Nour Al Chaar

Ecology Midterm
Chapter 2

Part 1: Weather, Climate, Soils &

Part 2: Terrestrial Biomes

Part 1: Weather, Climate, and Atmospheric Systems (From Lecture 2A)

1. Weather vs. Climate
 Slide 1 & 2: The subtitle "Life on Land" establishes that physical environmental factors
dictate where and how life exists on continents.
 Key Definitions:
o Weather: The short-term state of the atmosphere at a specific place and time (e.g.,
sunny, 75°F, with 10 mph winds). The study of weather is Meteorology.
o Climate: The long-term (30-35 year) average of weather patterns over a large
area. The study of climate is Climatology.
 Blue Writing Explanation: The blue note "Climate" is simply a header for the section.
 Local Influences: Local climate and weather are determined by complex interactions
involving:
o Global and regional wind patterns

o Topography (mountains, valleys)

o Vegetation cover

o Proximity to bodies of water (seas, lakes, rivers)

2. Humidity and Water Vapor

 Slides 3-6: These slides explain how air holds moisture.
 Key Concepts:
o Vapor Pressure: The pressure exerted by water vapor in the air.

o Saturation Vapor Pressure: The maximum vapor pressure air can hold at a given
temperature. Warm air can hold more water vapor than cold air.
o Relative Humidity (RH): The amount of water vapor in the air relative to the
maximum it can hold at its current temperature.

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 Formula: RH = (Current Vapor Pressure / Saturation Vapor Pressure) *

100
o Dew Point Temperature: The temperature to which air must be cooled to become
saturated (100% RH). When the air temperature hits the dew point, condensation
occurs (e.g., dew, fog).
o Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD): The difference between the saturation vapor
pressure and the actual vapor pressure. A high VPD means the air is very dry and
can draw a lot of moisture out of plants and soil.
 Image & Graph Explanation (Slides 4-6): The graph shows how saturation vapor
pressure increases exponentially with temperature. The blue "Actual water vapor" line is
constant, but as temperature drops (moving left on the x-axis), the Relative Humidity
increases until the air is saturated at the Dewpoint. The Vapor Pressure Deficit is the gap
between the "Saturation" and "Current" lines at the current air temperature.
3. Atmospheric Temperatures and Lapse Rates
 Slide 7: Explains why temperature changes with altitude.
 Key Concepts:
o Environmental Lapse Rate: The natural rate at which temperature decreases
with altitude in the stationary atmosphere (~0.65°C/100m).
o Adiabatic Lapse Rate: The rate of cooling/heating of a parcel of air as it
rises/descends.
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate: 1°C/100m. A dry air parcel cools at this rate
as it rises and expands.
 Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate: 0.6°C/100m. Once a rising air parcel cools
to its dew point, condensation occurs, releasing latent heat, which slows
the rate of cooling.
4. Global Wind Circulation
 Slides 9-11: Explain the engine of Earth's climate and weather patterns.
 Key Concepts:
o Uneven Heating: The spherical shape and tilt of Earth's axis cause the equator to
receive more direct sunlight than the poles. This creates a temperature gradient
that drives global winds.
o Circulation Cells:
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 Hadley Cell: Warm, moist air rises at the equator (Low Pressure), creating
the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and heavy rainfall. The air
moves poleward, cools, and sinks at ~30° latitude (Subtropical Highs),
creating hot, dry deserts.
 Ferrel Cell & Polar Cell: These mid and high-latitude cells complete the
circulation, creating belts of high and low pressure.
o Wind Belts:

 Trade Winds: Blow from the Subtropical Highs toward the ITCZ (NE in
N. Hemisphere, SE in S. Hemisphere).
 Westerlies: Blow from the Subtropical Highs toward the Polar Front (from
the SW in N. Hemisphere, NW in S. Hemisphere). They dominate mid-
latitude weather.
 Polar Easterlies: Cold winds blowing away from the Polar Highs.
o Coriolis Effect: The apparent deflection of winds (and oceans) to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, due to Earth's
rotation. This is why winds don't blow straight north-south.
 Image Explanation (Slide 10): This diagram shows the three-cell model. The red arrows
show warm air rising, and the blue arrows show cool air sinking. The ITCZ is the band of
rain clouds at the equator. The Subtropical Highs are the clear, dry zones at ~30°N and S.
5. Seasons
 Slides 12-13: Explain the cause of seasonal changes.
 Key Concept: Seasons are caused by the 23.5° tilt of Earth's axis as it orbits the sun, not
by changes in distance from the sun.
o Summer Solstice (June): The Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun,
receiving more direct sunlight and experiencing summer. The Southern
Hemisphere experiences winter.
o Winter Solstice (December): The Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the
sun, receiving less direct sunlight and experiencing winter. The Southern
Hemisphere experiences summer.
o Equinoxes (March & September): The equator faces the sun directly, and both
hemispheres receive equal sunlight, marking the start of spring and autumn.
 Image Explanation (Slide 12): The diagram shows Earth's position at different points in
its orbit, illustrating which hemisphere is tilted toward the sun, causing summer there.
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6. Climate Diagrams
 Slides 14-15: Introduce a tool to visualize and compare climates.
 Key Concepts:
o A standardized graph that plots temperature (line, left axis) and precipitation (bars,
right axis) over the months of a year.
o Scaling: 10°C is made equivalent to 20 mm of precipitation. This scaling allows
for easy assessment of water availability for plants.
o Interpretation:

 Adequate Moisture: When the precipitation bar is above the temperature

line, the climate is relatively wet, and plants have sufficient water.
 Drought Period: When the temperature line is above the precipitation bar,
it indicates a potential drought period where plant growth may be limited
by water stress.
 Blue Writing Explanation: The blue notes on the slides label the parts of the diagram
and reinforce the interpretation rule.
7. Soil: The Foundation of Terrestrial Biomes
 Slides 15-18: Describe the formation and structure of soil.
 Key Concepts:
o Soil: A complex mixture of mineral particles, organic matter (humus), water, air,
and living organisms.
o Soil Formation (Pedogenesis): Starts with the disintegration of bedrock
into Regolith (blanket of rock debris). Over time, physical, chemical, and
biological processes transform regolith into true soil.
 Soil Horizons (Layers):
o O-Horizon: The top, organic layer of loose and fragmented plant litter (e.g.,
leaves, twigs).
o A-Horizon (Topsoil): A mixture of mineral particles (sand, silt, clay) and rich
organic matter (humus). This is the most biologically active layer. Leaching (the
washing out of minerals and clay) occurs here.
o B-Horizon (Subsoil): A zone of accumulation (Illuviation) where materials like
clay, iron, and aluminum, leached from the A-horizon, are deposited.
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o C-Horizon: Weathered parent material (regolith) that is little affected by

biological activity.
o D-Horizon/Bedrock: The unweathered, solid rock layer.

 Image Explanation (Slide 17): The diagram shows the process of soil development from
bedrock to mature soil with distinct O, A, B, and C horizons. Arrows indicate processes
like decomposition, leaching, and accumulation.
 Image Explanation (Slide 18): The photo of a soil pit clearly shows the different colored
and textured layers (O, A, B, C), providing a real-world example of a soil profile.

Part 2: Terrestrial Biomes (From Lecture 2B)

1. Introduction to Terrestrial Biomes
 Slide 1: A biome is a large geographic area with a distinct climate, characterized by its
predominant vegetation and associated animal life.
 Key Determinants: The distribution of biomes is primarily influenced by:
o Mean Annual Temperature and Precipitation (Whittaker's Graph).

o Seasonality (variation in temperature and precipitation throughout the year).

o Topography (e.g., mountains, rain shadows).

2. Whittaker's Biome Diagram

 Slides 1-3: This is the central model for understanding biome distribution.
 How to Read It:
o Y-Axis: Mean Annual Temperature. From Arctic/Alpine (cold) to Tropical (hot).

o X-Axis: Mean Annual Precipitation. From Desert (dry) to Rainforest (wet).

 Biome Placement:
o Hot & Wet: Tropical Rainforests are in the top-right corner.

o Hot & Dry: Deserts are in the top-left corner.

o Cold & Dry: Tundra and Cold Desert are in the bottom-left corner.

o Cold & Wet: Boreal Forest (Taiga) is in the bottom-middle.

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Chapter 2

o Seasonal/Temperate: Temperate Forests, Grasslands, and Woodlands occupy the

middle of the diagram.
 Red Writing Explanation (Slide 2): The red arrows and text explain trends:
o "Stature and density of trees decline → woodlands and savannas": As conditions
get drier, forests give way to more open ecosystems with shorter, more scattered
trees.
o "Trees cannot be supported → arid shrublands, deserts": In very dry conditions,
even grasses and shrubs struggle, and the landscape becomes a desert.
 Image Explanation (Slide 3): The diagram visually summarizes the major biomes along
gradients of temperature and precipitation.
3. Tropical Rainforests
 Slides 3-6 & 7: Located near the equator (within 10° latitude).
 Climate:
o Temperature: Consistently warm (25-27°C) with little seasonal variation.

o Precipitation: Very high (2,000-4,000 mm/year), evenly distributed.

 Structure & Adaptations:

o Vertical Stratification: Divided into layers: Emergent canopy, Upper canopy,
Lower canopy, Understory, and Ground cover. This adds a 3D dimension to the
habitat, supporting immense biodiversity.
o Buttress Roots: Many trees have large, wide roots at the base to support their
great height in shallow, nutrient-poor soils.
o Epiphytes: Plants like orchids and bromeliads that grow on other plants to reach
sunlight. They gather nutrients from the air and rain in "epiphyte mats," which are
major nutrient reservoirs in the ecosystem.
 Soils: Surprisingly infertile. Heavy rainfall leaches (washes away) nutrients. Soils are
often acidic, thin, and low in organic matter. Nutrients are rapidly recycled by a rich web
of decomposers (fungi, bacteria, insects) and mycorrhizae.
 Biodiversity & Human Impact: Extremely high species diversity, especially in the
canopy. A source of many foods and medicines (25% of modern drugs). Facing severe
threat from deforestation.

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 Image Explanation (Slide 3): Climate diagrams for Belem, Brazil, and Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia, show nearly flat temperature lines around 25-27°C and high precipitation bars
every month, confirming the stable, wet, and warm conditions.
 Image Explanation (Slide 5): The diagram of the vertical layers shows the different life
zones, from the 40m+ emergent trees down to the dark forest floor.
 Image Explanation (Slide 6): The diagram of the epiphyte mat shows how these "air
plants" create their own soil and nutrient cycle high in the canopy.
4. Tropical Dry Forests
 Slides 7-9: Located between 10°-25° latitude, more seasonal than rainforests.
 Climate: Distinct wet and dry seasons.
 Characteristics:
o Soils: Generally more fertile than rainforests but vulnerable to erosion after
deforestation.
o Plants: Many trees are drought-deciduous, shedding their leaves during the dry
season to conserve water.
o Wildlife: Shares species with rainforests; animals often migrate seasonally.

 Human Impact: Heavily settled and cleared for agriculture.

5. Tropical Savanna
 Slides 9-11: Grasslands with scattered trees, located between 10°-20° latitude, often
adjacent to tropical dry forests.
 Climate: Alternating wet and dry seasons.
 Characteristics:
o Soils: Low permeability, leading to waterlogging in the wet season, which restricts
tree growth. This creates a largely two-dimensional landscape.
o Animals: Home to large, mobile herbivores (e.g., wildebeest, zebra, elephants)
and their predators. Many species migrate following the rains.
o Fire: A natural and essential factor. Many plants are fire-adapted. Human-induced
fires and overgrazing by livestock can lead to desertification.
 Image Explanation (Slide 10): Photos of elephants and giraffes illustrate the large,
iconic mammals adapted to this open grassland environment.

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6. Deserts
 Slides 11-15: The driest biomes, covering ~20% of Earth's land.
 Climate: Precipitation is low and unpredictable. Evaporation exceeds precipitation. Can
be hot (e.g., Sahara) or cold (e.g., Gobi).
 Types: Tropical deserts (at 30°N/S), Continental deserts (interior of continents), Rain
shadow deserts (downwind of mountains).
 Adaptations:
o Plants: Sparse cover; adaptations include water storage (succulents), deep tap
roots, small or no leaves (spines), and drought-deciduous life cycles.
o Animals: Low abundance but can have high diversity; strong behavioral
adaptations (nocturnal activity, burrowing) and physiological adaptations (water
conservation).
 Soils: Low in organic matter (lithosols), often with accumulated salts (caliche) due to
high evaporation.
 Human Impact: Urbanization and water consumption, overgrazing.
 Image Explanation (Slide 11): Climate diagrams for Yuma, USA, and Dzamlin Uuded,
Mongolia, show precipitation bars that are very low year-round, defining the desert
climate.
 Image Explanation (Slide 15): The side-by-side photos of a Cactus (Americas) and a
Euphorbia (Africa) demonstrate convergent evolution—unrelated species evolving
similar forms (succulence, spines) to adapt to similar desert environments.
7. Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland
 Slides 16-18: Found on the west coasts of continents (e.g., Mediterranean Basin,
California, Chile).
 Climate: Hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. Mean minimum temperature >0°C.
 Characteristics:
o Vegetation: Dense, woody shrubs and small trees (e.g., Chaparral, Matorral,
Fynbos, Mallee). Typically evergreen with small, tough (sclerophyllous) leaves.
o Fire-Adapted: Vegetation is oil-rich and flammable. Fire is a natural disturbance
to which plants are adapted (e.g., thick bark, fire-resistant seeds, ability to re-
sprout after fire).

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o Soils: Fragile and prone to erosion, especially after fire or overgrazing.

 Human Impact: Long history of human settlement, clearing for agriculture, grazing, and
urbanization.
 Image Explanation (Slide 16): Climate diagrams for San Diego and Taranto show the
classic pattern: a long, dry summer with no rain and a wetter winter.
 Image Explanation (Slide 18): Photos of Mediterranean fires show the intense, fast-
moving blazes that are a natural part of this ecosystem's cycle.
8. Temperate Grassland
 Slides 19-20: Vast, open "seas of grass" (e.g., Prairies, Steppes, Pampas).
 Climate: Seasonal, with periodic droughts. Cold, dry winters and hot, wet summers.
Annual rainfall 300-1,000 mm.
 Characteristics:
o Vegetation: Dominated by grasses and herbs. Trees are excluded by a
combination of seasonal drought, fire, and the dense sod (mat of grass roots).
o Soils: Deep, dark, and extremely fertile, rich in organic matter. Among the most
productive agricultural soils in the world.
o Animals: Historically, large herds of grazing ungulates (e.g., bison in N. America,
wild horses in Asia).
 Human Impact: Almost completely converted to agriculture (nomadic herding →
intensive farming). Requires fertilizer to maintain fertility after decades of cultivation.
 Image Explanation (Slide 19): Photos of rolling grasslands and grazing animals like
yaks and bison illustrate the open, productive nature of this biome.
9. Temperate Forest
 Slides 21-30: Found mainly in the mid-latitudes (40°-50°).
 Climate: Seasonal, with moderate to high precipitation (650-3,000 mm). Moderate
temperature variation.
 Types:
o Temperate Deciduous Forest: Dominated by broadleaf trees that lose their leaves
in winter (e.g., oaks, maples). Long growing season. Soils are neutral to acidic and
fertile.

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o Temperate Coniferous Forest/Rainforest: Dominated by evergreen conifers

(e.g., pines, firs, redwoods). Can grow in poorer, more acidic soils. Often found in
areas with high rainfall or as montane forests.
 Structure: Can be highly stratified (Canopy, Understory, Shrub layer, Herb layer, Forest
floor), supporting high diversity.
 Human Impact: Major human population centers. Vast areas cleared for agriculture and
pasture. In regions like Western North America, only 1-2% of old-growth forest remains.
 Image Explanation (Slide 21): Climate diagrams show moderate year-round
precipitation and distinct seasonal temperature changes.
 Image Explanation (Slides 25, 27-28): Photos of massive sequoias, stratified forest
layers, and dense conifer stands illustrate the structure and majesty of these forests.
10. Boreal Forest (Taiga)
 Slides 31-33: The world's largest land biome, a vast coniferous forest confined to the
Northern Hemisphere.
 Climate: Cold, dry climate with great temperature variation (e.g., very cold winters, short
cool summers). Short growing season.
 Characteristics:
o Vegetation: Dominated by cold-tolerant, needle-leaf evergreen conifers (e.g.,
spruce, fir, pine).
o Soils: Thin, acidic, and low in fertility due to slow decomposition.

o Animals: Moderate density; includes moose, bears, wolves, lynx, and migratory
birds.
 Human Impact: Historically low, but now subject to extensive deforestation for lumber
and pulp. Also impacted by oil/tar sand extraction, which has significant environmental
costs.
 Image Explanation (Slide 31): Climate diagrams for Dawson, Canada, and Yerkhoyansk,
Russia, show the extreme cold, with temperatures often below freezing for many months.
11. Tundra
 Slides 34-39: A treeless biome found in the Arctic (north of the taiga) and on high
mountains (Alpine tundra).
 Climate: Very cold, dry, and windy with a very short growing season (2-3 months).

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 Characteristics:
o Permafrost: A permanently frozen layer of soil that lies beneath the surface. It
prevents water drainage and tree root growth.
o Vegetation: Low-growing and dominated by mosses, lichens, grasses, sedges, and
dwarf woody shrubs (e.g., dwarf willows).
o Animals: Supports substantial numbers of native mammals (e.g., caribou, musk
ox, arctic fox, lemmings) that are adapted to the cold.
 Human Impact: Increasing due to resource extraction (oil, minerals), hunting, and
pollution.
 Image Explanation (Slide 34): Climate diagrams show low precipitation and
temperatures that barely rise above freezing, even in summer.
 Image Explanation (Slides 36-38): Photos show the flat, treeless landscape, waterlogged
soil in summer, and characteristic vegetation and animals like caribou.
12. Mountains: Islands in the Sky
 Slides 39-44: Mountains are not a single biome but create "islands" with their own
climate and biome sequences.
 Key Concepts:
o Elevational Gradients: As you go up a mountain, temperature decreases
(following the environmental lapse rate), creating a series of biomes similar to
those found when traveling from the equator to the poles.
o Rain Shadow: Windward sides of mountains are wet, while the leeward sides, in
the rain shadow, are dry. This creates starkly different biomes on opposite sides of
a mountain range.
o Biodiversity: Isolated mountain ranges can act as refuges for unique species
(ecological "islands").
 Image Explanation (Slide 42): The diagram shows how biomes change with altitude on
a mountain, from grassland at the base, through forest belts, to tundra at the summit.
 Image Explanation (Slide 44): The photos of Mount Lebanon and the Atlas Mountains
show these "islands in the sky," with distinct vegetation zones.

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