ANPH121
2ND - MIDTERMS LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
● Immune system and lymphatic systems are
two closely related organ that share several
organs and physiological functions.
● Immune system is our body's defense
system against infectious pathogenic
viruses, bacteria, and fungi as well as
parasitic animals and protists.
● This works to keep these harmful agents out
of the body and attacks those that manage 2. Lymphatic Vessels
to enter. ● Lymphatic collecting vessels:
● A system of capillaries, vessels, nodes and ○ Collects lymph from lymph
other organs that transport a fluid called capillaries
lymph from the tissues as it returns to the ○ Carries lymph to and away from
bloodstream. lymph nodes
● The lymphațic tissue of these organs filters ○ Returns fluid to circulatory veins
and cleans the lymph of any debris, near the heart by the:
abnormal cells, pathogens. ■ Right lymphatic duct
● Transports fatty acids from the intestines to ■ Thoracic duct
the circulatory system.
Lymphatic System Functions
● Transport fluids back to the blood
● Play essential roles in body defense and
resistance to disease
● Absorb digested fat at the intestinal villi
PARTS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
1. Lymphatic Capillaries
● Serve as entry points for interstitial fluid,
macromolecules, pathogens, and immune
cells into the lymphatic circulation. Lymph
● Unlike blood capillaries, lymphatic ● Materials returned to the blood:
capillaries are highly permeable and ○ Water
designed to collect excess fluid and large ○ Blood cells
molecules that cannot reenter venous ○ Proteins
capillaries. ● Harmful materials that enter lymph vessels:
○ Bacteria
○ Viruses
○ Cancer cells
○ Cell debris
1
ANPH121
1. Spleen
Lymph Nodes ● Located on the left side of the abdomen
● Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood ● Functions:
● Defense cells within lymph nodes: ● Filters blood
○ Macrophages - engulf and destroy ● Destroys worn out blood cells
foreign substances ● Forms blood cells in the fetus
○ Lymphocytes - provide immune ● Acts as a blood reservoir
response to antigens 2. Thymus
● Located low in the throat, overlying the
heart
● Functions at peak levels only during
childhood
● Produces hormones (like thymosin) to
program lymphocytes
3. Peyer's Patches
● Found in the wall of the small intestine
● Resemble tonsils in structure
● Capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine
BODY DEFENSES
● The body is constantly in contact with
bacteria, fungi, and viruses (pathogens)
● Two defense systems for foreign materials:
nonspecific and specific.
Structure of a Lymph Node
● Efferent Vessels: exit lymph node at the Nonspecific Defense System
hilum ● Mechanisms protect against a variety of
● Afferent Vessels: enter lymph node at invaders
various locations ● Responds immediately to protect body from
● Trabeculae: divide the node into foreign materials
compartments ● Examples:
● Germinal centers of compartments produce ○ Body surface coverings
lymphocytes ○ Intact skin
○ Mucous membranes
OTHER LYMPHOID ORGANS ○ Specialized human cells
2
ANPH121
○ Chemicals produced by the body ○ Engulfs foreign material into a
vacuole
Specific Defense System ○ Enzymes from lysosomes digest the
● Specific defense is required for each type of material
invader ● Natural killer cells
● Also known as the immune system ○ Can use and kill cancer cells
○ Can destroy virus-infected cells
1. Surface Membrane Barriers - First Line
of Defense
● The skin
○ Physical barrier to foreign materials
○ pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit
bacterial growth
■ Sebum is toxic to bacteria
■ Vaginal secretions are very
acidic
● Stomach mucosa
○ Secretes hydrochloric acid
○ Has protein-digesting enzymes
● Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain lysozyme
● Mucus traps microorganisms in digestive
and respiratory pathways
2. Inflammatory Response - Second Line of
Defense
● Triggered when body tissues are injured
● Produces four cardinal signs:
FUNCTIONS OF THE INFLAMMATORY
● Redness
● Prevents spread of damaging agents
● Heat
● Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
● Swelling
● Sets the stage for repair
● Pain
● Results in a chain of events leading to
protection and healing
3. Specific Defense: The Immune System -
Third Line of Defense
● Antigen-specific - recognizes and acts
against foreign substances
● Systemic - not restricted to the initial
infection site
● Has memory - recognizes and mounts a
stronger attack on previously encountered
pathogens
DEFENSIVE CELLS Antigens (Nonself)
● Phagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages)
3
ANPH121
● Any substance capable of exciting the Antibodies
immune system and provoking an immune ● Antibody, a protective protein produced by
response the immune system in response to the
● Examples of common antigens: presence of a foreign substance, called an
● Foreign proteins antigen. Antibodies recognize and latch
● Nucleic acids onto antigens in order to remove them from
● Large carbohydrates the body.
● Some lipids ● A wide range of substances are regarded by
● Pollen grains the body as antigens, including
● Microorganisms disease-causing organisms and toxic
materials such as insect venom.
Self-Antigens
● Human cells have many surface proteins Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response
● Our immune cells do not attack our own ● Antigens must be presented by
proteins macrophages to an immunocompetent T
● Our cells in another person's body can cell (antigen presentation)
trigger an immune response because they ● T cells must recognize nonself and self
are foreign (double recognition)
● Restricts donors for transplants ● After antigen binding, clones form as with B
cells, but different classes of cells are
produced
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
Passive Immunity T Cell Clones
● Antibodies are obtained from someone else ● Cytotoxic T cells
○ Conferred naturally from a mother to ○ Specialize in killing infected cells
her fetus ○ Insert a toxic chemical (perforin)
○ Conferred artificially from immune ● Helper T cells
serum or gamma globulin ○ Recruit other cells to fight the
● Immunological memory does not occur invaders
● Protection provided by "borrowed ○ Interact directly with B cells
antibodies” ● Suppressor T cells
○ Release chemicals to suppress the
Active Immunity activity of T and B cells
● Your B cells encounter antigens and ○ Stop the immune response to
produce antibodies prevent uncontrolled activity
● Active immunity can be naturally or ○ A few members of each clone are
artificially acquired memory cells
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune ORGAN TRANSPLANT AND REJECTION
Response Types of Grafts
● B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind ● Autografts – tissue transplanted from one
to a specific antigen site to another on the same person
● The binding event activates the lymphocyte ● Isografts – tissue grafts from an identical
to undergo clonal selection person (identical twin)
● Many clones are produced (primary humoral ● Allografts -- tissue taken from an unrelated
response person
4
ANPH121
● Xenografts -- tissue taken from a different ● Macrophages
animal species ○ Arise from monocytes
○ Become widely distributed in
Allergies lymphoid organs
● Many small molecules (called haptens or
incomplete antigens) are not antigenic, but
link up with our own proteins
● The immune system may recognize and
respond to a protein-hapten combination
● The immune response is harmful rather
than protective because it attacks our own
cells
Antimicrobial Chemicals
● Complement
○ A group of at least 20 plasma
proteins
○ Activated when they encounter and
attach to cells (complement fixation)
○ Damage foreign cell surfaces
○ Will rupture or lyse the foreign cell
membrane
● Interferon
○ Secreted proteins of virus-infected
cells
○ Bind to healthy cell surfaces to
inhibit viruses binding
Fever
● Abnormally high body temperature
● Hypothalamus heat regulation can be reset
by pyrogens (secreted by white blood cells)
● High temperatures inhibit the release of iron
and zinc from liver and spleen needed by
bacteria
● Fever also increases the speed of tissue
repair
Cells of the Immune System
● Lymphocytes
○ Originate from hemocytoblasts in the
red bone marrow
○ B lymphocytes become
immunocompetent in the bone
marrow
○ T lymphocytes become
immunocompetent in the thymus
5
ANPH121
2ND - MIDTERMS RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiration – four distinct processes must happen:
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 1. Pulmonary ventilation – moving air into and
● The cells of the human body require a out of the lungs
constant stream of oxygen to stay alive. 2. External respiration – gas exchange
● The respiratory system provides oxygen to between the lungs and the blood
the body's cells while removing carbon 3. Transport – transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide, a waste product that can be lethal if dioxide between the lungs and tissues
allowed to accumulate. 4. Internal respiration – gas exchange
between systemic blood vessels and tissues
Other functions of the Respiratory System:
1. Regulation of blood pH. The respiratory GAS EXCHANGE
system can alter blood pH by changing Movement of Gases in the Lungs
blood CO2 levels. 1. Oxygen diffuses from a higher partial
2. Voice production. Air movement past the pressure in the alveoli to a lower partial
vocal cords makes sound and speech pressure in the pulmonary capillaries.
possible. 2. Carbon dioxide diffuses from a higher partial
3. Olfaction. The sensation of smell occurs pressure in the pulmonary capillaries to a
when airborne molecules are drawn into the lower partial pressure in the alveoli.
nasal cavity.
4. Innate immunity. The respiratory system Movement of Gases in the Tissues
protects against some microorganisms and 1. Oxygen diffuses from a higher partial
other pathogens, such as viruses, by pressure in the tissue capillaries to a lower
preventing them from entering the body and partial pressure in the tissue spaces
by removing them from the respiratory 2. Carbon dioxide diffuses from a higher partial
stomach. pressure in the tissues to a lower partial
pressure in the tissue capillaries.
Respiratory Zone and Conducting Zone
Respiratory Zone RHYTHMIC BREATHING
● Site of gas exchange ❖ Breathing is an automatic and rhythmic act
● Consists of bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and produced by networks of neurons in the
alveoli hindbrain (the pons and medulla).
Conducting Zone ❖ The neural networks direct muscles that
● Includes all other respiratory structures form the walls of the thorax and abdomen
(e.g., nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea and produce pressure gradients that move
air into and out of the lungs.
Respiratory muscles – diaphragm and other ❖ The respiratory rhythm and the length of
muscles that promote ventilation each phase of respiration are set by
reciprocal stimulatory and inhibitory
Major Functions of the Respiratory System interconnection of these brain-stem
To supply the body with oxygen and dispose of neurons.
carbon dioxide
6
ANPH121
● Lingual tonsil
Function of the Nose
The only externally visible part of the respiratory Laryngopharynx
system that functions by: ● Serves as a common passageway for food
● Providing an airway for respiration and air
● Moistening and warming the entering air ● Lies posterior to the upright epiglottis
● Filtering inspired air and cleaning it of ● Extends to the larynx, where the respiratory
foreign matter and digestive pathways diverge
● Housing the olfactory receptors
Larynx (Voice Box)
Nasal Cavity ● Attaches to the hyoid bone and opens into
Respiratory mucosa the laryngopharynx superlorly
● Lines the balance of the nasal cavity ● Continuous with the trachea posteriorly
● Glands secrete mucus containing lysozyme ● Made up of 9 segments of cartilage
to help destroy bacteria ○ unpaired - thyroid, epiglottic, cricoid
○ paired - arytenoid, corniculate,
Pharynx cuneiform
Funnel-shaped tube of skeletal muscle that
connects to the: Voice Production
● Nasal cavity and mouth superiorly ● Phonation is the creation of sound by
● Larynx and esophagus inferiorly structures in the upper respiratory tract of
● Extends from the base of the skull to the the respiratory system.
level of the sixth cervical vertebra ● During exhalation, air passes from the lungs
through the larynx, or "voice box." When we
Nasopharynx speak, muscles in the larynx move the
● Lies posterior to the nasal cavity, inferior to arytenoid cartilage.
the sphenoid, and superior to the level of ● The arytenoid cartilages push the vocal
the soft palate cords, or vocal folds, together. When the
● Strictly an air passageway cords are pushed together, air passing
● Lined with pseudostratified columnar between them makes them vibrate, creating
epithelium sound.
● Closes during swallowing to prevent food ● Greater tension in the vocal cords creates
from entering the nasal cavity more rapid vibrations and higher-pitched
● The pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) lies high sounds. Lesser tension causes slower
on the posterior wall vibration and a lower pitch.
● Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tubes open ● Ventricular folds (false cords)
into the lateral wall ○ hold breath against thoracic air
pressure
Oropharynx ● Vocal cords (true cords)
● Extends inferiorly from the level of the soft ○ vibrate to produce different
palate to the epiglottis frequencies
● Serves as a common passageway for food ● Pharynx, mouth, sinuses, nose, tongue, lips
and air ○ alter the sound
● The epithelial lining is protective stratified
squamous epithelium Trachea
● Fauces - opening toward the mouth 1. Larynx -> T5 ; anterior to the esophagus
● Palatine tonsils
7
ANPH121
2. C-shaped hyaline cartilage along the ○ Account for most of the lungs'
esophagus volume
3. Carina – ridge at the bifurcation to the ○ Provide tremendous surface area for
bronchi gas exchange
4. Intubation – tube down collapsed trachea
5. Tracheostomy -- hole in trachea; bypass CONDUCTING ZONE: BRONCHIAL TREE
obstructions The Lungs Autonomic Control
● Regulates smooth muscle
● Mucosa – made up of goblet cells and ● Controls diameter of bronchioles
ciliated epithelium ● Controls airflow and resistance in lungs
● Submucosa – connective tissue deep to the Dilation of bronchial airways
mucosa ● Caused by sympathetic ANS activation
● Adventitia – outermost layer made of ● Reduces resistance
C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage ● Bronchoconstriction
Constricts bronchi caused by:
Bronchi ● Parasympathetic ANS activation Histamine
● Air reaching the bronchi is: release (allergic reactions)
○ Warmed and cleansed of impurities
○ Saturated with water vapor Lungs
● Bronchi subdivide into secondary bronchi, ● Cardiac notch (impression) – cavity that
each supplying a lobe of the lungs accommodates the heart
● Air passages undergo 23 orders of ● Left lung – separated into upper and lower
branching in the lungs lobes by the oblique
● fissure
CONDUCTING ZONE: BRONCHIAL TREE ● Right lung – separated into three lobes
❖ Tissue walls of bronchi mimic that of the (superior, middle, inferior) by the oblique
trachea and horizontal fissures
❖ As conducting tubes become smaller,
structural changes occur: Pleurae
➢ Cartilage support structures change Thin, double-layered serosa:
➢ Epithelium types change Parietal pleura
➢ Amount of smooth muscle increases ● Covers the thoracic wall and superior face
Bronchioles of the diaphragm
● Consist of cuboidal epithelium ● Continues around heart and between lungs
● Have a complete layer of circular smooth Visceral pleura
muscle ● Covers the external lung surface
● Lack cartilage support and ● Divides the thoracic cavity into three
mucus-producing cells chambers
○ The central mediastinum
RESPIRATORY ZONE ○ Two lateral compartments, each
● Defined by the presence of alveoli; begins containing a lung
as terminal bronchioles feed into respiratory
bronchioles RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
● Respiratory bronchioles lead to alveolar 1. There are four measurements of respiratory
ducts, then to terminal clusters of alveolar volume: tidal, inspiratory reserve, expiratory
sacs composed of alveoli reserve, and residual.
● Approximately 300 million alveoli:
8
ANPH121
2. Respiratory capacities are the sum of two or
more respiratory volumes; they include vital
capacity and total lung capacity.
3. The forced expiratory vital capacity
measures the rate at which air can be
expelled from the lungs.
1. Tidal volume is the volume of air inspired or
expired with each breath. At rest, quiet
breathing results in a tidal volume of about
500 mL
2. Inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of
air that can be inspired forcefully beyond the
resting tidal volume (about 3000 mL).
3. Expiratory reserve volume is the amount of
air that can be expired forcefully beyond the
resting tidal volume (about 1100 mL).
4. Residual volume is the volume of air still
remaining in the respiratory passages and
lungs after maximum expiration (about 1200
mL).
1. Functional residual capacity is the
expiratory reserve volume plus the residual
volume. This is the amount of air remaining
in the lungs at the end of a normal
expiration (about 2300 mL at rest).
2. Inspiratory capacity is the tidal volume plus
the inspiratory reserve volume. This is the
amount of air a person can inspire
maximally after a normal expiration (about
3500 mL at rest).
3. Vital capacity is the sum of the inspiratory
reserve volume, the tidal volume, and the
expiratory reserve volume. It is the
maximum volume of air that a person can
expel from the respiratory tract after a
maximum inspiration (about 4600 mL).
4. Total lung capacity is the sum of the
inspiratory and expiratory reserves and the
tidal and residual volumes (about 5800 mL).
The total lung capacity is also equal to the
vital capacity plus the residual volume