THERMAL FLOW MODELLING

OF SOLAR POWER

BY-GULREZ HODA (2K22/EE/113)

HARSH MALIK (2K22/EE/119)
HARSH PRIYA GAUTAM (2K22/EE/120)
 ACKNOLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our project supervisor for
their invaluable guidance, constructive feedback, and continuous support
throughout the course of this work. Their expertise and encouragement have
been crucial in shaping the direction and quality of this project.

We also extend our thanks to the faculty members and department for
providing the resources, facilities, and academic environment necessary for the
successful completion of this study.

We are grateful to our peers for their insightful discussions and helpful
suggestions, which contributed significantly to the refinement of our ideas and
approaches.

Finally, we wish to acknowledge the support and encouragement of our

families, whose patience and motivation have been a constant source of
strength during the preparation of this project.
 INTRODUCTION
The demand for clean, sustainable, and renewable sources of energy has never been more
urgent. Rising global energy consumption, coupled with the adverse impacts of fossil fuel use
on climate change, has prompted governments, industries, and researchers to accelerate the
adoption of renewable energy technologies. Among these, solar photovoltaic (PV) power has
emerged as one of the most promising and rapidly growing solutions. Solar PV offers several
advantages, including abundant resource availability, modularity, scalability, and steadily
declining costs of installation and operation [1]. According to the International Energy
Agency (IEA), solar PV is projected to become the largest source of electricity worldwide by
2050, highlighting its central role in future energy systems [2].

Despite these advantages, solar PV technology still faces a number of challenges that affect
its efficiency, reliability, and overall economic viability. Unlike conventional power plants,
the performance of PV modules is strongly influenced by environmental conditions such as
solar irradiance, wind speed, and ambient temperature. A PV cell is inherently limited by its
energy conversion mechanism: only a fraction of incident sunlight is converted into
electricity, while the majority is dissipated as heat [3]. This thermal energy increases the
operating temperature of the module and directly impacts its electrical performance. For
crystalline silicon—the most widely used PV technology—the efficiency decreases by
approximately 0.4–0.5% per degree Celsius rise above the standard test condition (25 °C) [4].
This phenomenon makes thermal management a critical concern, particularly in hot climates
where PV systems are expected to play a major role in electricity generation.

The negative impacts of heat are multifaceted. In the short term, increased temperatures
reduce the open-circuit voltage of cells, thereby lowering power output. Over the long term,
prolonged thermal stress accelerates material degradation, including encapsulant
discoloration, delamination, and solder fatigue, which reduces the operational lifetime of PV
modules [5]. Moreover, non-uniform heating often leads to the formation of hotspots,
localized regions of excessive heat that not only degrade material layers but can also pose
safety risks if left unchecked [6]. These issues highlight the need for a comprehensive
understanding of heat flow within PV modules and the development of strategies to mitigate
thermal effects.

Heat flow modelling serves as an essential tool in addressing these challenges. By simulating
how solar energy is absorbed, distributed, and dissipated within a module, researchers can
identify critical temperature distributions, predict hotspot formation, and evaluate the
effectiveness of different materials and cooling techniques [7]. Such modelling allows for a
systematic comparison of design alternatives and provides data-driven insights that guide
both academic research and industrial innovation.

At the same time, significant progress is being made in developing new materials and
structural designs for PV modules. For instance, encapsulants with higher thermal
conductivity, aluminium-laminated backsheets, and radiative coatings are being studied as
ways to improve heat dissipation [8]. In addition, novel PV technologies such as
heterojunction and perovskite-silicon tandem cells offer improved temperature coefficients
compared to conventional crystalline silicon, thereby mitigating efficiency losses [9].
Complementary to material innovation, both passive and active cooling systems are being
explored to control operating temperatures under real-world conditions.

In this context, the present study focuses on the thermal challenges of solar PV panels with
particular attention to four problem areas: (1) hotspot generation, (2) overall efficiency loss
due to temperature rise, (3) materials for improved thermal management, and (4) cooling
systems. To provide a foundation, the report first discusses the mechanisms of thermal
generation in PV modules and reviews the materials currently in use. It then examines in
detail the four problem areas, highlighting how heat flow modelling can guide solutions to
mitigate thermal impacts.

By linking heat flow analysis with material selection and cooling approaches, this work aims
to contribute toward improving the performance, safety, and longevity of PV modules,
ultimately advancing the reliability and competitiveness of solar energy in the global energy
mix.
 MAIN CONTENT
 Materials In Use -
Commercial photovoltaic modules are primarily based on crystalline silicon (c-Si)
technology, which accounts for over 90% of the global market share [1]. The structure of a
typical c-Si module includes the silicon cells encapsulated in polymeric materials such as
ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), a transparent front glass layer for protection and light
transmission, and a polymer or composite backsheet for insulation [2]. While these
materials are cost-effective and well-optimized for durability, they are not thermally ideal.
EVA, for example, has relatively low thermal conductivity (~0.35 W/mK), which hinders heat
dissipation and contributes to localized heating [3].

Other materials commonly used include polyolefin elastomers (POEs) as alternative

encapsulants due to their lower moisture permeability, and fluoropolymer-based
backsheets such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) for enhanced durability [4]. Metal frames,
typically aluminium, provide structural rigidity and can act as heat spreaders, though their
contribution to overall thermal management is limited by their peripheral location. Despite
decades of incremental improvements, the standard material stack in PV modules remains
thermally constrained, making heat flow modelling essential for identifying design
improvements [5].

 Thermal Heat Generation in PV Modules

Thermal generation in PV modules arises because only 15–22% of incoming solar radiation is
converted to electrical power in commercial silicon cells, with the remainder manifesting as
heat [6]. This heat originates from several mechanisms: (i) thermalization of photons with
energy above the bandgap, (ii) non-radiative recombination of charge carriers, and (iii)
resistive losses in interconnects and contacts [7]. As temperature rises, the open-circuit
voltage decreases due to an increase in the intrinsic carrier concentration, while the short-
circuit current shows only a slight increase, leading to a net reduction in efficiency [8].

Heat flow modelling becomes crucial for predicting the spatial and temporal distribution of
this generated heat. Using finite element methods (FEM), researchers can simulate how
encapsulant layers, backsheet properties, and environmental conditions influence
temperature gradients across the module [9]. Such insights help identify vulnerable areas
prone to overheating, laying the foundation for mitigation strategies in the following
sections.

 Hotspot Generation
Hotspots occur when part of a PV cell or module operates under reverse bias, often caused
by partial shading, cracks, or mismatched cells. These localized areas can reach
temperatures exceeding 150 °C, leading to glass breakage, encapsulant browning, or even
fire hazards [10]. Traditional bypass diodes are designed to mitigate such effects, but they
cannot completely eliminate localized heating, especially under complex shading patterns
[11].

Heat flow modelling enables early prediction of hotspot-prone regions by simulating

mismatch conditions and shading effects at the cell and module levels [12]. Improved
materials such as encapsulants with higher thermal conductivity or backsheets with
reflective coatings have been proposed to reduce the severity of hotspots by spreading heat
more evenly [13]. Addressing hotspot generation is not only vital for maintaining efficiency
but also for ensuring long-term safety and reliability of PV systems.

 Overall Efficiency Loss

The temperature coefficient of crystalline silicon cells, typically 0.4 to 0.5%/°C, is a key factor
in overall performance loss [4]. For example, a module operating at 65 °C in summer
conditions may lose up to 20% of its rated efficiency compared to standard test conditions
[6]. This efficiency loss directly affects the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), as fewer
kilowatt-hours are generated for the same capital investment.

Heat flow modelling helps quantify these losses under real-world operating conditions by
linking irradiance, wind cooling, and material properties to module temperature rise [8].
Emerging PV technologies such as perovskite-silicon tandem cells and heterojunction cells
have lower temperature coefficients (0.2 to 0.3%/°C), making them more resilient to heat
induced efficiency losses [9]. Research into materials with enhanced radiative cooling
properties, such as photonic coatings, also shows promise in addressing this issue [14].

 Alternative Materials for Improved Thermal

Management
Material innovation is a central strategy in reducing thermal problems. High-conductivity
encapsulants, such as thermally conductive POEs, can lower peak temperatures by up to 10
°C compared to conventional EVA [15]. Similarly, aluminium-laminated backsheets enhance
heat spreading and reduce thermal gradients across the module surface [8]. Transparent
conductive oxides (TCOs) with optimized emissivity can further support radiative cooling
while maintaining optical performance [16].

Novel approaches also include the use of phase change materials (PCMs) integrated into
module backsheets to absorb excess heat during peak irradiance and release it during cooler
periods [17]. These materials, combined with predictive modelling, offer pathways to extend
module lifetime and minimize energy losses.

 Cooling Systems
Cooling techniques are broadly categorized into passive and active methods. Passive cooling
relies on design improvements without external energy input. Examples include finned
backsheets, radiative cooling coatings, and natural ventilation strategies [18]. Active cooling
methods, such as water spraying, forced air, or liquid circulation systems, are more effective
but increase system complexity and cost [19].

Heat flow modelling is vital in evaluating cooling performance, allowing designers to

compare different geometries, flow rates, and material interfaces. Hybrid PV-thermal (PVT)
systems, which combine electricity generation with thermal energy recovery, represent an
advanced cooling solution with the added benefit of co-generation [20]. Although cooling
systems add to the initial investment, their potential to significantly enhance lifetime energy
yield makes them a compelling area of research.
SIMULATION
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