ankur Sachdeva, Assistant Professor, ME
Hand Expansion Valve
• Hand expansion valve
comprises of main body,
valve seat, and hand wheel
which is actuated to change
the opening area around
the valve seat to adjust the
frictional resistance to the
refrigerant flow.
• The rate of the refrigerant
flow through the valve
depends on the pressure
differential across the valve
and opening of the valve.
Automatic Expansion Valve
• It is also known as a
constant pressure
expansion valve which
acts in such a manner
so as to maintain a
constant pressure and
thereby a constant
temperature in the
evaporator.
 Working of
Automatic Expansion Valve
• The valve consists of an adjustment
spring that can be adjusted to
maintain the required temperature in
the evaporator.
• This exerts force Fs on the top of the
diaphragm. The atmospheric
pressure, Po also acts on top of the
diaphragm and exerts a force of Fo =
Po Ad, Ad being the area of the
diaphragm.
• The evaporator pressure Pe acts
below the diaphragm. The force due
to evaporator pressure is F e= P eAd.
• The net downward force Fs + Fo- Fe is
fed to the needle by the diaphragm.
• This net force along with the force
due to follow-up spring Ffs controls
the location of the needle with
respect to the orifice and thereby
controls the orifice opening
Thermostatic Expansion Valve
• The thermostatic expansion valve
consists of a needle valve, a seat, a
metallic diaphragm, a spring,
adjusting screw and a feeler bulb.
• The opening or closing of valve
depends upon following forces acting
on the diaphragm:
(i) Spring pressure acting on bottom
of diaphragm
(ii) Evaporator pressure acting on
bottom of diaphragm
(iii) Feeler bulb pressure acting on
top of diaphragm
• If load on evaporator increases, it
causes the liquid refrigerant to boil
faster in evaporator coil.
• Since feeler bulb is installed on the
suction line, therefore it is at the
same temperature as refrigerant at
that point. So temperature of the
bulb increases due to early
vaporization of refrigerant.
Thermostatic Expansion Valve
• Thus the feeler bulb pressure increases
and gets transmitted through the
capillary tube to the diaphragm. The
diaphragm moves downwards, opening
the valve to admit more liquid
refrigerant into the evaporator.
• This continues till pressure equilibrium
on diaphragm is reached, at which
feeler bulb pressure acting at top of
diaphragm is balanced by spring and
evaporator pressure acting at bottom of
diaphragm.
• When evaporator load decreases, less
liquid refrigerant evaporates in the coil,
and the excess liquid flows towards the
outlet. This cools the feeler bulb and its
pressure and temperature decreases.
• This pressure makes the diaphragm
move upward, reducing the valve
opening and in turn decreasing
refrigerant flow to evaporator. This
causes decrease in evaporator pressure
and again continues till diaphragm
pressure equilibrium is reached.
Low Side Float Valve
• A low-side float valve maintains a
constant liquid level in a flooded
evaporator or a float chamber attached
to the evaporator.
• When the load on the system
increases, more amount of refrigerant
evaporates from the evaporator.
• As a result, the refrigerant liquid level
in the evaporator or the low-side float
chamber drops momentarily.
• The float then moves in such a way
that the valve opening is increased and
more amount of refrigerant flows into
the evaporator to take care of the
increased load and the liquid level is
restored.
• The reverse process occurs when the
load falls, i.e., the float reduces the
opening of the valve and less amount
of refrigerant flows into the evaporator
to match the reduced load.
High Side Float Valve
• A high-side float valve maintains
the liquid level constant in a float
chamber that is connected to the
condenser on the high pressure
side.
• When the load increases, more
amount of refrigerant evaporates
and condenses. As a result, the
liquid level in the float chamber
rises momentarily.
• The float then opens the valve
more to allow a higher amount of
refrigerant flow to cater to the
increased load, as a result the
liquid level drops back to the
original level.
• The reverse happens when the
load drops.
TYPES OF EVAPORATORS
Introduction
• It is used on the low
pressure side of the
refrigeration system.
• The function of an
evaporator is to absorb
heat from the
surrounding location or
medium which is to be
cooled by means of a
refrigerant.
 Classification of Evaporators
• According to operating conditions:
- Flooded type evaporators;
- Dry or direct expansion type evaporator
• According to type of construction:
- Bare tube coil evaporator
- Finned tube evaporator
- Plate evaporator
- Shell and tube evaporator
- Shell and coil evaporator
- Tube-in-tube evaporator
• According to the mode of heat transfer
– Natural Convection type
– Forced Convection type
 Flooded Type Evaporators

• In a flooded evaporator, a constant liquid level is always maintained.

• A float control valve is used as an expansion device which maintains the constant level of
refrigerant in the evaporator.
• Refrigerant vapour formed in the float chamber is sent directly to the compressor and it
does not take part in refrigeration process.
• Baffles used in accumulator traps any liquid refrigerant from vapour refrigerant going to
the compressor.
• Only liquid refrigerant is allowed to enter into the evaporator.
Dry Expansion Type Evaporators
• Liquid refrigerant is fed
into the dry expansion
evaporator by an
expansion device which
Air-Cooled Condensers meters the liquid into
the evaporator at a rate
such that all the liquid is
vaporized by the time it
reaches the end of the
evaporator coil.

Ankur Sachdeva, Assistant Professor (ME) Evaporative Condensers

 Comparison b/w Flooded and
Dry Expansion Type Evaporators
Flooded Type Evaporator Dry Expansion Evaporator
It has refrigerant liquid present all They are usually only one-fourth to one-
through its coil. third filled with liquid refrigerant.
This evaporator is heavy due to large This evaporator is light due to small
charge. charge.
It has higher efficiency due to wetted It has lesser efficiency due to gas to gas
surface. heat transfer.
It is used only for large plants. It is used for domestic applications.
Vapour from evaporator is in saturated Vapour is superheated to some extent.
condition since evaporator is filled with
liquid refrigerant
Liquid refrigerant trapped in accumulator Refrigerant does not recirculate within
is re-circulated through evaporator. evaporator.
Bare Tube Evaporator
• The bare tube evaporators are
made up of copper tubing or
steel pipes.
• The copper tubing is used for
small evaporators where the
refrigerant other than ammonia
is used, while the steel pipes are
used with the large evaporators
where ammonia is used as the
refrigerant.
• The bare tube evaporator
comprises of several turns of the
tubing, though most commonly
flat zigzag and oval trombone are
the most common shapes.
• They are used for chilling of the
liquids
Finned Tube Type
• These evaporators are
used for cooling and
dehumidifying the air
directly by the refrigerant
flowing in the tubes.
• It consists of coils placed
in a number of rows with
fins mounted on it to
increase the heat transfer
area.
• They are normally used in
window type or split type
air-conditioners.
Plate Type
• Two flat sheets of metal
(usually aluminum) are
embossed in such a
manner that when
these are welded
together, the embossed
portion of the two
plates makes a passage
for refrigerant to flow.
• This type is used in
household refrigerators.
Double Pipe Evaporators
• They are also known as tube
in tube type evaporators
• It consists of one tube
inside the another tube.
• The liquid to be cooled
flows in the inner tube
whereas the primary
refrigerant flows in the
annular space between the
outer and inner tube.
• Double pipe evaporators
provides high heat transfer
rates.
• They are used in petroleum
industry for chilling of oil.
Transmission and Distribution of Air
through Ducts and Fans
Schematic Diagram of
Airconditioning System
 What are Ducts
• Ducts are conduits or passages used in heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning (HVAC) to deliver and remove air.
• The needed air flows include, for example, supply
air, return air, and exhaust air.
• Ducts commonly also deliver ventilation air as part of the
supply air.
• As such, air ducts are one method of ensuring
acceptable indoor air quality as well as thermal comfort.
• Ducts work on the principle of air pressure difference. If a
pressure difference exists, air will flow from an area of high
pressure to an area of low pressure.
• The larger this difference, the faster the air will flow to the
low-pressure area.
 Aspect Ratio
• Aspect Ratio is the ratio of the dimensions of
the two adjacent sides of a rectangular duct.
• Mathematically, Aspect ratio = a/b

a
A rectangular duct section with an aspect ratio close to 1 yields the most
efficient rectangular duct shape in terms of conveying air. A duct with
an aspect ratio above 4 is much less efficient in use of material and
experiences great pressure losses.
 Classification of Ducts
1. According to the pressure of air
- Low Pressure : Static Pressure <50 mm of water
- Medium Pressure : 50 mm< Static Pressure< 150 mm of water
- High Pressure: 150 mm< Static Pressure< 250 mm of water
2. According to the velocity of air
- Low Velocity: Velocity of air < 10 m/s
- High Velocity : Velocity of air > 10 m/s
3. According to the type of air
- Fresh Air : carries outside air
- Supply Air : carries conditioned air to the space to be conditioned
-Return Air : carries recirculated air from the conditioned space
 Material of the Duct
Type Advantages
Galvanized Iron Zinc coating of this metal prevents rusting and avoids
cost of painting
Aluminium Lightweight, Quick to install, Easily fabricated into
different shapes
Flexible Plastic Convenient for attaching supply air outlets to the rigid
ductwork
Fiber-Glass Built-in thermal insulation and the interior surface
absorbs sound
Wood Used in applications where moisture content is less in
air
 Transmission of Air
• In an AHU, air is transmitted through various ducts and
other components with the help of fans.
• Since the fan motor consumes a large amount of
power, and the duct system occupies considerable
building space, the design of air transmission system is
an important step in the complete design of air
conditioning systems.
• In the end the success of any air conditioning system
depends on the design of individual components as
well as a good matching between them under all
conditions.
• In order to design the system for transmission of air, it
is important to understand the fundamentals of fluid
(air) flow through ducts
 Flow of Air through Ducts
• The fundamental equation to be used in the analysis of
air conditioning ducts is the Bernoulli’s equation.
• Bernoulli’s equation is valid between any two points in
the flow field when the flow is steady, irrotational,
inviscid and incompressible.
• The equation is valid along a streamline for rotational,
steady and incompressible flows.
• Between any two points 1 and 2 in the flow field for
irrotational flows, the Bernoulli’s equation is written as:
 Flow of Air through Ducts
• The above equation implies that for frictionless flow
through a duct, the total pressure remains constant
along the duct.
• Since all real fluids have finite viscosity, i.e. in all
actual fluid flows, some energy will be lost in
overcoming friction.
• This is referred to as head loss, i.e. if the fluid were to
rise in a vertical pipe it will rise to a lower height than
predicted by Bernoulli’s equation.
• The head loss will cause the total pressure to decrease
in the flow direction. If the head loss is denoted by Hl
then Bernoulli’s equation can be modified to:
 Fan Total Pressure (FTP)
• To overcome the fluid friction and the resulting head,
a fan is required in air conditioning systems.
• When a fan is introduced into the duct through
which air is flowing, then the static and total
pressures at the section where the fan is located rise.
• This rise is called as Fan Total Pressure (FTP). Then
the required power input to the fan is given by:
 Fan Total Pressure (FTP)
• The FTP should be such that it overcomes the
pressure drop of air as it flows through the duct and
the air finally enters the conditioned space with
sufficient momentum so that a good air distribution
can be obtained in the conditioned space.
• Evaluation of FTP is important in the selection of a
suitable fan for a given application
 Estimation of Pressure Drop
• As air flows through a duct its total pressure drops in
the direction of flow. The pressure drop is due to:
1. Fluid friction
2. Momentum change due to change of direction
and/or velocity
• The pressure drop due to friction is known as frictional
pressure drop or friction loss, Δpf
• The pressure drop due to momentum change is
known as momentum pressure drop or dynamic loss,
Δpd
• Thus the total pressure drop Δpt is given by:
Flow of Air in a Duct
Flow of Air in a Duct
Flow of Air in a Duct
 Flow of Air in a Duct
• For Actual case,

• Where pL is the total pressure drop between

section 1-1 and 2-2
• If a fan is installed between the two sections
then, above equation changes into

• Where pTF is the Fan Total Pressure

 Some Important Points
• Pressures in the duct are usually expressed in mm of water
• Properties of standard air in the duct:
– Temperature of air, Ta = 20°C,
– Pressure of air, Pa = 1.01325 bar
– Density of air, ρa, at 20°C = 1.2 (kg/m3)
 Evaluation of frictional
pressure drop in ducts
• Frictional pressure drop in internal flows are
calculated using Darcy-Weisbach equation:

• Where
– f is the dimensionless friction factor,
– L is the length of the duct and
– m is the hydraulic mean depth
– Friction factor is a function of Reynolds number
 Estimation of Pressure Drop

But

Therefore

For Circular Duct For Rectangular Duct

Calculation of Friction factor
Surface Roughness of Materials..
Moody’s Chart for friction factor
(Circular Ducts/Pipes)
Equivalent Diameter of a Circular
duct
Two cases:
for a Rectangular Duct
(i) When quantity of air, Q , passing through the circular and rectangular duct is same
(ii) When velocity of air, V , passing through the circular and rectangular duct is same

Case (i) When Quantity of air, Q, is same

 duct
Equivalent Diameter of a Circular
Duct for a Rectangular Duct

Pressure Loss due to friction,

Hydraulic mean depth,

 Equivalent Diameter of a Circular
Duct for a Rectangular Duct
Pressure loss due to friction in rectangular duct,

Since the pressure loss, friction factor, length, density and quantity of air for the circular
and rectangular duct is same , we have
Equivalent Diameter of a Circular
Duct for a Rectangular Duct
Case (ii) When Velocity of air, V, is same

Pressure loss due to friction in circular duct,

Pressure loss due to friction in rectangular duct ,

Since the pressure loss, friction factor, length, density and velocity of air for the
circular and rectangular duct is same , we have
Food Preservation, Cold Storage,
Refrigerators & Water Coolers
 Definition
• Food Preservation may be defined as the process
of treating and handling food in such a way as to
stop, control, or greatly slow down spoilage and,
of course, to minimize the possibility of food-
borne illness while maintaining the optimum
nutritional value, texture, and flavor.
• Shelf-life may be defined as the time it takes a
product to decline to an unacceptable level.
Deterioration of foods will result in loss of quality
attributes, including flavor, texture, color, and
other sensory properties.
 Advantages of Food Preservation
• increased shelf-life
• decreased hazards from microbial pathogen
• decreased spoilage (microbial, enzymatic)
• inactivation of anti-nutritional factors
• ensured round the year availability of seasonal foods
• perishable foods that can be transported to far-off distances from
the site of production
• increased availability of convenience foods (e.g. Ready-to-serve
beverages, Instant mixes etc.)
• increased variety of foods, some with enhanced sensory properties
and nutritional attributes.
• preservation in some cases produces a different form of the
products which are of great importance in various cuisines. E.g.
raisins, squash and wines made from grapes.
 Factors Leading to Food Spoilage
• Spoilage due to physical change
– Impact, bruising and squeezing
– desiccation or dehydration
• Spoilage due to chemical change
– Internal spoiling agents : Enzymes
– External spoiling agents: bacteria, yeast, moulds
(fungus)
 Methods of Food Preservation

• Heat processing
• Dehydration
• Chemical preservation
• Canning
• Pasteurization
• Freezing
 Refrigeration in Food
Preservation
1. Food processing:
(i) Slow freezing
(ii) Quick freezing
-Indirect contact freezing
-Air blast freezers
-Immersion freezing
2. Food Preservation:
- Cold storages
3. Distribution:
-Refrigerated vehicles
Recommended Storage Temps.
Product Storage Temperature
Milk 4°C
Butter, Sweets 2°C to 8°C
Ice-Cream -20°C to -22°C
Vegetables 2°C to 8°C
Fruits 0°C to 4°C
Meat -20°C
Pharma Products 2°C to 8°C
Frozen Fish -18°C to -29°C
Cheese -18°C
 Cold Storage
• Cold storage is the one widely practiced method for bulk
handling of the perishables between production and
marketing processing.
• It is one of the methods of reserving perishable
commodities in fresh and whole some state for a longer
period by controlling temperature and humidity with in the
storage system.
• Maintaining adequately low temperature is critical, as
otherwise it will cause chilling injury to the produce. Also,
relative humidity of the storeroom should be kept as high
as 80-90% for most of the perishables, below (or) above
which his detrimental effect on the keeping quality of the
product.
Working of Cold Storage plant
• The working principle of the cold
storage is based upon the vapour
compression refrigeration cycle.
• The refrigerant (ammonia) is
compressed by the compressor
and is delivered to the condenser
which is cooled by a fan.
• The high pressure liquid after
being cooled by a condenser is
collected in a receiver from
where it goes to the expansion
valve.
• The expansion valve takes the
required quantity of the
refrigerant depending upon the
load on the evaporator.
Working of Cold Storage plant
• Evaporator: It is the heat
exchanger where actual cooling
takes place. It evaporates
(vaporize) the low-pressure, low-
temperature liquid refrigerant
(with low boiling point) by
taking/utilizing heat from
atmosphere/storage
compartment to be cooled, thus
heat content of fruits or
vegetable decrease and it cool
due to this cyclic process (Chilled
air is produced due to convection
current)
• Blowers: It circulates chilled air in
the refrigerated space to cool the
fruits and vegetables by
convection process.
 Benefits of Cold Storage
• Most fruits and vegetables have a very limited life after
harvest if held at normal harvesting temperatures.
Postharvest cooling rapidly removes field heat,
allowing longer storage periods.
• Proper postharvest cooling can:
– Reduce respiratory activity and degradation by enzymes;
– Reduce internal water loss and wilting;
– Slow or inhibit the growth of decay-producing
microorganisms;
– Reduce the production of the natural ripening agent,
ethylene.
Cold Storage Rooms..

Fruits Dairy Products

Frozen Fish
Domestic Refrigerator
Parts of a Refrigerator

• Freezer Compartment
• Thermostat Control
• Refrigerator
Compartment
• Crisper
• Refrigerator Door
Compartment
• Switch
Working of Domestic Refrigerator
(Ice Plant, Comfort and Industrial Air-
Conditioning)
 Introduction
• The function of an ice plant or ice factory is to make or
form ice in large quantities and in large size.
• The ice-making process is quite similar to the one we
observe in a domestic refrigerator.
• The only difference lies in the ice making the stage.
• In the freezer compartment, the tray with water when
it comes in contact with the very low-temperature
environment becomes ice but in an ice plant which is a
huge commercial factory, it uses separate ice making or
ice freezing circuits.
• The cold is produced in one circuit and it is transferred
to the water cans by another circuit.
 Refrigerants Used
• Ammonia:
• Reasons of using Ammonia
– It is the primary refrigerant
which takes heat from brine. • High Latent heat of
– This ammonia changes phase vapourization.
while moving in the circuit. • Zero ODP and low GWP
• Non-corrosive
• Produces very low temperature
required for ice formation
• Brine: • Reasons of using Brine:
– It is the secondary refrigerant
which takes heat from the • The addition of salt to water
water and produces ice. lowers the freezing temperature
of the solution
• The heat transport efficiency can
be greatly enhanced for the
comparatively low cost of the
material
 Circuits in an Ice plant
• Refrigeration circuit:
– Ammonia as working medium which actually
produces the cold by changes its phase at different
location
• Cooling water circuit:
– Cooling water as working medium to remove the heat
of condenser
• Brine circuit:
– Brine solution as working medium which transfers the
cold from ammonia to water-filled cans where ice is to
be formed.
Commercial Ice Plant
 Constructional Details
• Compressor: Its function is to increase the temperature and
pressure of Ammonia vapor coming out from evaporator.
• Condenser: It liquefies the high-pressure and high-temperature
Ammonia to high-pressure and high-temperature ammonia. Here
cool water comes in contact with the high-pressure and high-
temperature ammonia and provides the temperature for
condensation. The heated water is pumped and again taken to the
circuit after it has been cooled at natural cooling tower
• Receiver: It is used to collect the liquid ammonia from the
condenser.
• Throttle Valve: It expands liquid ammonia coming out from receiver to
low pressure.
• Evaporator: It vaporizes the liquid ammonia from throttle valve by
extracting heat from 'brine' and hence brine gets cooled and this
brine solution is recirculated to water tank containing 'ice cans filled
with water' to absorb the heat of water to freeze it and make ice.
 Working of an Ice Plant

• Low pressure and low-temperature ammonia

coming out from the throttle valve is vaporized by
taking the latent heat from the brine.
• This cooled brine further absorbs the heat from
water and converts water to ice.
• Vaporized ammonia is compressed to high
pressure and temperature and passes to
condenser.
• In condenser, superheated ammonia is
condensed by water circulated in cooling water
circuit having a natural cooling tower.
Water Coolers
Parts of a Water Cooler:
1. Compressor
2. Motor
3. Receiver
4. Condenser
5. Expansion Valve
6. Evaporating coils
surrounding water tank
7. Water Tank
8. Cover
9 & 10. Pressure gauges
Working of Water Cooler
• The working principle of the
water cooler is based upon the
vapour compression refrigeration
cycle.
• The refrigerant is compressed by
the compressor and is delivered
to the condenser which is cooled
by a fan.
• The high pressure liquid after
being cooled by a condenser is
collected in a receiver from
where it goes to the expansion
valve.
• The expansion valve takes the
required quantity of the
refrigerant depending upon the
load on the evaporator.
Working of Water Cooler
• As the refrigerant passed through the
expansion valve, its temperature falls
down considerably (up to – 10°C). Its
pressure also falls down.
• Then this liquid refrigerant passes
through the evaporator coils, which
surround the water tank (water may
be stored in it). The liquid refrigerant
in the coils absorbs its latent heat
from the water, leaving it cooled.
• The liquid refrigerant as it flows
through the evaporator coils is
converted into vapour and by the
time it leaves the coils, it is almost
converted into dry vapour. This
vapour is again compressed through
the compressor.
• This way this cycle is repeated again
and again. The cooled water may be
drained out and the fresh water may
be added to the tank for cooling
 Comfort Air-Conditioning
• Energy of food is converted into chemical energy for
functioning of brain, lungs, heart and other organs and
this energy is ultimately rejected to the surroundings.
• Also the internal organs require a temperature close to
35oC for their efficient operation, and regulatory
mechanisms of human body maintain this temperature
by rejecting appropriate amount of heat.
• Human beings do not feel comfortable if some extra
effort is required by the body to reject this energy.
• The air temperature, humidity and velocity at which
human body does not have to take any extra action, is
called comfort condition.
 Comfort Air-Conditioning
• The residences, offices, shopping centers, stores,
large buildings, theatres, auditorium etc. all have
slightly different requirements and require different
design.
• The required cooling capacities also vary widely
depending upon the application.
• Residences and small offices:
– Type of load: upto 2 TR
– Type of application : Window or Split Type Air conditioners.
 Comfort Air-Conditioning
• Buildings:
– Medium Sized: Package Type Air-conditioners
– Large Sized: Central Air-Conditioners
• Hospitals
– Sterile Atmosphere free from bacteria, viruses, dust,
spores etc
– Special attention to Operation Theatre (OT) and
Intensive Care Unit (ICU)
– 100% Fresh Air, more load as temperature difference
between atmosphere and conditioned space is large
 Comfort Air-Conditioning
• Large Commercial Buildings:
– Shopping centre, Recreation centre, Gymnasium etc. along
with high density of persons requires optimum utilization
of airconditioning resources and services.
• Restaurants and Theatres:
– Large no. of peoples are gathered at these places.
– Supply of sufficient fresh air is required to dilute the effect
of CO2, body odour, dissipating body heat, removing water
vapour generated due to transpiration, respiration,
cooking of food, etc.
• Large Stores and Supermarkets:
– Frozen food, refrigerated food, dairy products and
brewage requires different temperatures.
 Industrial Air-conditioning
• Airconditioning is required for improving processes and
materials
• Modern electronic chips (VLSI) dissipates large amount
of heat in a small volume.
• As the computing power of computer increases, more
and more cooling is required.
• Purpose of Industrial Air-Conditioning
– Provide conducive conditions so that the required
processes can be carried out and required products can be
produced.
– Provide partial measure of comfort to the people working
in the industries
Examples of Industrial Air Conditioning
• Laboratories:
– Precision Measurement, Performance Testing of materials,
Research in electronics and biotechnology, Applications
involving lasers.
• Printing:
– Precise control over temperature and humidity to avoid
curling and buckling of paper.
• Manufacture of Precision Parts:
– Low humidity, uniform temperature and cleanliness are
the requirements to prevent rust formation, malfunction
of different electrical and electronic components such as
switch, relay, chips.
Examples of Industrial Airconditioning
• Textile Industry:
– Spinning of yarn and its movement over spool using high
speed machinery requires very precise control over the
humidity.
• Pharmaceutical Industries:
– Prime requirement is sterile atmosphere where there is no
dust and airborne bacteria. Cleanliness is also required in
rooms where gelatin capsules are kept.
• Vehicular Air-conditioning:
– Bus, car, trains, ships, trams, aircrafts etc. all require air-
conditioning.
– Metabolic heat and water-vapour generated by the
persons due to high occupancy are to be rejected.
 Examples of
Industrial Airconditioning
• Photographic Material:
– Film used in photography are required to be
maintained at low temperature as it deteriorates at
high temperature and humidity.
– 100% Fresh air supply is required in the room where
films are developed.
• Power Plants:
– Modern power plants involves use of high speed
electronics for control of various devices.
– Air-conditioning is required for the persons and
microprocessors involved
Other Refrigeration Systems
 Cryogenic Refrigeration system
• A cryogenic refrigeration system is a specialized
cooling technology that produces and maintains very
low temperatures, typically below 150 K (-123°C).
• These systems are used for various applications
requiring extreme cold, such as superconductivity
research, scientific experiments, and the storage and
transport of cryogenic liquids.
• Cryogenic refrigeration systems are designed to
operate at temperatures significantly below standard
refrigeration, often reaching close to absolute zero.
•Refrigerants:
Common refrigerants used in cryogenic systems include liquid
helium, liquid hydrogen, and liquid nitrogen.
•Applications:
These systems are crucial for a variety of fields, including:
•Superconducting Research: Maintaining the low temperatures
required for superconducting materials to function.
•Scientific Experiments: Providing the extreme cold necessary
for certain experiments.
•Cryogenic Liquid Storage and Transport: Transporting and
storing cryogenic liquids like liquefied natural gas (LNG).
•MRI and other Medical Devices: Cooling the coils of MRI
machines and other equipment.
•Quantum Computing: Cooling qubits to extremely low
temperatures.
 Thermoelectric Refrigeration System
Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux
between the junctions of two different types of materials.

This effect is commonly used in camping and portable coolers and

for cooling electronic components and small instruments.

Applying a DC voltage difference across the thermoelectric module,

an electric current will pass through the module and heat will be
absorbed from one side and released at the opposite side. One
module face, therefore, will be cooled while the opposite face
simultaneously is heated.

On the other hand, maintaining a temperature difference between

the two junctions of the module, a voltage difference will be
generated across the module and an electrical power is delivered.
Peltier Effect
In 1834, a French watchmaker and part time
physicist, Jean Peltier found that an electrical
current would produce a temperature gradient at
the junction of two dissimilar metals.

The Peltier effect is the main contributor to all

thermoelectric cooling applications. It is
responsible for heat removal and heat absorbance
.
It states that when an electric current flows across
two dissimilar conductors, the junction of the
conductors will either absorb or emit heat
depending on the flow of the electric current.

The heat absorbed or released at the junction is

proportional to the input electric current. The
constant of proportionality is called the Peltier
coefficient.
 Applications

Include equipment used by military, medical, industrial,

consumer, scientific/laboratory, and telecommunications
organizations.

Uses range from simple food and beverage coolers for an

afternoon picnic to extremely sophisticated temperature control
systems in missiles and space vehicles.
 Thermoelectric Refrigeration System

Advantages Disadvantages
• Small size and light weight. Able to dissipate limited
• Compact and reliable. amount of heat flux.
• Steady-state operation. Lower COP as compared to
• No moving parts and fluids. VC systems.
• Durable and maintenance-free. Relegated to low heat flux
• Very long operation life. applications.
• Effective in spot cooling. More total heat to remove than
• Environmentally friendly. without a TEC
• No chlorofluorocarbons.
• Ability to heat and cool.
• Work in any orientation.
• Generate no electrical noise
• Can be powered directly by PV
cells
Steam Jet Refrigeration System
 INTRODUCTION
This system uses the principle of boiling the water below 100 ˚C. If the pressure on the
surface of the water is reduced below atmospheric pressure, water can be made to boil
at low temperatures. Water boils at 6˚C when the pressure on the surface is 5 cm of Hg
and at 10˚C when the pressure is 6.5 cms of Hg.

The very low pressure or high vacuum on the surface of the water can be maintained by
throttling the steam through jets or nozzles. The general arrangement of the system is
shown in the Fig.

Consider a flash chamber that contains 100 kg of water. If suddenly 1 kg of water is

removed by boiling, as pressure is reduced due to the throttling of steam through
nozzles. Approximately 2385 kJ of heat will be removed from the water, which is
equivalent to the heat of evaporation of water. Evaporating one more kg of water
reduces the remaining water temperature by 5.7˚C further. Thus by continuing this
process, the remaining water can be made to freeze.

Water is the refrigerant used in the steam jet refrigeration system. As water freezes at
0˚C, then either refrigeration has to be stopped, or some device is required to pump the
ice.
Schematic
 Working of
Steam Jet Refrigeration System
• High pressure steam is supplied to the nozzle from the boiler and it is expanded. Here,
the water vapor originated from the flash chamber is entrained with the high velocity
steam jet and it is further compressed in the thermo compressor.
• The kinetic energy of the mixture is converted into static pressure and mass is
discharged to the condenser. The condensate is usually returned to the boiler.
• Generally, 1% evaporation of water in the flash chamber is sufficient to decrease the
temperature of chilled water to 60°C.
• The chilled water in the flash chamber is circulated by a pump to the point of
application.
• The warm water from the load is returned to the flash chamber. The water is sprayed
through the nozzles to provide maximum surface area for cooling.
• The water, which is splashed in the chamber and any loss of cold water at the
application, must be replaced by makeup water added to the cold water circulating
system.
 APPLICATIONS
[Link] processing plant

[Link] plants

[Link]

[Link] and vulcanizing industries

[Link] and pulp industries

 Advantages of
Steam Jet Refrigeration System
a) It is flexible in operation; cooling capacity can be easily and
quickly changed.
b) It has no moving parts as such it is vibration-free.
c) It can be installed outdoors.
d) The weight of the system per ton of refrigerating capacity is less.
e) The system is very reliable, and the maintenance cost is less.
f) The system is particularly adapted to the processing of cold water
used in
Rubber mills,, distilleries, paper mills, food processing plants, etc.
g) This system is particularly used in air-conditioning installations,
because of the complete safety of water as refrigerant and the
ability to adjust quickly to load variations, and no hazard from the
leakage of the refrigerant.
 Disadvantages of
Steam Jet Refrigeration System
a) The use of direct evaporation to produce chilled water is usually
limited as a tremendous volume of vapour is to be handled.

b) About twice as much heat must be removed in the condenser of

a steam jet per ton of refrigeration compared with the vapour
compression system.

c) The system is useful for comfort air-conditioning, but it is not

practically feasible for water temperature below 40°C.
Vortex Tube Refrigeration System
 Vortex Tube Refrigeration System
It is one of the non-conventional types of refrigerating systems for the production of
Refrigeration. The schematic diagram of the vortex tube is shown in the figure.

It consists of a nozzle, diaphragm, valve, hot-air side, and cold-air side.

The nozzles are of converging or diverging, or converging-diverging type as per the

design. An efficient nozzle is designed to have higher velocity, greater mass flow and
minimum inlet losses.

The chamber is a portion of the nozzle and facilitates the tangential entry of high-velocity
air-stream into the hot side. Generally, the chambers are not of circular form, but they are
gradually converted into spiral form.

The hot side is cylindrical in cross section and is of different lengths as per design. Valve
obstructs the flow of air through the hot side, and it also controls the quantity of hot air
through the vortex tube. The diaphragm is a cylindrical piece of small thickness and has a
small hole of a specific diameter at the centre.

Air stream travelling through the core of the hot side is emitted through the diaphragm
hole. The cold side is a cylindrical portion through which cold air is passed.
Working of Vortex Tube Refrigeration System
 Working of Vortex Tube Refrigeration
System
Compressed air is passed through the nozzle as shown in Fig. Here, air expands and
acquires high velocity due to the particular shape of the nozzle.

A vortex flow is created in the chamber and air travels in spiral like motion along the
periphery of the hot side.

This flow is restricted by the valve. When the pressure of the air near valve is made
more than outside by partly closing the valve, a reversed axial flow through the core
of the hot side starts from high-pressure region to low-pressure region.

During this process, heat transfer takes place between reversed stream and forward
stream. Therefore, air stream through the core gets cooled below the inlet
temperature of the air in the vortex tube, while air stream in forward direction gets
heated up.

The cold stream escapes through the diaphragm hole into the cold side, while hot
stream is passed through the opening of the valve. By controlling the opening of the
valve, the quantity of the cold air and its temperature can be varied.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Vortex Tube Refrigeration System
Advantages
• It uses air as a refrigerant, so there is no leakage problem.
• Vortex tube is simple in design, and it avoids control systems.
• There are no moving parts in the vortex tube.
• It is lightweight and requires less space
• The initial cost is low, and its working expenses are also less,
where compressed air is readily available.
• Maintenance is simple, and no skilled labourers are required.
Disadvantages
• Its low COP
• Limited capacity and only a small portion of the compressed air
appears as the cold air limits its wide use in practice.
 Applications of
Vortex Tube Refrigeration System

• Vortex tubes are extremely small and as it produce hot as well as cold
air. It may be of use in industries where both are simultaneously
required.

• Temperature as low as –50 Degree C can be obtained without any

difficulty, so it is very much useful in industries for spot cooling of
electronic components.

• It is commonly used for body cooling of the workers in mines.

Magnetic Refrigeration System
❖Magnetic refrigeration is a cooling technology based on the
magneto caloric effect. This technique can be used to attain
extremely low temperatures (well below 1 Kelvin), as well as the
ranges used in common refrigerators, depending on the design of
the system.
❖It is a physical process that exploits the magnetic properties of
certain solid materials to produce refrigeration.
❖The refrigerant is often a paramagnetic salt, such as cerium
magnesium nitrate.
❖It gives cooling nearest to absolute zero than any other method
hence it made liquidification of gases easier.
❖At the same time it does not emit any CFC or HCFC compounds
hence it never affects our environment specially OZONE layer.
❖Magneto caloric effect was discovered in pure iron in 1881 by E.
Warburg.

❖DeDebye (1926) & Giauque (1927) proposed a improved

technique of cooling via adiabatic demagnetization independently.

❖The cooling technology was first demonstrated experimentally in

1933 by chemist Nobel Laureate William [Link] & his colleague
Dr.D.P. MacDougall for cryogenic purposes.

❖In 1997,Prof. Karl A. Gscheidner, Jr. by the lowa State University at

Ames Laboratory demonstrated the first near room temperature
proof of concept magnetic refrigerator.
❖MCE is a magneto-thermodynamic phenomenon in which a
reversible change in temperature of a suitable material is caused by
exposing the material to changing magnetic field.

❖All magnets bears a property called Currie effect i.e. If a

temperature of magnet is increased from lower to higher range at
certain temperature magnet looses the magnetic field.
❖Currie temperature depends on individual property of each
material.

❖As Energy input to the magnet is increased the orientation of the

magnetic dipoles in a magnet starts loosing orientation. And vice a
versa at curie temperature as magnet looses energy to the media it
regains the property.
• Process is similar to gas
compression and expansion
cycle as used in regular
refrigeration cycle

• Steps of thermodynamic Cycle :->

❖ Adiabatic Magnetization

❖ Isomagnetic Enthalpy Transfer

❖ Adiabatic demagnetization

❖ Isomagnetic Entropic Transfer

❖ Substance placed in insulated environment

❖ Magnetic field +H increased

❖ This causes the magnetic dipoles of the atoms to align

❖The net result is that total Entropy of the item is not reduced and
item heats up (T + ΔTad )
❖ Added heat removed by a fluid like water or helium (-Q)

❖Magnetic Field held constant to prevent the dipoles from

reabsorbing the heat.

❖After a sufficient cooling Magnetocalric material and coolant are

separated(H=0)
❖ Substance returned to another adiabatic(insulated) condition

❖ Entropy remains constant

❖ Magnetic field is decreased

❖Thermal Energy causes the Magnetic moments to overcome the

field and sample cools(adiabatic temperature change)

❖ Energy transfers from thermal entropy to magnetic entropy(disorder

of the magnetic dipoles)
❖ Material is placed in thermal contact with the Environment being
refrigerated

❖Magnetic field is placed in thermal contact with the environment

being refrigerated

❖ Magnetic field held constant to prevent material from heating back

up

❖Because the working material is cooler than the refrigerated

environment, heat energy migrates into the working material(+Q)

❖ Once the refrigerant and refrigerated environment are in thermal

equilibrium, the cycle continuous.
Components required
fo
r construction :-
❖ Magnets

❖ Hot Heat exchanger

❖ Cold Heat Exchanger

❖ Drive

❖ Magneto caloric wheel

❖Magnets: Magnets provide the magnetic field to the material so that
they can loose or gain the heat to the surrounding and from the space to
be cooled respectively.

❖Hot Heat Exchanger: The hot heat exchanger absorbs the heat from
the material used and gives off to the surrounding. It makes the transfer of
heat much effective ferry magnets

❖Cold Heat Exchanger: The cold heat exchanger absorbs the heat from
the space to be cooled and gives it to the magnetic material. It helps to
make the absorption of heat effective.

❖Drive: Drive provides the right rotation to the Magneto caloric wheel. Due
to this heat flows in the right desired direction.

❖ Magneto caloric Wheel: It forms the structure of the whole device. It

joins both the two magnets to work properly.
❖ Magnetic Materials

❖ Regenerators

❖ Super Conducting Magnets

❖ Active Magnetic Regenerators

At the present stage of the development of magnetic refrigerators
with permanent magnets, hardly any freezing applications are
feasible
Some of the future applications are:-
❖Magnetic household refrigeration appliances
❖Magnetic cooling and air conditioning in buildings and houses
❖Central cooling system
❖Refrigeration in medicine
❖Cooling in food industry and storage
❖Cooling in transportation
❖Cooling of electronic equipments
❖Purchase cost may be high, but running costs are 20%
less than the conventional chillers.

❖Thus life cycle cost is much less.

❖Ozone depleting refrigerants are avoided in hence it more
this system, eco-friendly.
❖Energy conservation and reducing the energy costs are added
advantages.
❖The efficiency of magnetic refrigeration is 60% to 70% as
compared to Carnot cycle.
❖Magnetic refrigeration is totally maintenance free &
mechanically simple in construction.
 As every coin has 2 sides, this technique also posses some
drawbacks to be worked on

❖ The initial investment is more as compared

with conventional refrigeration.

❖ The magneto caloric materials are rare earth

materials hence their availability also adds up an
disadvantage in MAGNETIC REFRIGERATION.