STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS  Purpose: Provides a detailed report on soil

and rock behavior to ensure structures are

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
safe and cost-effective.
In the context of the National Structural Code of the
 Key Use: Helps engineers decide if a site is
Philippines (NSCP), structural engineering is
suitable for building and which foundation
defined as the discipline of civil engineering that
type to use.
focuses on the analysis and design of structures to
ensure their safety and ability to withstand loads,  Prediction: Forecasts how the structure will
including those imposed by natural forces. It perform over time based on the ground
encompasses the determination of the effects of conditions.
loads on structures and their components, ensuring
Geological Investigation Output
they can resist applied loads without failure during
their intended lifespan.  Purpose: Offers broad subsurface
information to help design stable structures.
Structural engineers help create structures –
anything from bridges, towers and skyscrapers to  Method: Uses site studies and sampling to
building homes and public works of structural art. map out the overall geological structure.
INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING  Focus: Identifies groundwater levels and
potential natural hazards.
 Core Definition: It is a multidisciplinary field
focused on the design, construction, operation, and In short: Geotechnical focus is on how to build the
maintenance of the essential systems that keep foundation, while Geological focus is on
society functioning. understanding the overall ground and its hazards.
 Scope of Work: It covers both physical EGGAR Summary
structures (roads, bridges, railways, and buildings)
and digital/IT systems that support modern  EGGAR stands for Engineering Geological
operations. and Geohazard Assessment Report.

 Essential Services: The discipline manages  Location & Requirement: It is a mandatory

vital utilities and services, including transportation, report in the Philippines for land
communication, drainage, and electricity. development and construction projects.

 Primary Objectives: The goal is to create basic  Main Purpose: To identify potential
systems that are efficient, safe, sustainable, and geological hazards and evaluate how they
environmentally friendly. might impact a proposed project.

GEOTCHNICAL ENGINEERING  Safety & Regulation: It is a key component

of the Environmental Impact Assessment
In the context of the National Structural (EIA), ensuring that risks like landslides,
Code of the Philippines (NSCP), Geotechnical earthquakes, and flooding are addressed
Engineering is defined as the application of the during design and execution.
principles of soil and rock mechanics to the
investigation, evaluation, and design of civil works,
including the use of earth materials and Minimum Required Boreholes by Structure Footprint
foundations. It also encompasses the inspection
and testing of construction related to these
elements. Essentially, it involves understanding how
soil and rock behave under various conditions to
ensure the stability and safety of structures built on
or within the earth.
Geotechnical & Geological Investigation
Reports
Geotechnical Investigation Output
 material) to successfully support and resist
those loads

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Purpose of Structural Analysis & Design:
Environmental engineering is an interdisciplinary
field that integrates the principles of engineering, 1. Safety
soil science, biology, and chemistry. Engineers
2. Strength: Capable of carrying load/exerting
in this field analyze a wide range of environmental
force
issues to develop solutions for:
3. Stiffness: Ability to resist bending
 Waste and Pollution Management:
Improving recycling, waste control, and both 4. Stability: Able to remain unchanged in form
water and air pollution control. or return to original form upon release of
loads
 Public Health and Conservation:
Protecting public health and designing 5. Cost: Ensuring a reasonable cost
innovative methods to conserve energy and
natural resources. 6. Constructability: Ensuring it can be
practically constructed
TRANSPORT ENGINEERING
7. Aesthetics: Incorporating art and beauty
focuses on the continuous improvement of
transportation systems through the application of 8. Sustainability: Maintenance to prevent
technology and scientific principles. falling, collapsing, or giving way

 System Lifecycle: Engineers handle the

planning, design, operation, and MODULE 1
management of transport facilities and large-
scale systems. ENGINEERING MECHANICS

 Core Objectives: Their primary role is to Engineering Mechanics is a branch of engineering

ensure that transportation methods are that deals with the analysis of the external effects
environmentally friendly, safe, and sufficient. of forces on rigid bodies.

 Societal Impact: They facilitate the daily Branches of Engineering Mechanics:

movement of the general public and the
1. Statics: The study of the external effects of
transport of goods.
forces on rigid bodies that are at rest and
 Diverse Modes: Their work covers various remain at rest before and after the
infrastructure types, including rail, roads, application of forces.
planes, and boats.
2. Dynamics: Deals with the motion of
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING bodies under the action of forces.

 Structural engineering is the science and art Rigid Bodies: These are bodies that do not
of planning, designing and constructing safe deform under load. Studying them is a basic
and economical structures that will serve requirement for advanced courses in the mechanics
their intended purposes. of deformable bodies and the mechanics of fluids.

 Structures: buildings, bridges, towers, Force: An action, specifically a push or pull upon
flyovers, tunnels, off shore structures like oil an object.
and gas fields in the sea, aerostructures,
 Characteristics of a Force:
and other structures.
o Magnitude (F): The amount of force.
 This involves identifying the loads which act
upon a structure and the forces and stresses o Direction θ : The orientation of the
which arise within that structure due to those path where the force is imposed.
loads, and then designing the structure
(determination of appropriate size and o Sense: Indicated by the arrowhead
on a vector.
Resultant Force: A single force whose effect
represents the cumulative effects of every force in
the system.
 System of Units: Four Fundamental Quantities

JOINT METHOD – it is a method of determining the

Dimensional SI Unit SI Unit
Quantity
Symbol (Name) (Symbol)
bar forces in truss members, by analyzing a joint in
the truss.

Mass M Kilogram kg Roof trusses – over view

Length L Meter m

Time T Second s

Force F Newton N
  Concentrated loads: These are loads
concentratedly imposed at a specific point or
SECTION METHOD
 The method of joints is most effective when the forces in
all the members of a truss are to be determined.

 If, however, the force in only one member or the forces in a

very few members are desired, another method, the method
of sections, is more efficient.

JOINT METHOD

on a very small area as shown in a Free

Body Diagram (FBD).
 Uniformly Distributed Loads: These are
loads applied across the entire span or at a
specified portion of a structure.

Definition of Reaction
A Reaction is defined as a reactive force developed
by a body on which a force or system of forces acts.

Uniformly Varying Loads (UVL): Loads applied on

the entire span or a specified portion of a structure
where the intensity varies from zero (or a minimum
amount) to a maximum value.

KINDS OF LOADS
(FORCES)

Kinds of Loads
TRAPEZOIDAL LOAD

Free Body Diagram (FBD): An isolation of a force

or system of forces that acts at specific parts of a
structure or machine element in consideration.
 Friction: The contact resistance developed by a
body upon another body due to the action of a force
that moves or tends to move the two bodies past
each other.
 Equilibrium:
A state in
which the
resultant of
the force
system that
acts on a
body
vanishes. It implies that both the resultant
force and the resultant couple are zero.
o Static Equilibrium satisfies the following
conditions:

 ∑ FH = 0
 ∑ FV = 0
 ∑ MO = 0
Couple: Two forces equal in magnitude but
oppositely directed.

RECTANGULAR

TRIANGULAR
 Moment of Inertia
 Known as the mass moment of inertia,
angular mass, or rotational inertia of a
rigid body, it is a quantity that determines the
torque needed for a desired angular
acceleration about a rotational axis.

TRAPZOIDAL

Strength of Materials
 Branch of Engineering that deals with the
internal effects of forces on the body.
  It is a branch of applied mechanics that
deals with the behavior of solid bodies
subjected to various types of loading

STRESS - It is the unit strength of element. / force

per unit area
STRAIN - It is the unit deformation of a material
when loaded.
Hooke's Law and the Proportional Limit
 Within the proportional limit, the stress is
directly proportional to strain. This linear
relation was first noticed by Sir Robert
Hooke in 1678.
 Proportional Limit: From the origin O to the
point called the proportional limit, the stress-
strain curve is a straight line.
 Modulus of Elasticity ($E$): Also known as
Young's Modulus, it is the constant of
proportionality $k$ and is equal to the slope
of the stress-strain diagram from O to P.
Proportional Limit:
 The greatest stress a material can withstand
without deformation/deviation and still obey
Hooke's Law.
Elastic Limit:
 The limit beyond which the material will no
Strain longer return to its original shape when the
Gauge load is removed.
 Also called an extensometer.  The maximum stress developed that results
 An instrument used to measure a minute in no permanent or residual deformation
deformation in a material. once entirely unloaded.
Yield Point:
 The specific stress level in a material at
which an increase in strain occurs without a
corresponding increase in stress
 The point at which the material has
appreciable elongation or yielding without
any increase in load.
Ultimate Stress:
  A point wherein a material is about to  Defined as the ratio of load per unit area
rupture. (stress) to the elastic deformation per unit
length (strain).
Ultimate Stress/Strength:
 The modulus of elasticity for most
 A point wherein a material is about to
concretes at 28 days, ranges from 15 – 40
rupture.
kN/mm².
 The maximum ordinate (highest point) in the
stress-strain diagram.

Rupture Strength:
Modulus of Rigidity (Definition)
 The strength of the material at the point of
rupture, also known as breaking strength.  Modulus of rigidity is the ratio of shear stress
to the displacement per unit sample length
 Elastic Range: The region from O to P (shear strain).

 Plastic Range: The region from P to R  Alternative Name: More specifically,

modulus of rigidity (or Shear Modulus) is
the coefficient of elasticity for a shearing
force.
 In materials science, shear modulus or
modulus of rigidity is denoted by G and
defined as the ratio of shear stress to the
shear strain, i.e., G = τ / γ .

Material Properties

1. Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its
original shape and size upon removal of load/s.
2. Plasticity
Modulus of Resilience: * The work done on a unit Plasticity is the property of a material, by virtue of
volume of material as the force is gradually which, a permanent deformation (without fracture)
increased from O to P takes place whenever it is subjected to the action of
external forces or load. It is defined as inelastic
 It represents the material's ability to absorb
strain in a material.
energy without creating a permanent
distortion. 3. Toughness
Modulus of Toughness: * The work done on a unit Toughness is the property of a material that
volume of material as the force is gradually prevents it from breaking under a sudden shock.
increased from O to R
 It is the ability of a material to withstand
 It represents the material's ability to absorb shock loading.
energy without causing it to break.
 It is the ability to absorb energy before
rupturing.
The Young’s Modulus (E) is a property of the
material that tells us how easily it can stretch and 4. Resilience
deform and is defined as the ratio of tensile stress (  Resilience is the capacity of a material to
σ ) to tensile strain (ε ). absorb energy elastically. It is the maximum
energy which can be stored in a material up
Modulus of elasticity: to its elastic limit.
  Practical Application: It represents the 13. Rupture Strength
capacity of a material to bear shocks and
 Rupture strength is the strength in which a
vibrations
material breaks or cracks.
5. Tensile Strength
14. Malleability
 Stretch Limit: It is the ability of a material to
 Malleability is the quality of something that
stretch without breaking or snapping.
can be shaped into something else without
6. Yield Strength breaking, like the malleability of clay.
 Deformation Limit: The stress a material  It is the ability to deform under compressive
can withstand without permanent stress or load
deformation.
7. Impact Strength
 Collusion Reaction: It is the reaction of a
stationary object to a collusion with a moving
body.
 Fracture Energy: It is the energy required to
fracture a material under an impact force.
8. Ductility
 Ductility is a measure of the deformation at
fracture.
 It is defined by percent elongation or percent
reduction in area.
 It is a property that enables the material to
deform under tensile load.
9. Hardness
 Hardness is the property of a material that
enables it to resist plastic deformation,
usually by penetration.
10. Fatigue Strength
 Fatigue strength is the stress at which a
material fails under repeated loading.
Shear Modulus of Elasticity
 Fatigue is defined as progressive fracture
 Also called Modulus of Rigidity, Modulus
under repeated loading.
of Torsion;
11. Creep
 The ratio between shearing stress and the
 Creep is the continuous deformation of shearing strain.
concrete with time under loads.
Poisson's Ratio
 Time-dependent deformation which occurs
 Is the ratio of the transverse contraction
at elevated temperature.
strain to longitudinal extension strain in
 Plastic flow may occur. the direction of stretching force.

 Ability to flow like fluid.

12. Wear Resistance MATERIAL BEHAVIOR EFFECTS

 Wear resistance is the capacity of a Strain Rate Effect

material to resist abrasion.
  An increased rate of load application can  Tensile stress is axial stress that tends to
cause brittle behavior in a normally ductile cause a body to become longer along the
material. direction of applied force.
Temperature Effect
 The brittle behavior that low temperature
can cause in a normally ductile material.

EFFECTS OF FORCES
When a material is loaded with a force, it produces
a Stress.
 Strain is the response of a system to an
applied stress.
 Engineering strain is defined as the amount
of deformation in the direction of the applied
force divided by the initial length of the
material.

 Stress is expressed in Newtons per square

meter, or N/m² or Pascal.

1 Pascal (symbol Pa) is equal to 1 N/m².

 In Imperial units, stress is measured in

Tortional stress: - A stress produced when the
pound-force per square inch, which is often
force applied tends to twist the body. rotation
shortened to "psi".
Circumferential Stress: - A stress produced at
Types of Stress
thin-walled cylinders.
Axial Stress
Bending Stress: - Also called flexural stress; it
 Axial stress is a stress that tends to change tends to cause the bending of materials like beams.
the length of a material.
Flexural Strength: The ability of the material to
 Compressive stress is axial stress that withstand bending forces applied perpendicular to
tends to cause a body to become shorter its longitudinal axis. The stresses induced due to
along the direction of applied force. flexural load are a combination of compressive and
tensile stresses.
Bending Stress: Also called flexural stress; it Negative Moment: A bending moment that
tends to cause bending of materials like beams. produces moment that is convex curvature at a
section of a structure.
Thermal Strain/Stress: Thermal strain does not
produce stress if a structure is not constrained
(statically determinate). If a structure is constrained
(statically indeterminate), thermal stress will be
developed.
Bond Stress: The force of adhesion per unit area of
contact between two bonded surfaces, such as
between concrete and a steel reinforcing bar.
To improve the bond stress, use deformed bars, provide
development length and hooks.

Other stresses:
 Allowable stress – the maximum stress
that a material can carry without failure.
 Ultimate stress – maximum stress a
material can handle before fracture.
 Fatigue stress – the stress level below
which an infinite number of loading cycles
can be applied without failure; fatigue limit is
the endurance limit or fatigue strength.
 Rupture stress – is the sudden and
complete failure of a material under stress

SHEAR DIAGRAM
A graphic representation of the variation in
magnitude of the external shears present in a
structure for a given set of transverse loads and
support conditions.
 Concentrated loads produce external
shears which are constant in magnitude
between the loads.
 Uniformly distributed loads produce
linearly varying shears.
MOMENT DIAGRAM
A graphic representation of the variation in
magnitude of the bending moment present in a
structure for a given set of transverse load and
support conditions.
 The overall deflected shape of a structure
subject to bending can often be inferred from
the shape of its moment diagram.

Positive Moment: A bending moment that

produces moment that is concave curvature at a
section of a structure.
Inflection Point
A point at which a structure changes curvature from
convex to concave or vice versa as it deflects under
a transverse load.
 Characteristics: It is theoretically an
internal hinge and therefore a point of zero
moment.
Continuous Beams
 Definition: Beams supported by more than
two supports.
 Analysis: Can be analyzed for shear and
bending moment using the method of
sections and equilibrium equations.
 Significance: Shear and moment diagrams
are crucial for understanding beam behavior
under load and for structural design.

Types and Sources of Loads

1. Dead Load: Weight of materials and any
permanent loads imposed on the structure.
2. Live Load: Movable loads applied to the
materials.
3. Wind Load: Force on a structure arising
from the impact of wind on it. This depends
on the location (exposure) and typhoon
signal.
4. Seismic Load: Force on structure arising
from the impact of earthquake on it. It
 depends on the epicenter and magnitude of  Specific sections exist for cranes and
earthquake. helistop landing areas
5. Impact Load: Abrupt application of load. It is
an additional load based on the weight Crane loads must include the rated capacity,
applied on the material (NSCP). maximum wheel loads, and vertical, lateral, and
6. Hydrostatic pressure: Force on structure longitudinal forces.
exerted by water.
7. Soil Pressure: Force exerted by soil on a
structure.

8. Thermal Load: Load resulting from

temperature changes.

9. Moving Loads – vehicles

Common Minimum Uniform Live Loads

Impact Load: Abrupt application of a load; an

additional load based on applied weight as per Components and Cladding (NSCP)
NSCP standards.
The design wind pressure for components and
cladding of buildings shall not be less than a net
 NSCP Section 206.3: Live loads in Section
pressure of 0.5 kPa acting in either direction normal
205.3 include allowances for ordinary
impact; unusual vibrations or impact forces to the surface
require specific design provisions.
Basic Wind Speed (NSCP)
Three-second gust speed at 10m above the ground 2. TRUSSES / PURLINS
in Exposure C.

TYPES OF STRUCTURES
1. BEAMS
JOINT METHOD
The free-body diagram of any joint is a concurrent
force system in which the summation of moment will COLUMNS/[EDESTALS/PIERS/BRIDGES
be of no help. Recall that only two equilibrium
equations can be written

SECTION METHOD
In this method, we will cut the truss into two
sections by passing a cutting plane through the WALLS
members whose internal forces we wish to
determine. This method permits us to solve directly
any member by analyzing the left or the right
section of the cutting plane.
DIFF. TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS
FOUNDATIONS

PILES

Punching shear arises when a concentrated load

is applied to a small area of a slab or, most
commonly, the reaction of a column against a slab.
SLABS

MODULE 2
Structural Elements
  Definition 1: Structure is that which is built 2. If supported by beams on all sides, it is a
or constructed, an edifice or building of any one-way slab if the ratio of longer span to
kind, or any piece of work artificially built up shorter span is greater than 2 or if the short
or composed of parts joined together in direction to long direction is less than 0.5.
some definite manner.
 Definition 2: Structure is an assemblage of
framing members designed to support
gravity loads and resists lateral forces.
Structural Elements Subjected to Bending
Stresses
The following members are typically subjected to
bending stresses:
1. Slabs
2. Beams
3. Columns / Piers
4. Footings / Pile Caps
5. Piles
6. Other structures: joists, trusses, purlins,
canopy, stairs, walls, etc.

1. SLABS
 A slab is a structural element, made of
concrete, that is used to create flat
horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof
decks and ceilings.
 Characteristics: A slab is generally several
inches thick and supported by beams,
columns, walls, or by the ground.

Two-Way Slab
1. A slab supported by beams on all four sides
where loads are carried by the supports
along both directions.
2. The ratio of longer span to shorter span is
less than or equal to 2, or the short-to-long
ratio is equal to or greater than 0.5.
3. Reinforcement: Main reinforcement is
provided in both directions for two-way
slabs.

One-Way Slab
1. A one-way slab is a slab which is supported
by beams on the two opposite sides to carry
the load along one direction.
 EFFECTIVE DEPTH
 The distance from the centroid of the tension
bar towards the remotest compression fiber
of the concrete
BATTEN PLATE
 Plate rigidly connected to two parallel

Drop Panel
A drop panel is a projection below the slab used to:
 Reduce the negative reinforcement over a
column.
 Reduce the minimum required slab
thickness.
 Increase the slab strength.

Slabs without drop panels as defined in Sections

413.3.5 .................................................... 125 mm

Slabs with drop panels as defined in Sections

413.3.5 ........................................................... 100
mm components of a built-up column or beam
designed to transmit shear between the
Concrete Cover: components.
 20 mm: For slabs with ∅ 36 mm bars and 3. COLUMNS
smaller, or if not exposed to weather/ground.
1. Tied
 40 mm: For slabs with ∅ 42/40 mm and ∅
58 mm bars. 2. Spiral

 50 mm: If exposed to weather. 3. Composite

 75 mm: If permanently in contact with the 4. Combination

ground.
5. Steel pipe

2.. BEAMS
Kl/r = slenderness ratio
  Load Transfer: This layer cannot support
the weight of the building, so the loads of the
building have to bypass this layer and be
transferred to the layer of stronger soil or
rock that is below the weak layer.
 Heavy Loads: When a building has very
heavy, concentrated loads, such as in a
high-rise structure, bridge, or water tank.
 Capacity: Pile foundations are capable of
4. FOOTINGS taking higher loads than spread footings.

Types of Footings
1. Single or Isolated Footing SPECIAL PILES

2. Combined Footing Pile driving is very noisy and causes massive

vibrations through the soil. For this reason, it is
3. Strip / Grid Footing sometimes difficult to use them in sensitive
locations. For example, if an operational hospital or
4. Mat Footing
science lab is to be extended, driving piles would
5. Floating Foundation cause unwanted disturbance. Their use is also
restricted in residential areas in many countries.
Minimum Footing Depth
The vibrations could also cause structural damage
 On soil: Depth above bottom reinforcement to older buildings that are close by. In such
shall not be less than 150 mm. situations it is possible to use <u>micropiling or
helical piling</u>, neither of which rely on
 On piles: Depth above bottom hammering.
reinforcement shall not be less than 300
mm. Precast Driven Piles
are first cast at ground level and then
hammered or driven into the ground using a pile
driver. This is a machine that holds the pile
perfectly vertical, and then hammers it into the
ground blow by blow. Each blow is struck by lifting a
heavy weight and dropping it on the top of the pile -
the pile is temporarily covered with a steel cap to
prevent it from disintegrating. The pile driver thus
performs two functions - first, it acts as a crane, and
lifts the pile from a horizontal position on the ground
and rotates it into the correct vertical position, and
second, it hammers the pile down into the ground.
Piles should be hammered into the ground till
refusal, at which point they cannot be driven any
Pile Foundation further into the soil.
 A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong MICROPILES
material such as concrete that is pushed into
the ground to act as a steady support for Micropiles are high capacity, small diameter (5" to
structures built on top of it. 12") drilled and grouted in-place piles designed with
steel reinforcement to primarily resist structural
Pile Foundations loading. Micropiles are rapidly gaining popularity for
foundations in urbanized areas or in locations with
Pile foundations are used in the following situations:
low headroom and restricted access.
 Surface Soil Layers: When there is a layer
They are an ideal choice for underpinning or
of weak soil at the surface.
emergency repairs because they can be installed
in virtually any ground condition with minimal
vibration and disturbance to existing structures.
Williams larger diameters of All-Thread Rebar are
popular choices for micropile reinforcement

Maximum space for floor joists - 0.4m - 0.6m

Maximum space for purlins -.0.4m - 0.6m

WALLS

HELICAL PILES
Helical piles are steel tubes that have helical
(spiral) blades attached to them. These can be
drilled into the ground, meaning that the pile acts as Load bearing wall (indoor) – 5inch
a giant drill bit, and is rotated and pushed into the Load bearing wall (outdoor) – 6inch
ground from above, much like a screw drills into
wood. Once the steel pile is driven into the ground, FAILURES
a pile cap is poured on top of the pile to prepare it
for the construction above.
WHAT IS A PILE CAP?
A structural member placed on, and usually
fastened to, the top of a pile or a group of piles. It is
used to transmit loads into the pile or group of piles,
and in the case of a group, to connect them into a
bent.
JOISTS
DAMP-PROOFING FOR BLDG RETAINING WALL

PURLINS -
Rectangular or other shape members placed on
top of the truss to directly support the roofing
materials.
Roof battens:
 Provide a breathable space allowing any
condensation to be eliminated
 Increase the structural performance of
roof truss systems
 Enable roofing materials to be secured
firmly to the roof
 Assist with correct alignment of roofing
sheets

STAIRS
 CANOPY

CONCRETE AND REINFORCED CONCRETE

MODULE 3

Concrete
 Is an artificial stone derived from a mixture
of properly proportioned amounts of
hydraulic cement, fine aggregates, coarse
aggregates, and water, with or without
admixtures.
 It is a composite material composed of fine
and coarse aggregate bonded together with
a fluid cement that hardens over time.
Usage Facts
 Concrete is the second-most-used
substance in the world after water.
 It is the most widely used building material
globally.
 Concrete is a material with relatively high
compressive strength.

What do you call the structural support of the stair?

-
Manufacturing Stages Concrete Testing
1. Batching: The process of accurately Slump Test
measuring ingredients by mass or volume
 Slump cone 12 in high 8 in dia. At bottom
and introducing them into the mixer to
produce uniform quality.  The cone is filled in three equal layers each
being tampered 25 times with a 5/8 in bullet
2. Mixing: Essential for producing uniform,
nose tampering rod
high-quality concrete; equipment must be
capable of effective mixing.  Cone is filled and level off it is then lifted and
carefully – the amount of slump is then
3. Transporting.
measured
4. Placing: Also known as "pouring," this is
Compressive Strength Test
accomplished using buckets, hoppers,
buggies, chutes, conveyor belts, pumps,  Concrete specimens are usually cylindrical
tremies, or paving equipment. It can also be with a length equal to twice its diameter
applied via the shotcrete process.
 The mold is filled in three equal parts and
5. Compacting: The process of expelling tampered 25 times with standard tamping
entrapped air. If air is not expelled, it results rod between layers
in "honeycomb". Every 1% of air reduces
concrete strength by approximately 6%.  When mold is full it is struck off and level
and covered with a glass or metal plate to
Manual compaction prevent evaporation
1) Rodding:  The specimens are removed from mold after
24 hours and place in the curing location
 Rodding is done continuously over the
complete area to effectively pack the  At the end of the curing period the
concrete and drive away entrapped air. specimens are subject to a compression test
 The Rodding is done using a 2 m long rod SLUMP CONE SIZE
with 16 mm dia..
 The thickness of layers for rodding is 15-20
cm.
 Manual compaction is by rodding, ramming
and tamping
 Mechanical compaction is by concrete
vibration
Concrete Vibration Guidelines:
 Time of concrete vibration: not more than
15 sec.
 Spacing: * Every 15 cm for 20mm needle
o 30cm for 40-mm needle

6. Curing: The process of protecting concrete

from moisture loss and maintaining a
reasonable temperature. This increases
strength, decreases permeability, and
mitigates cracks.
7. Finishing.
 Strength
 Compressive strength: 2000-8000 psi
 Tensile strength: 200-800 psi
 Flexural strength
 Compression >> tension since concrete is
notch sensitive
2. WORKABILITY
Factors affecting the workability of concrete are:
 Water content
 Mix proportions
 Size, shape, surface texture, grading of
aggregates
 Use of admixtures
 Time
 Temperature
 Use of supplementary cementitious
materials

3. ELASTIC PROPERTIES
Elasticity of concrete is low for any range of
loading, an appreciable permanent setting taking
place for even low loads.
STANDARD SIZE OF CONE
4. DURABILITY
Durability is the property of concrete to withstand
the condition for which it has been designed,
without deterioration over a period of years. Lack of
durability can be caused by external agents arising
from the environment or by internal agents within
the concrete.
5. COHESIVENESS
The ability of plastic concrete to hold its form.
 Large aggregate should not sink to the
bottom of the mix during placement and
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE vibration. This is called segregation.

1. STRENGTH  The more water in a mix the more likely it is

to segregate.
Strength of concrete:
6. VOLUME CHANGE
 Compressive strength
 The ability of concrete to change in volume
 Tensile strength as it dries.
 Flexural strength
 Shear strength COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE
 Type Name / Purpose

Type I Normal

Type II Moderate sulfate resistance

Type III High early strength

Type IV Low heat of hydration

Type V High sulfate resistance

Weight of Concrete
Lightweight Concrete
 Defined as having a 28-day compressive
strength in excess of 2,500 psi.
 Unit weight ranges from 85 or 90 pcf to 115
pcf.
 Produced with expanded shales, clays,
slates, and slags.
o 85 pcf = 1360 kg/m³ or 90 pcf = 1440
kg/m³
o 115 pcf = 1840 kg/m³

Normal Weight Concrete

 Has a density in the range of 140 to 150
lb/ft³ (2240 to 2400 kg/m³).
 For structural applications, the strength
should be greater than 2500 psi (17.0 MPa).
o 140 pcf = 2240 kg/m³

o 150 pcf = 2400 kg/m³

Types of Portland Cement

Different types of Portland cement are
manufactured to meet various physical and
chemical requirements for specific purposes,
meeting the specifications of ASTM C150.
 acts as a relatively solid, homogeneous, dense
combination.
Coarse Aggregates
 Classified as such if the smallest particle
size is greater than ~1/4 in. (6 mm).
 Properties affect final strength and
resistance to disintegration, weathering, and
other destructive effects.
 Must be clean of organic impurities and
bond well with cement gel.
 Size: Larger aggregates (80 mm, 40 mm, 20
mm) are used for mass concrete works
without complicated reinforcement.
 Shape: Affects both the workability and
strength of the concrete.
 Surface Texture: Rounded aggregates with
smooth surfaces require less cement paste,
increasing the yield per bag.
Fine Aggregates
 A smaller filler made of sand.
 Ranges in size from No. 4 to No. 100 (4.75
mm to 150 μm) U.S. standard sieve sizes.
 Should be free of organic impurities, clay,
deleterious material, or excessive filler
smaller than a No. 100 sieve.
Grading of Aggregates
 Gradation refers to the particle size
distribution of aggregates.
 Coarse and fine aggregates must be well-
graded for making concrete.
 Testing for grading is carried out using the
sieve analysis method.

Aggregates Fine Aggregate

Aggregates constitute the bulk of the finished  consists of sourse is river sand, mining sand
product, comprising 60 to 80% of the volume of the and sea sand.
concrete. They must be graded so the whole mass
  Size less than 5mm. (2.36, 1.18 & The water–cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of
water to the weight of cement used in a concrete
mix and has an important influence on the quality of
concrete produced.
 A lower water-cement ratio leads to higher
strength and durability.
 Lower ratios may make the mix more
difficult to place.
 Placement difficulties can be resolved by
0.600mm) using plasticizers or super-plasticizers.
What is the ingredients of concrete in which occupies
more than 75% of the concrete volume? – aggregates

WEIGHT OF AGGREGATES:
 Weight of Aggregates: 95 to 105 lbs/ft³
o (1520 - 1680 kg/m³) How much water do I need for a bag of cement

 Lightweight Aggregate: 70 lbs/ft³ Cement Bag Required Water

Weight Volume
o (1120 kg/m³)

50kg 20 to 30 liters
Water must be POTABLE / water-cement ratio: 0.3
– 0.6 40kg 16 to 24 liters

Water
25kg 10 to 15 liters
 The water-cement ratio is the amount of
water used per bag of cement.
20kg 8 to 12 liters
 This usually varies from 5 to 7 gallons, with
6.5 gallons as average for ordinary job
94lb 4.5 to 7 gallons
conditions.
 The less water used in mixing, the better
the quality of concrete.
 The ideal mix is one that is plastic and
workable.
 It should not be too dry that it becomes too
difficult to place in the forms, nor too wet that
separation of the ingredients result.

Water/cement ratio
 10. Less skilled labor
Advantages of Concrete and Reinforced
Concrete
General Uses and Advantages
 Durable and Cost-Effective: A necessity for
underground use.
 Increasing Strength: The strength of concrete
increases over time.
 Weather Resistance: Can hold up against
various weather conditions and is easy to
Sample Materials Specifications maintain.
 Cement: ASTM C150, Type I Portland Cement  Safety: Safe for building occupants; it is an
 Water: Water shall be fresh, clean, and inert material that does not burn or mildew.
potable  Sustainability: A sustainable choice for
 Aggregates: ASTM C33, except as residential and commercial projects.
modified.  Efficiency: Budget-friendly, easy to repair, and
o Obtain aggregates for exposed concrete energy-efficient; often chosen over wood as a
surfaces from one source. construction material.

o Aggregates shall not contain any Disadvantages of Concrete

substance which may be deleteriously  Concrete is weak in tension.
reactive with the alkalies in the cement.
 Concrete is less ductile.
 Non-shrink Grout: ASTM C 827 non-metallic
 Heavy.
 Admixtures:
 May contain soluble salts which cause
o Accelerating: ASTM C 494, Type C. efflorescence.
o Retarding: ASTM C 494, Type B or D.

o Water Reducing: ASTM C 494, Type A Reinforced Concrete

or E.
 Definition: Reinforced Concrete = Concrete
o Air entraining: ASTM C 260 Percentage + Steel.
of air content shall be as required in ACI
 Properties:
318, ACI 201.2R and ASTM C 1116, as
applicable. o Concrete compressive strength is
relatively high, yet it is a relatively brittle
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete
material.
1. High compressive strength
o The tensile strength is small and is taken
2. Adequate tensile strength care of by Reinforcing Steel Bars (RSB),
which are considered relatively strong in
3. Fire and weather resistance
tension.
4. Durability
 Application: Class A Concrete Mix (1:2:4) is
5. Economy to mold any shape used for structural members subjected to
specific loads.
6. Low maintenance cost
Reinforced Concrete Overview
7. Economy as a construction material
 Definition: Reinforced concrete (RC), also
8. Less deflection known as reinforced cement concrete
9. Use as precast structural components (RCC), is a composite material where the
 inclusion of reinforcement—usually steel
reinforcing bars (rebar)—counteracts the
concrete's low tensile strength and ductility.
 Composition: It is a combination of
traditional cement concrete and
reinforcements (steel bar).
 Mechanical Properties:
o Concrete has relatively high compressive
strength but is relatively brittle.
o Its small tensile strength is managed by
Reinforcing Steel Bars (RSB), which are
relatively strong in tension.
o Concrete resists compression while the
steel reinforcement resists tension forces.
 Application: As an economic building
material, it is very popular and widely used
globally for many types of buildings.
Admixture is a material other than water, o Helpful in placing concrete at high
aggregate, or hydraulic cement used as an temperatures.
ingredient of concrete and added to concrete before
and during its mixing to modify its properties. o Used in casting and consolidating a
large number of pours without the
Main Types of Concrete Admixtures formation of cold joints.
Water-Reducing Admixtures (Plasticizers): Air-Entrainment
Reduce water content, enhancing strength or
increasing slump/workability. Definition: Air-Entraining Admixtures are primarily
used to stabilize tiny bubbles generated within the
High-Range Water-Reducers (Superplasticizers): concrete.
Significantly reduce water demand, ideal for high-
strength or self-consolidating concrete.  Purpose: This process is designed to
protect the concrete against damage caused
Set Retarding Admixtures: Slow the hydration by freezing and thawing cycles.
rate, delaying the setting time to manage large
pours or hot weather conditions.
Accelerating Admixtures: Speed up initial setting
time and early strength development, often used in
cold weather.
Air-Entraining Admixtures: Introduce microscopic
air bubbles to improve resistance to freeze-thaw
cycles and enhance workability.
Retarders
Retarders are a specific type of admixture with the
following characteristics:
 Function: Retarding admixtures delay the
hydration of cement.

A horizontal or nearly horizontal structural including its bracing

system? diaphragm

 Purpose: They are used to delay or extend

the setting time of cement paste in concrete.
 Applications: * Helpful for concrete that has
to be transported long distances.
 A36 Steel Properties

Weight of Rebar per Cubic Meter of Concrete  Classification: A36 is a low carbon steel,
which is classified as having less than
The following values represent standard rebar $0.3\%$ carbon by weight.
weight estimates based on construction type:
 Workability: This low carbon content allows
 Residential construction: 85kg/m³ A36 steel to be easily machined, welded,
and formed.
 Institutional construction: 90kg/m³
 Utility: These traits make it extremely useful
 Commercial construction: 100kg/m³
as a general-purpose steel.
 Industrial construction: 130kg/m³
 Heat Treatment: The low carbon levels also
prevent heat treatment from having a
significant effect on A36 steel.
407.8.4 Bundled Bars (Standards)
 For bundled bars, minimum concrete cover
shall not be less than the equivalent
diameter of the bundle, but need not be
greater than 50 mm.
 Exception: For concrete cast against and
permanently exposed to earth, minimum
cover shall not be less than 75 mm.