Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENTATION
Complete Exam-Ready Notes
All 5 Units | Diagrams | Flowcharts | Key Points

Unit 1Intro Unit 2Oscilloscope Unit Unit 4ADC, DAC& Unit 5Amplifiers
toInstruments 3Transducers& Display &Biomedical
Bridges

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTS

1.1 Basic Measurement Concepts

Definition
The process of comparing an unknown quantity with a known standard to
Measurement
obtain a numerical value.

Key Terms
• Accuracy – Closeness of measured value to the true/actual value.
• Example: True value = 100V, Measured = 99V → High accuracy
• Precision – Ability to give same result repeatedly under same conditions (repeatability).
• Example: 5 readings of 98V → High precision but low accuracy
• Sensitivity – The smallest change in input that causes a detectable change in output.
• Formula: Sensitivity = Change in Output / Change in Input
• Resolution – The smallest change in input that can be distinguished by the instrument.
• Example: A voltmeter showing 0.1V increments has resolution = 0.1V
• Range – Minimum to maximum value the instrument can measure.
• Example: Voltmeter range: 0V to 300V

Types of Errors
• Gross Errors – Due to human mistakes (e.g., wrong reading, parallax error).
• Systematic Errors – Consistent errors due to instrument or method defects.
• Sub-types: Instrumental, Environmental, Observational errors
• Random Errors – Irregular errors with no fixed pattern; reduced by averaging.

Diagram – Error Types

ERRORS
|
________|_________
| | |
Gross Systematic Random
(Human) (Instrument) (Irregular)

Measurement Flow:

Physical Quantity → Sensor → Signal Conditioning → Display → Recorded Value

↓

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

Compare with Standard → Calculate Error → Report with Accuracy/Precision

Real-Time Example
1. A thermometer reads 99°C when actual temp is 100°C → Error = 1°C (Accuracy issue)
2. A digital weighing scale repeating same reading = High Precision

1.2 Classification of Instruments

Analog Instruments
• Output is continuous and proportional to input.
• Uses a deflecting needle/pointer over a scale.
• Examples: Moving coil ammeter, PMMC voltmeter, mercury thermometer.
• Advantages: Simple, no power supply needed, direct reading.
• Disadvantages: Parallax error, lower accuracy, mechanical wear.

Digital Instruments
• Output is in discrete numerical form (digits on display).
• Uses ADC to convert analog signal to digital.
• Examples: Digital multimeter (DMM), digital oscilloscope, digital thermometer.
• Advantages: High accuracy, no parallax, easy to read, auto-ranging.
• Disadvantages: Needs power supply, costlier, susceptible to noise.

Analog: [Input] ──→ [Deflection Mechanism] ──→ [Pointer on Scale]

Digital: [Input] ──→ [ADC] ──→ [Processing] ──→ [7-Segment Display]

Key Points (Exam Ready)

✓ Accuracy = closeness to true value; Precision = repeatability
✓ Sensitivity = Output change / Input change
✓ Resolution = smallest detectable change
✓ Analog: pointer output | Digital: numerical display
✓ Systematic errors are predictable; Random errors are not

1.3 Multimeters

Analog Multimeter – Block Diagram

• Measures Voltage (AC/DC), Current, and Resistance on one instrument.
• Uses a PMMC movement as the indicating element.

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

• Range selection switch connects appropriate shunts/multipliers.

[Input Terminals]
|
[Range Selector Switch]
|
_____|_____
| | |
[Shunt] [Multiplier] [Rectifier]
(Current) (Voltage) (AC mode)
|
[PMMC Movement]
|
[Pointer on Calibrated Scale]

Digital Multimeter (DMM) – Block Diagram

• Converts analog input to digital using an ADC.
• Has auto-ranging and input protection.

[Input] → [Input Attenuator] → [Rectifier/Converter]

|
[ADC (A/D Converter)]
|
[Digital Display (LCD/7-seg)]

Real-Time Example
1. Lab use: Analog multimeter to measure battery voltage (simple, no power needed).
2. Field use: Digital multimeter for precise AC mains voltage checking.

1.4 DC & AC Voltmeters

DC Voltmeter
• Uses series multiplier resistor with PMMC movement.
• Multiplier increases voltage range: R_m = (n-1) × R_coil, where n = multiplying factor.
• PMMC deflects proportional to DC current through it.

[V_input] ──[Rs (Multiplier)]──[PMMC Meter]──

Rs = R_multiplier = (V_range / I_fsd) - R_coil

AC Voltmeter

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

• AC cannot deflect PMMC directly → needs rectifier first.

• Half-wave or Full-wave rectifier converts AC to pulsating DC.
• Then PMMC measures rectified DC value.
• Scale calibrated in RMS values.

[AC Input] → [Rectifier] → [PMMC Movement] → [RMS Reading]

(converts AC |
to DC) (reads average,
calibrated as RMS)

1.5 PMMC and Moving Iron Instruments

PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil)

• Principle: Force on current-carrying conductor in magnetic field (F = BIL).
• A coil is placed in the field of a permanent magnet.
• Current through coil → deflecting torque → pointer deflects.
• Controlling torque: Springs (hair springs) restore pointer.
• Damping: Eddy current damping in aluminum former.
• Used for: DC only (AC reversal averages to zero).
• Advantages: High accuracy, linear scale, no hysteresis.

[Permanent Magnet (N-S)]

|
[Air Gap]
|
[Moving Coil (wound on Al former)]
|
[Springs] ← [Coil] → [Pointer on Scale]
(Controlling (Deflects with
Torque) current)

Moving Iron Instruments

• Principle: Attraction or repulsion between iron pieces in a magnetic field.
• Types: Attraction type (single iron), Repulsion type (two iron pieces).
• Used for both AC and DC.
• Repulsion type is most common: two iron vanes inside a coil, same polarity → repel.
• Deflection is proportional to I² → scale is non-linear (cramped at low end).
• Advantages: Can measure AC directly, robust, cheap.
• Disadvantages: Non-linear scale, affected by hysteresis, less accurate than PMMC.

Repulsion Type:

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

[Coil (carries current)]

|
[Fixed Iron Vane] & [Moving Iron Vane]
|
Same polarity → Repulsion Force
|
[Pointer deflects] ──→ [Scale Reading]

Key Points (Exam Ready)

✓ PMMC: DC only, linear scale, permanent magnet + moving coil
✓ Moving Iron: AC & DC, non-linear scale (I²), repulsion/attraction
✓ DC Voltmeter: PMMC + series multiplier resistor
✓ AC Voltmeter: Rectifier + PMMC movement
✓ Damping: PMMC uses eddy current; Moving Iron uses air friction
✓ DMM uses ADC for conversion before display

Short Summary
Unit 1 Summary:
• Accuracy = close to true value | Precision = repeatable results
• Errors: Gross (human), Systematic (instrument), Random (irregular)
• Analog: continuous pointer; Digital: numerical (uses ADC)
• PMMC: DC only, linear, uses permanent magnet and springs
• Moving Iron: AC/DC, non-linear (I²), uses attraction/repulsion
• Multimeter measures V, I, R using same movement with switching

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

UNIT 2: OSCILLOSCOPE

2.1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Definition
An electronic instrument that displays electrical waveforms (voltage vs. time)
CRO
on a fluorescent screen using a cathode ray tube.

Principle of CRO
• An electron beam is produced, focused, and deflected to trace waveforms on screen.
• Horizontal axis = Time; Vertical axis = Voltage.
• Beam deflected by two sets of plates: X-plates (horizontal) and Y-plates (vertical).

CRO Block Diagram

┌───────────────────────────────────┐
│ CRT (Screen) │
└───────────────────────────────────┘
↑
[Input Signal] → [Y Amplifier] → [Y-Deflection Plates]
|
[Time Base] → [X Amplifier] → [X-Deflection Plates]
|
[Trigger Circuit] ─────────┘
|
[EHT Power Supply] → [Electron Gun (CRT)]

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Working

• Electron Gun: Produces and accelerates electron beam.
• Components: Cathode, Control Grid, Anodes (A1, A2)
• Cathode emits electrons → Grid controls intensity → Anodes accelerate & focus.
• Deflection System: Y-plates (vertical) and X-plates (horizontal) deflect beam.
• Fluorescent Screen: Coated with phosphor; glows when struck by electrons.
• Aquadag Coating: Inside wall, collects secondary electrons; maintains vacuum.

Electron Gun Section:

[Cathode]─→[Control Grid]─→[A1(Focus)]─→[A2(Accelerate)]
(emits e-) (brightness) (focuses beam) (speeds up e-)

Deflection Section:

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

[Y-plates] (Vertical) ← Input Signal

[X-plates] (Horizontal) ← Time Base

Screen: Phosphor glows → Visible waveform

CRO Controls
• Intensity: Controls brightness of trace (Grid voltage).
• Focus: Sharpens the beam spot.
• Vertical Position (Y-pos): Moves trace up/down.
• Horizontal Position (X-pos): Moves trace left/right.
• Volts/Div (V/DIV): Y-axis sensitivity.
• Time/Div (T/DIV): X-axis time scale.
• Trigger: Stabilizes waveform; sets start point of sweep.

2.2 Applications of CRO

Voltage Measurement
• Count the number of divisions the waveform occupies vertically.
• Formula: V = (Vertical divisions) × (V/DIV setting)
• Example: 4 divisions × 2 V/div = 8 V (peak voltage)

Waveform on screen (4 divisions peak-to-peak):

___ ___
/ \ / \
──/─────\───────/─────\── ← Center line
\ /
\___/

Peak-to-Peak = 4 div × 2 V/div = 8 V

Peak voltage Vp = 4 V, RMS = 4/√2 ≈ 2.83 V

Time Period & Frequency Measurement

• Count horizontal divisions for one complete cycle.
• Formula: T = (Horizontal divisions) × (Time/DIV setting)
• Then: Frequency f = 1/T
• Example: 5 divisions × 1 ms/div = 5 ms → f = 1/5ms = 200 Hz

Steps to Measure Frequency:

Set signal → Adjust T/DIV → Count divisions for 1 cycle

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

↓
T = divisions × T/DIV
↓
f=1/T

Real-Time Example
1. Lab: CRO used to check output of a function generator (sine wave at 1 kHz).
2. Electronics repair: Checking PWM signal in motor controller circuit.

2.3 Types of Oscilloscopes

Analog Oscilloscope
• Uses real-time CRT to display waveforms.
• Cannot store waveforms; displays live signal only.
• Fast response, used for simple waveform analysis.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)

• Definition: Oscilloscope that digitizes and stores waveform data in memory.
• Uses ADC to convert analog signal to digital samples.
• Can freeze, store, compare, and analyze waveforms.
• Useful for single-shot events (transients) that cannot be seen on analog CRO.

DSO Block Diagram

[Input Signal]
|
[Attenuator/Amplifier]
|
[ADC] ← [Sample & Hold]
|
[Memory (RAM)] ← stores digital samples
|
[Microprocessor] ← processes & reconstructs
|
[DAC] → [CRT/LCD Display]

DSO Key Features

• Sample Rate: Number of samples per second (e.g., 1 GSa/s).
• Memory Depth: How many samples can be stored.
• Pre-trigger Capture: Can show signal before trigger event.
• Bandwidth: Maximum signal frequency it can display accurately.

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

Key Points (Exam Ready)

✓ CRO measures: Voltage, Time Period, Frequency, Phase
✓ V = Vertical div × V/DIV; T = Horizontal div × T/DIV
✓ CRT has: Electron gun + Deflection plates + Fluorescent screen
✓ DSO stores waveforms digitally via ADC + Memory
✓ Trigger stabilizes waveform on screen
✓ DSO can capture single-shot/transient events unlike analog CRO

Short Summary
Unit 2 Summary:
• CRO displays voltage vs. time waveforms on phosphor-coated screen
• CRT: Electron gun → Deflection plates → Screen
• Y-axis: voltage (V/DIV); X-axis: time (T/DIV)
• V = div × V/DIV; T = div × T/DIV; f = 1/T
• DSO digitizes waveform using ADC and stores in memory
• DSO can capture, store, and compare waveforms

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

UNIT 3: TRANSDUCERS & BRIDGES

3.1 Transducers

A device that converts one form of energy/signal into another. In

Transducer
instrumentation, it converts physical quantity to electrical signal.

[Physical Quantity] → [Transducer] → [Electrical Signal]

(Pressure, Temp, (Voltage, Current,
Displacement...) Resistance change)

LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

• Type: Inductive transducer for linear displacement measurement.
• Has one primary coil and two secondary coils (S1 and S2) symmetrically placed.
• A ferromagnetic core moves linearly inside the coils.
• Working: AC excitation on primary → mutual inductance varies with core position.
• At center: V_S1 = V_S2 → Output = 0 (null position)
• Core moves right: V_S1 > V_S2 → positive output
• Core moves left: V_S2 > V_S1 → negative output
• Output is differential voltage: V_out = V_S1 – V_S2
• Applications: Aircraft control surfaces, machine tool position sensing.

[AC Source]
|
[Primary Coil (P)]
____________________
| [S1] [Core] [S2] |
|____________________|
↕ Core moves
V_out = V_S1 – V_S2
(Positive/Zero/Negative output based on core position)

Resistive Transducer
• Converts physical quantity to change in electrical resistance.
• Potentiometer: Wiper moves → resistance changes → voltage output varies.
• Strain Gauge: Deformation → wire length/area changes → resistance changes.
• Formula: ΔR/R = GF × ε, where GF = Gauge Factor, ε = strain
• RTD (Resistance Temp Detector): Resistance increases with temperature.

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

Strain Gauge:
[Mechanical Force] → [Deformation] → [ΔR in gauge] → [Wheatstone Bridge] →
[Output Voltage]

Capacitive Transducer
• Converts physical quantity to change in capacitance.
• C = εA/d → changes in area (A), distance (d), or permittivity (ε) change C.
• Types: Variable distance (most common), variable area, variable dielectric.
• Applications: Proximity sensors, pressure measurement, level sensors.

Variable Distance Type:

[Force applied] → [Diaphragm moves] → [Gap 'd' changes]
|
[Capacitance C changes]
|
[Measured as output voltage]

Piezoelectric Transducer
• Based on Piezoelectric effect: Certain crystals generate voltage when mechanical stress is
applied.
• Materials: Quartz, BaTiO3 (Barium Titanate), PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate).
• Self-generating transducer (no external power needed).
• Applications: Microphones, ultrasound transducers, accelerometers, vibration sensors.

[Mechanical Force / Vibration]

|
[Piezoelectric Crystal (Quartz)]
|
[Electric Charge Generated]
|
[Voltage Output]

Real-Time Example
1. LVDT: Used in aircraft throttle position feedback systems.
2. Piezoelectric: Guitar pickup, ultrasound imaging probe in hospitals.

3.2 Wheatstone Bridge

Wheatstone A DC bridge circuit used to measure unknown resistance accurately by

Bridge balancing the bridge.

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

• Has 4 resistors: P, Q, R, and unknown S (or X).

• Galvanometer connected between junctions B and D.
• At balance condition: No current through galvanometer.
• Balance Equation: P/Q = R/S → S = (Q × R) / P

A
/ \
P Q
/ \
B───G───D G = Galvanometer
\ /
R S(unknown)
\ /
C
|
[Battery]

Using Wheatstone Bridge:

Connect unknown resistance → Adjust known R → Bridge balances (G = 0)

↓
Apply formula: S = QR/P → Read unknown resistance

3.3 AC Bridges

Maxwell's Bridge (Inductance Measurement)

• Used to measure unknown inductance (L) and resistance (R) of a coil.
• Compares unknown L with a standard capacitor.
• Balance Conditions:
• L_x = R2 × R3 × C1
• R_x = (R2 × R3) / R1

Bridge Arms:
Z1 = R1 || C1 (parallel RC)
Z2 = R2 (pure resistor)
Z3 = R3 (pure resistor)
Z4 = R_x + jωL_x (unknown coil)

Balance: Z1×Z4 = Z2×Z3

Schering Bridge (Capacitance Measurement)

• Used to measure unknown capacitance (C) and dielectric loss.

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

• Balance Conditions:
• C_x = C1 × R3 / R2
• R_x = R2 × C4 / C1
• tan δ (dissipation factor) = ωC4R2 (loss angle)

Bridge Arms:
Z1 = 1/(jωC1) (standard capacitor)
Z2 = R2 (standard resistor)
Z3 = R3 || C4 (parallel RC)
Z4 = R_x + 1/(jωC_x) (unknown capacitor with loss)

Wien Bridge (Frequency Measurement)

• Used to measure frequency of AC signals.
• Contains both R and C elements.
• At balance, the bridge condition gives:
• f = 1 / (2π × √(R1 × R2 × C1 × C2))
• If R1=R2=R and C1=C2=C: f = 1 / (2πRC)
• Also used in RC phase shift oscillators.

Wien Bridge:
Z1 = R1 + 1/(jωC1) (series RC)
Z2 = R2 || 1/(jωC2) (parallel RC)
Z3 = R3, Z4 = R4

At balance: f = 1 / (2πRC)

Key Points (Exam Ready)

✓ LVDT: Linear displacement → differential voltage, uses 1P + 2S coils
✓ Piezoelectric: Self-generating; force → voltage (quartz crystal)
✓ Wheatstone: DC bridge; balance: P/Q = R/S
✓ Maxwell: Measures inductance using standard capacitor
✓ Schering: Measures capacitance and dielectric loss (tan δ)
✓ Wien Bridge: Measures frequency; f = 1/(2πRC)

Short Summary
Unit 3 Summary:
• Transducer converts physical qty → electrical signal
• LVDT: Inductive, linear displacement, null at center
• Piezoelectric: Self-generating, force→voltage, quartz
• Wheatstone: DC, measures resistance, balance: P/Q=R/S
• Maxwell: AC, inductance measurement
• Schering: AC, capacitance + dissipation factor
• Wien Bridge: Frequency f = 1/(2πRC)

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

UNIT 4: ADC, DAC & DISPLAY INSTRUMENTS

4.1 D/A Converters (DAC)

A Digital-to-Analog Converter that converts a binary digital code into a

DAC
proportional analog voltage or current.

Binary Weighted Resistor DAC

• Uses resistors weighted as R, 2R, 4R, 8R... for each bit.
• Each bit switches a current through its weighted resistor.
• Output: V_out = V_ref × (b1/2 + b2/4 + b3/8 + ... ) for n-bit
• Problem: Requires many different precision resistors (hard to fabricate).

4-bit Binary Weighted DAC:

b3(MSB)──[R]──┐
b2────[2R]──┤
b1────[4R]──┤───[Op-Amp]──→ V_out
b0(LSB)──[8R]──┘

V_out = -V_ref(b3/1 + b2/2 + b1/4 + b0/8) × (Rf/R)

R-2R Ladder DAC

• Uses only two resistor values: R and 2R.
• Easier to manufacture with high precision.
• Most widely used DAC type in practice.
• Working: Binary input switches each 2R leg to either V_ref or GND.

R-2R Ladder (3-bit example):

V_ref──Switch──2R──┐
├──R──┐
V_ref──Switch──2R──┘ ├──R──┐
| ├──→ [Op-Amp] → V_out
V_ref──Switch──2R────────┘ |
[2R to GND]

MSB has most weight; LSB has least.

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4.2 A/D Converters (ADC)

An Analog-to-Digital Converter that converts an analog voltage into its

ADC
equivalent binary digital code.

Successive Approximation ADC (SAR ADC)

• Most popular ADC type. Uses a binary search approach.
• Has: Comparator, SAR Register, DAC, Control Logic, Clock.
• Process: Starts with MSB, tries each bit one by one.
• If V_DAC > V_input → bit = 0; If V_DAC < V_input → bit = 1
• Takes exactly n clock cycles for n-bit conversion.
• Advantages: Fast, moderate cost, widely used.

[Analog Input V_in]

|
[Comparator] ← [DAC output]
| ↑
[SAR Register] ───────┘
|
[Digital Output (n-bit)]

SAR ADC Conversion Process:

Start → Set MSB=1 → DAC generates V_DAC

↓
Compare V_DAC with V_in
V_DAC > V_in? → Set bit = 0
V_DAC < V_in? → Keep bit = 1
↓
Move to next bit → Repeat → All bits done → Output digital code

Real-Time Example
1. DAC: Used in audio systems to convert MP3 digital audio to analog sound for speakers.
2. SAR ADC: Used in microcontrollers (e.g., Arduino) to read analog sensor values.

4.3 Display Devices

LED (Light Emitting Diode) Display

• Principle: When forward biased, electron-hole recombination releases energy as light (photons).
• Materials: GaAs (infrared), GaP (green/red), GaN (blue).
• Advantages: Low voltage, fast response, long life, no warm-up.

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

• Applications: Indicator lights, seven-segment displays, traffic signals.

Seven-Segment Display
• Has 7 LED segments (a, b, c, d, e, f, g) arranged to display digits 0-9.
• Each segment is independently controlled.

_a_
| | Segments:
f| |b a = top horizontal
|_g_| b = upper right
| | c = lower right
e| |c d = bottom horizontal
|_d_| e = lower left
f = upper left
g = middle horizontal

Common Anode vs Common Cathode

Feature Common Anode Common Cathode
Common pin All anodes connected to +V All cathodes connected to GND
To glow a Send LOW (0) to cathode of that Send HIGH (1) to anode of that
segment segment segment
Logic Active LOW logic Active HIGH logic

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

• Principle: Liquid crystals twist/untwist polarized light when electric field is applied.
• Does NOT emit light – it modulates ambient light (hence very low power).
• Structure: Polarizer → Glass → LC Layer → Glass → Polarizer

LCD Working
• In normal state: LC molecules are twisted 90° → light passes through → bright pixel.
• With voltage applied: LC molecules align with field → light blocked → dark pixel.
• Types: TN (Twisted Nematic), STN, TFT (active matrix).
• Advantages: Very low power, readable in sunlight, thin form factor.
• Disadvantages: Needs backlight in dark, slower response than LED.
• Applications: Calculators, digital watches, mobile phones, laptop screens.

[Backlight]
↓
[Polarizer (vertical)]
↓

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

[Glass plate + ITO electrodes]

↓
[Liquid Crystal Layer] ← Voltage controls twist
↓
[Glass plate + ITO electrodes]
↓
[Polarizer (horizontal)]
↓
[Viewer]

Key Points (Exam Ready)

✓ DAC: Digital → Analog; R-2R ladder uses only R and 2R values
✓ SAR ADC: Uses binary search; n-bit takes n clock cycles
✓ Seven-segment: 7 LEDs (a–g) to display digits 0–9
✓ Common Anode: Active LOW; Common Cathode: Active HIGH
✓ LCD: Modulates light using liquid crystals; very low power
✓ LED: Emits light; high brightness; used in indicators

Short Summary
Unit 4 Summary:
• DAC converts digital code → analog voltage (R-2R ladder is best)
• SAR ADC: binary search, fast, n-bit needs n clock cycles
• 7-segment display: 7 LEDs form digits 0-9
• Common anode: active LOW | Common cathode: active HIGH
• LCD: light modulation via LC molecules, very low power
• LED: emits light directly via electron-hole recombination

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

UNIT 5: AMPLIFIERS, OSCILLATORS &

BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTS

5.1 Amplifiers

An electronic circuit that increases the amplitude of an input signal (voltage,

Amplifier
current, or power) without distorting its waveform.

Classification of Amplifiers
• Based on biasing (operating point):
• Class A: Conducts full 360°; high linearity, low efficiency (~25%)
• Class B: Conducts 180°; higher efficiency (~78%), crossover distortion
• Class AB: Conducts slightly more than 180°; compromise of A and B
• Class C: Conducts less than 180°; used in RF circuits, very high efficiency
• Based on coupling:
• RC Coupled, Direct Coupled, Transformer Coupled

RC Coupled Amplifier
• Most common amplifier; uses capacitor to couple signal between stages.
• Capacitor blocks DC but passes AC signal to next stage.
• Components: Transistor (BJT), Biasing resistors (R1, R2), Emitter resistor (Re), Coupling
capacitor (Cc).

Stage 1 Stage 2
[Input] → [Cc] → [BJT Amplifier] → [Cc] → [BJT Amplifier] → [Output]
| |
[R1,R2,Rc,Re,Ce] [R1,R2,Rc,Re,Ce]

Cc = Coupling Capacitor (blocks DC, passes AC)

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

• Low frequency region: Gain drops because coupling/bypass capacitor impedance increases.
• Mid-band region: Flat response; maximum gain A_v = -hfe × Rc/re
• High frequency region: Gain drops due to transistor's internal capacitances.
• Bandwidth (BW) = f_H – f_L (where gain is 0.707 × A_max, i.e., -3dB points)

Gain (dB)
| ___________

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

| / \
| / Mid-Band \
| -3dB--/--- ---\--
| / \
|_______/________________________\______
f_L f_H Freq

BW = f_H - f_L

5.2 Feedback in Amplifiers

Negative Feedback
• A portion of output is fed back to input out of phase (180° phase shift).
• Effect: Reduces gain but improves stability, bandwidth, linearity.
• Gain with NFB: A_f = A / (1 + Aβ), where A = open-loop gain, β = feedback fraction
• Advantages: More stable gain, reduced distortion, increased bandwidth, improved input/output
impedance.

[Input] → [+] → [Amplifier A] → [Output]

↑ |
|──── [-] β ─────────────┘
(Negative feedback: 180° phase shift)

Positive Feedback
• Output fed back to input in phase (0° or same phase).
• Effect: Increases gain, but can cause instability and oscillations.
• Used intentionally in oscillators.

[Input] → [+] → [Amplifier A] → [Output]

↑ |
└──── [+] β ─────────────┘
(Positive feedback: 0° phase shift)

5.3 Barkhausen Criteria & RC Phase Shift Oscillator

Barkhausen Criteria
• For sustained oscillations, two conditions must be met:
• 1. Loop Gain |Aβ| = 1 (unity gain around the loop)
• 2. Phase shift around loop = 0° or 360° (in-phase feedback)
• If gain > 1: oscillations grow; if gain < 1: oscillations die.

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

Oscillator Loop:
[Amplifier A] → [Output]
↑ |
└── [Feedback β]┘

Conditions: |Aβ| = 1 AND ∠Aβ = 0° (or 360°)

RC Phase Shift Oscillator

• Uses 3 RC sections each providing 60° phase shift = total 180°.
• Amplifier provides another 180° phase shift (common-emitter inversion).
• Total phase shift = 360° → satisfies Barkhausen criteria.
• Oscillation frequency: f = 1 / (2π × √6 × RC)
• Minimum gain required: |A| ≥ 29

RC Phase Shift Oscillator:

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ [BJT Amplifier (180°)] │
[output] ┤ │
│ [R-C] → [R-C] → [R-C] → feedback to base │
│ (60°) (60°) (60°) = 180° total phase shift │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

f = 1 / (2π√6 RC); Gain ≥ 29

Real-Time Example
1. RC Phase Shift Oscillator: Used in audio tone generators and signal sources.
2. NFB Amplifier: Used in operational amplifiers to maintain stable, predictable gain.

5.4 Biomedical Instruments

ECG (Electrocardiograph)
• Measures and records the electrical activity of the heart.
• Electrodes placed on body surface detect tiny biopotentials (~1-2 mV).
• Standard: 12-lead ECG (10 electrodes: 4 limb + 6 chest).
• Waveform Components:
• P wave: Atrial depolarization (atria contracting)
• QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization (ventricles contracting)
• T wave: Ventricular repolarization
• Uses: Diagnosis of arrhythmia, myocardial infarction (heart attack).

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

[Body Electrodes] → [Bio-amplifier] → [Signal Conditioning]

|
[ADC + Processor]
|
[Chart Recorder / Display]

ECG Waveform Shape:

R
|
P ___/|\___ T
/ / | \ \
/ / | \__\
Q S

Radiography (X-Ray Imaging)

• Uses X-rays (high-energy electromagnetic radiation) to image internal body structures.
• Dense structures (bone) absorb more X-rays → appear white on image.
• Soft tissue absorbs less → appears grey; air absorbs least → appears black.
• Digital Radiography: X-ray detector converts to digital image directly.
• Applications: Fracture detection, chest X-ray, dental imaging.

[X-ray Tube (High Voltage)] → [X-ray Beam]

↓
[Patient's Body]
↓
[X-ray Film / Detector]
↓
[Image (Radiograph)]

Ultrasound Imaging
• Uses high-frequency sound waves (1–20 MHz) to create images.
• Based on pulse-echo principle: Sound emitted → reflects from tissue boundaries → received.
• Transducer: Piezoelectric element emits and receives sound.
• Time delay of echo → determines depth of structure.
• Applications: Fetal scanning, organ imaging, cardiac echo.

[Ultrasound Transducer (Piezoelectric)]

| ↑
Emit Pulse Echo Received
| |
[Pulser] ───── [Receiver]
|
[Time-Gain Compensation]

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

|
[Signal Processor]
|
[Display (B-mode image)]

Ventilator
• A life-support device that mechanically assists or replaces breathing.
• Delivers controlled mix of air/oxygen to lungs at set rate and volume.
• Key parameters: Tidal Volume, Respiratory Rate, FiO2 (oxygen fraction), PEEP.
• Types: Positive pressure ventilator (most common), negative pressure.
• Used in ICU for patients with respiratory failure, during surgery under anaesthesia.

[Gas Supply (O2 + Air)] → [Flow Control] → [Humidifier]

|
[Breathing Circuit]
|
[Patient's Airway]
↕
[Exhalation Valve]
|
[Sensors & Monitor]

Pulse Oximeter
• Measures SpO2 (oxygen saturation of hemoglobin) non-invasively.
• Uses two wavelengths of light: Red (660 nm) and Infrared (940 nm).
• Oxyhemoglobin absorbs more IR; Deoxyhemoglobin absorbs more Red.
• Ratio R = (AC_red/DC_red) / (AC_IR/DC_IR) → mapped to SpO2 using calibration curve.
• Normal SpO2: 95–100%; below 90% = hypoxemia (dangerous).
• Also measures heart rate from pulsatile component.

[Red LED (660nm)] ──┐

├──→ [Finger/Earlobe Probe]
[IR LED (940nm)] ───┘ |
[Photodetector]
|
[Signal Processing / Ratio R]
|
[SpO2 % + Heart Rate Display]

Real-Time Example
1. Pulse Oximeter: Standard bedside monitor in hospitals/ICU; also in smartwatches.
2. Ultrasound: Prenatal fetal scanning (baby's heartbeat and development monitoring).

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Electronic Instrumentation – Exam Notes

Key Points (Exam Ready)

✓ RC Coupled: Capacitor blocks DC, passes AC; flat mid-band response
✓ Barkhausen: Loop gain |Aβ| = 1; phase shift = 0° or 360°
✓ RC Phase Shift OSC: 3×60° = 180° from RC + 180° from amplifier; f = 1/(2π√6 RC)
✓ NFB: Reduces gain but improves stability, BW, and reduces distortion
✓ ECG: Measures heart's electrical activity; P, QRS, T waves
✓ Pulse Oximeter: SpO2 using Red (660nm) & IR (940nm) light ratio
✓ Ultrasound: Pulse-echo principle, piezoelectric transducer

Short Summary
Unit 5 Summary:
• Amplifier classes A/B/AB/C differ in conduction angle and efficiency
• RC coupled: coupling cap blocks DC; mid-band gain is flat
• Negative feedback: stable, more BW, less distortion, gain = A/(1+Aβ)
• Barkhausen: |Aβ|=1 and phase=360° for oscillations
• RC Phase Shift: 3 RC networks × 60° + amp 180° = 360°; f=1/(2π√6·RC)
• ECG: records heart activity; P=atrial, QRS=ventricular, T=repolarization
• Pulse Oximeter: SpO2 via Red/IR light absorption ratio
• Ultrasound: pulse-echo; piezoelectric probe; used in fetal imaging
• Ventilator: delivers controlled breathing to ICU/surgery patients

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