A3 Atomic structure

For a long time, people believed that all matter

Objectives

consisted of the four basic elements: earth, fire, air and

By the end of this topic you will

be able to:

water. Scientists now know that the smallest identifying

● give the atomic symbols of the

particle of matter is an atom. Atoms are the basic

common elements

building blocks of matter. On a macroscopic scale we

● describe the structure of an

atom
classified matter into mixtures and pure substances; we

● give the relative charge and

are now going to investigate matter on a microscopic

mass of a proton, a neutron

and an electron scale by looking at the structure of the atom.

● dene the terms atomic

number and mass number

● represent atoms by nuclear

A3.1 The structure of atoms

notation

Regardless of whet her you have one kilogram, one gram or one atom of a
● interpret nuclear notation

par ticular element, all t hese masses will exhibit t he same proper ties. For
to determine the number of

example, if one gram of gold is broken into smaller par ts, it will still be gold.
subatomic particles in an atom.

The smallest identifying par ticle of an element is an atom.

Elements can be classied into metals and non-metals. The proper ties of

metals and non-metals are given in Units 4.4, 17.1 and 20.1. Each element

Key fact

! can be represented by an atomic symbol, which represents one atom of t he

element. The atomic symbols of some of t he commonest elements are given

An atom is the smallest component

in Tables 3.1.1 and 3.1.2.

of an element that can exist and still

have the same chemical properties

 Table 3.1.1 The atomic symbols of the common metals

as the element.

Metals

Element Atomic symbol Element Atomic symbol

Aluminium Al Lithium Li

Barium Ba Magnesium Mg

Beryllium Be Manganese Mn

Calcium Ca Mercury Hg

Chromium Cr Nickel Ni

Cobalt Co Potassium K

Copper Cu Silver Ag

Gold Au Sodium Na

Iron Fe T in Sn

Lead Pb Zinc Zn

 Table 3.1.2 The atomic symbols of the common non-metals

Non-metals

Element Atomic symbol Element Atomic symbol

Argon Ar Neon Ne

Boron B Nitrogen N

Exam tip
✔ Bromine Br Oxygen O

Carbon C Phosphorus P

It is essential that you know the

Chlorine Cl Silicon Si

atomic symbols of all the common

Fluorine F Sulfur S

elements and that you write them

Helium He

with care, making sure that you

Hydrogen H

form your capital and common

Iodine I

letters correctly.

Krypton Kr

34
Atomic structure The structure of atoms

We cannot see atoms because t hey are incredibly small. Compared to t he

t hic kness of a human hair, an atom is more t han a million times smaller.
Did you know?

?
7

The average diameter of an atom is about 2.5  10 mm, whic h means

The atomic symbols of some of

t hat, on average, an atom is 25 million times smaller t han a millimetre.

the elements are derived from the

However, t here are par ticles t hat are even smaller t han an atom. These

Latin name of the element. For

fundamental par ticles are called subatomic particles and atoms are made

example, the Latin name for iron is

up of t hese par ticles.

ferrum and the symbol for iron is Fe,

copper is cuprum and its symbol is

Cu, lead is plumbum and its symbol

Subatomic particles

is Pb, and silver is argentum,

Atoms are made up of t hree subatomic par ticles: protons, neutrons and
symbol Ag.

electrons.

● Protons and neutrons are found in t he centre of an atom in an area

electrons orbit

known as t he nucleus. Protons and neutrons are collectively known as

the nucleus

nucleons. Nearly all t he mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.

● Electrons are found at quite a distance from t he nucleus, spinning

around t he nucleus in a series of levels known as energ y shells

(sometimes just called shells). Most of t he atom is in fact empty space,

but t he movement of t he electrons around t he nucleus constitutes t he

volume of an atom. When chemical reactions occur, it is t he electrons

t hat are involved in t he reaction.

Mass and charge of subatomic particles

the nucleus

Protons are positively charged par ticles and electrons are negatively charged.

contains protons

The size of t he charge on a proton is equal to t he size of t he charge on an

and neutrons

electron. Neutrons are electrically neutral so have no charge. In an atom, t he

 Figure 3.1.1 The structure of an atom

number of protons is always t he same as t he number of electrons. Therefore,

an atom is electrically neutral and has no charge.

The mass of a proton is equal to t he mass of a neutron. The mass of a proton is

24

extremely small, only 1.67  10 g. The mass of an electron is even smaller.

Comparing t he mass of a proton to t hat of an electron, a proton is about

1836 times heavier t han an electron.

The proper ties of a proton, neutron and electron are summarised in

Table 3.1.3.

 Table 3.1.3 The properties of a proton, a neutron and an electron

Subatomic particle Relative charge Relative mass

Proton 1 1

Neutron 0 1

1
_____
Electron 1

1836

Atomic number

Key fact

!
The number of protons in an atom is known as t he atomic number and

is unique to a par ticular element, i.e. t here are no two elements in t he Atomic number is the number of

protons in the nucleus of one atom

world t hat have t he same atomic number. For example, t he atomic number

of an element.
of hydrogen is 1, whic h means t hat ever y hydrogen atom has 1 proton.

The atomic number of calcium is 20, t herefore, ever y calcium atom has

20 protons.

35
 The structure of atoms Atomic structure

In an atom, since t he number of electrons is always equal to t he number of

protons, t he number of electrons is equal to t he atomic number.

Mass number

Key fact

! The number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as t he mass

number. The mass number is not unique to a par ticular element, for example

Mass number is the total number

polonium and astatine bot h have a mass number of 210.

of protons and neutrons in the

nucleus of one atom of an element.

The number of neutrons can be calculated by subtracting t he atomic number

from t he mass number, i.e.

number of neutrons  mass number  atomic number

Nuclear notation

We can represent an atom (or ion) of an element using the nuclear notation:

X
Z

where X  atomic symbol, A  mass number and Z  atomic number.

This notation is ver y useful because it allows us to calculate t he number of

protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom.

● The number of protons is equal to Z

● The number of neutrons is equal to A  Z

● The number of electrons is equal to t he number of protons, which is

equal to Z

Examples are given in Table 3.1.4.

 Table 3.1.4 The number of subatomic particles in the atoms of three elements

Number of

Element Nuclear notation

Protons (Z) Neutrons (A–Z) Electrons

14

Nitrogen N 7 7 7
7

27

Aluminium AI 13 14 13
13

37

Chlorine Cl 17 20 17
17

The nuclear notations for all elements can be found in t he periodic table of

elements on page 360.

Summary questions

1 Which particle(s) in the atom is/are responsible for the:

a mass of the atom b volume of the atom?

2 Dene the following terms:

atomic number, mass number.

3 For each of the following nuclear notations, give the number of protons,

electrons and neutrons.

11 23 40

a B b Na c Ca
5 11 20

36
Atomic structure The electronic configuration of an atom

A3.2 The electronic configuration of an atom Objectives

By the end of this topic you will

Electrons spin around t he nucleus of an atom in a series of levels known as

be able to:

energ y shells. Each energy shell is a xed distance from t he nucleus of t he

● give the maximum number of

atom and t he electrons in t he same shell have t he same amount of energy.

electrons allowed in the rst

The electrons are arranged in t he energy shells in a specic way. We can

three energy shells of an atom

represent t he arrangement of electrons in an atom, known as t he electronic

● work out the electronic

conguration (or str ucture), using anot her scientic model.

conguration of the rst 20

electron
elements

proton

● represent the electronic

× conguration of an atom in

writing

● represent the electronic

conguration of an atom by a
energy

shells
shell diagram

● explain the term valence

electron.

neutron

nucleus

 Figure 3.2.1 Model of the arrangement of electrons in an atom

In t his scientic model, t he energy shells are drawn as concentric circles

around t he nucleus, but as t his is only a model, t his is not how t hey actually
Did you know?

?
look. The shells are numbered according to t heir distance from t he nucleus.

The shell closest to t he nucleus is assigned number 1, t he next fur t hest away The maximum number of electrons

is number 2, and so on. that an energy shell can hold is

given by the formula 2n , where n

Each shell can hold up to a cer tain maximum number of electrons:

is the shell number. Shell number

3 can, therefore, actually hold a

● shell number 1 can hold a maximum of 2 electrons

maximum of 18 electrons and shell

● shell number 2 can hold a maximum of 8 electrons

number 4 can hold a maximum

● shell number 3 may be considered to hold a maximum of of 32 electrons. However, when

filling up shell number 3, something

8 electrons.

unusual happens. When 8 electrons

Fur t her shells hold more electrons, but it is not necessar y to know t heir
have been placed in shell number

maximum numbers since you will not have to work out t he electron 3, the next 2 electrons are placed

conguration of an atom wit h more t han 20 electrons. in shell number 4. Only after these

2 electrons have been placed in

The negative electrons are constantly being attracted to t he positive nucleus

shell number 4 are any remaining

by an electrostatic force of attraction . The electrons maintain t heir spin

electrons (up to 10) placed in shell

around t he nucleus and t heir distance from t he nucleus because of t he number 3.

energy t hey possess. Electrons in t he shells closest to t he nucleus have less

energy t han t hose in t he shells fur t her from t he nucleus. In fact, electrons

can only occupy a specic shell if t hey have t he required energy.

Key fact

!
The chemical proper ties of an element depend on t he arrangement of

An electrostatic force of
electrons in an atom of t hat element, in par ticular, t he number of electrons

attraction is the force that exists

in t he outermost energy shell.

between two oppositely charged

particles.

37
 The electronic configuration of an atom Atomic structure

Shell diagrams

Key fact

! The electronic conguration of an atom of an element can be represented

by drawing a shell diagram or in writing using numbers. In order to draw a

The electronic configuration of

shell diagram of an atom, t he following steps must be followed.

an atom is the arrangement of

electrons in the energy shells of the

1) Determine t he number of protons, neutrons and electrons in t he atom

atom.

using t he atomic number and mass number (Unit 3.1).

2) Draw a small circle for t he nucleus and write t he number of protons and

neutrons inside t his circle.

3) Work out t he electronic conguration by lling up t he shells wit h

electrons, in order, i.e. ll up shell 1 rst and, when t hat is full, star t to ll

up shell 2, and so on.

4) Represent t he electronic conguration by drawing concentric circles

around t he nucleus. The number of circles you should draw is determined

by t he number of shells t hat you are going to ll or par tially ll. Use crosses

or dots to represent t he electrons. Draw t he 2 electrons in shell number 1

as a pair. Draw t he electrons in t he ot her shells as pairs when t he shell

contains 5 or more electrons.

Examples

12

1 The str ucture of a carbon atom, C.

6
×

××
A carbon atom has:

6p 6 protons

× ×

6n

6 neutrons (12  6)

6 electrons.

12

 Table 3.2.1 Determining the electronic conguration of a carbon atom

carbon, C
6

Shell number Maximum number of electrons Number of electrons in carbon

 Figure 3.2.2 Electronic conguration

1 2 2
of a carbon atom

2 8 4

The electronic conguration of a carbon atom can be written by writing

t he symbol of t he element followed by t he number of electrons in each

shell separated by commas, i.e. C (2,4)

39

2 The str ucture of a potassium atom, K.

19
×

××
A potassium atom has:

××

19 protons

20 neutrons (39  19)

××

××

××

××

19p

19 electrons.

20n

 Table 3.2.2 Determining the electronic conguration of a potassium atom

××
Shell number Maximum number of electrons Number of electrons in potassium

××

1 2 2

39

potassium, K

2 8 8
19

 Figure 3.2.3 Electronic conguration

3 8 8

of a potassium atom

4 not necessary 1

The electronic conguration of a potassium atom is K (2,8,8,1)

38
Atomic structure The electronic configuration of an atom

3 The str ucture of ot her atoms.

Element Electronic configuration

hydrogen H (1)
Examples of t he electronic congurations of atoms of ot her elements are

boron B (2,3)
given in t he shell diagrams in Figure 3.2.4 and are written in Table 3.2.3.

oxygen O (2,6)

× ××
sodium Na (2,8,1)

argon Ar (2,8,8)

××
1p

×
5p 8p

×
calcium Ca (2,8,8,2)

0n
6n 8n

 Table 3.2.3 Written electronic

congurations of the atoms shown in

×
×

1
Figure 3.2.4
11 16

hydrogen, H boron, B oxygen, O

1 5 8

× ×× ××

×× ×× ××
××

××

××

××

××

××

××

××
××

××

18p 20p
11p

22n 20n
12n

Exam tip
×× ×× ×× ✔

×× ××

It is important that you can draw

23 40 40

sodium, Na argon, Ar calcium, Ca shell diagrams of atoms of atomic

11 18 20

numbers 1 to 20, i.e. hydrogen to

 Figure 3.2.4 Shell diagrams showing the electronic congurations of atoms of

calcium in the periodic table.

different elements

Valence electrons

The electrons in t he outermost energy shell are known as valence electrons .

For example, potassium (2,8,8,1) has one valence electron.

The outer most e le c t ro ns are t he on es t h at are involve d in c h emical

reactions, i.e. t he va le n ce e le ct ro n s. A dia g ram o f an a tom can b e drawn t h at

shows only t he va le n c e e le ct ro n s. E xa mple s a re g ive n in Fig ure 3.2. 5.

× ×× × ××
××

××

××

5p 8p 11p 18p
×

×
6n 8n 12n 20n

× × ××

boron, B oxygen, O sodium, Na argon, Ar

 Figure 3.2.5 Diagrams of boron, oxygen, sodium and argon atoms showing the

valence electrons only

Summary questions

1 What is the maximum number of electrons allowed in shell number 2?

2 Represent the electronic conguration of each of the following atoms

using both a shell diagram and writing:

24 35 20

a magnesium, Mg b chlorine, Cl c neon, Ne.

12 17 10

3 For each of the elements in question 2, give the number of valence

electrons.

39
 Isotopes and radioactivity Atomic structure

Objectives A3.3 Isotopes and radioactivity

By the end of this topic you will

Isotopy
be able to:

The atomic number is unique to a particular element. For example, all atoms

● dene the terms isotope and

of magnesium have an atomic number of 12, i.e. they all have 12 protons and,

isotopy

therefore, 12 electrons. The number of neutrons in atoms of the same element

● dene relative atomic mass

is not unique. For example, most magnesium atoms have 12 neutrons, however,

● explain what is meant by a

some have 13 neutrons and others have 14 neutrons. Atoms with the same

radioactive isotope

number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons are called

● describe the uses of

isotopes. The occurence of these different isotopes is known as isotopy

radioactive isotopes.

In ot her words, isotopes have t he same atomic number but different mass

numbers. Isotopes have:

Key fact
the same chemical properties and electrical properties because they have
!
●

the same number and arrangement of electrons, e.g. if the different isotopes

Isotopes are different atoms of the

of magnesium react with oxygen, the chemical reaction would be the same

same element that have the same

● slightly different physical proper ties because of t he different numbers

number of protons and electrons

of neutrons, e.g. t he different isotopes of magnesium have slightly

but different numbers of neutrons.

different masses.

Most elements have more t han one isotope, but not all of t hese isotopes

are stable. The unstable ones decay into ot her isotopes. The percentage of
Key fact

!
each isotope of an element in a sample of t he element is referred to as t he

abund ance of t he isotope.

Isotopy is the occurrence of atoms

of the same element that have

the same number of protons and Examples

electrons but different numbers of

1 Carbon

neutrons.

Carbon, atomic number 6, has three naturally occurring isotopes, one with

a mass number of 12, one with a mass number of 13 and one with a mass

number of 14. There are two main methods of representing these isotopes:

● Using nuclear notation:

12 13 14

C C C
6 6 6

● By name:

carbon-12 or C-12

carbon-13 or C-13

carbon-14 or C-14.

Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, carbon-13 has 7 neutrons and carbon-14, which

is unstable, has 8 neutrons. Carbon-12 is the most abundant carbon isotope.

In fact 98.89% of all naturally occurring carbon is the carbon-12 isotope.

2 Hydrogen
Did you know?

?
Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes.

The deuterium isotope of hydrogen

is heavier than normal hydrogen

since it has an extra neutron. Water

made from deuterium in place

of normal hydrogen is known as

heavy water. This heavy water is

used in nuclear reactors to slow

1 2 3

H or protium H or deuterium H or tritium

down the fast-moving neutrons, 1 1 1

thus enabling a sustained chain

 Figure 3.3.1 The three isotopes of hydrogen

reaction.

Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes.

These are given in Figure 3.3.1. Protium, or normal hydrogen as it is usually

40
Atomic structure Isotopes and radioactivity

called, has a single proton in its nucleus. It is the most abundant hydrogen

isotope, making up 99.985% of all naturally occurring hydrogen.

3 Chlorine

35

Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes, Cl, or chlorine-35, and

17

37

Cl, or chlorine-37. Approximately 75% of naturally occurring chlorine

17

is t he chlorine-35 isotope and 25% is t he chlorine-37 isotope.

Relative atomic mass

Chemists could use grams to measure t he mass of atoms, but because t he

mass of an atom is so small, it becomes ver y clumsy. They needed a much

smaller unit t han a gram to measure t he mass of atoms. They designed a

system t hat gives us numbers t hat are easier to work wit h, but t hey had to

ensure t hat t hese numbers are representative of t he mass of each atom and

in t he same ratio as t he actual masses of atoms.

To design t his system t he carbon-12 isotope was chosen as a basis to work

from because of its great stability and abundance in nature.

To make t he numbers representative of t he mass, t hey chose t he number for

carbon-12 to be 12, because carbon-12 has a mass number of 12, i.e. it has 6

protons and 6 neutrons. They dened t his new unit as one-twelf t h t he mass

of a carbon-12 atom. A carbon-12 atom was assigned a mass of 12.00 atomic

Key fact
mass units or amu. Therefore, one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom has
!

a mass of 1.00 amu.

Relative atomic mass, A , is the

r

The mass of an atom of an element compared to one-twelf t h t he mass of a average mass of one atom of an

carbon-12 atom was t hen assigned a value known as relative atomic mass . element compared to one-twelfth

the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

Relative atomic mass is given t he symbol A
r

Relative atomic mass, t herefore, compares t he mass of an atom of an element

to one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom. Because it is a comparative

value, relative atomic mass has no units Key fact

When calculating t he relative atomic mass of an element, t he relative

A radioactive isotope has an

abundance of each isotope is taken into account. For example, t he relative

unstable nucleus which decays

atomic mass of chlorine, which is 35.5, is t he average mass of t he two isotopes

spontaneously to a more stable

of chlorine according to t heir relative abundance. In a sample of chlorine

form by emitting particles and

gas, approximately 75% of t he sample consists of t he chlorine-35 isotope radiation.

and 25% consists of t he chlorine-37 isotope.

75 25
____ ____

Relative atomic mass of chlorine   35   37  35.5

( ) ( )
100 100

Did you know?

Relative atomic mass gives a rough idea of t he number of nucleons (protons

?

and neutrons) an atom has. However, because we are looking at a mixture of

The three main types of particles

isotopes when calculating relative atomic mass, t he relative atomic mass is

and radiation emitted by radioactive

not a whole number, e.g. t he relative atomic mass of carbon is 12.011, but no
isotopes are:

real atom of carbon has 12.011 nucleons. • alpha ( ) particles, which

consist of 2 protons and 2

neutrons and have a charge of

Radioactivity

2

Some isotopes have unstable nuclei. These are known as rad ioactive isotopes .

• beta ( ) particles, which

These isotopes undergo radioactive decay by spontaneously ejecting par ticles

consist of an electron and have

and radiation from t heir nuclei. Radioactive isotopes eject t hese par ticles
a charge of 1

to become more stable and in t he process t hey may produce an atom of a

• gamma ( ) radiation, which

different element. is a form of high energy

electromagnetic radiation and

The time taken for half of t he nuclei in a sample of a radioactive isotope to

has neither mass nor a charge.

undergo radioactive decay is known as t he half-life of t he isotope.

41
 Isotopes and radioactivity Atomic structure

Uses of radioactive isotopes

Carbon-14 dating

Carbon-14 d ating is used to determine t he age of plant and animal remains,

up to about 60 000 years old, which have been discovered in places such as

archeological sites. It makes use of t he fact t hat t he half-life of radioactive

carbon-14 is 5700 years.

All living organisms contain carbon-14 and carbon-12 in a specic ratio by

mass. This is t he same ratio as in carbon dioxide in t he atmosphere. As t he

carbon-14 present in a living organism’s body decays, it is replaced because

t he organism constantly takes in molecules containing carbon in t he form

of food (animals) or carbon dioxide (plants).

When a living organism dies, it stops taking in t hese carbon containing

molecules and t he carbon-14 is not replaced as it decays. The ratio of carbon-14

to carbon-12, t herefore, decreases. The age of a specimen can be determined

by comparing t he ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in t he specimen wit h t he

expected ratio for t hat organism if it was alive. For example, if t he amount

 Figure 3.3.2 Carbon-14 dating is used of carbon-14 was half of t he expected amount, t hen t he specimen would be

to determine the age of some fossils

5700 years old, if it was a quar ter of t he expected amount, t hen t he specimen

would be 11 400 years old.

Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy uses radiation to cure or control cancer. Cancerous growths or

tumours are composed of rapidly dividing cells and these cells are particularly

sensitive to damage by radiation. They can be controlled or eliminated by

irradiating the area containing the growth with external or internal radiation.

External irradiation can be carried out by directing a beam of gamma

radiation from a radioactive cobalt-60 source at t he cancerous growt h.

Internal irradiation involves eit her injecting a radioactive isotope, usually a

gamma or beta emitter, into t he target area, or placing a radiation source in

a tiny protective capsule or wire (a radioactive seed) directly at t he site of t he

cancerous tumour. For example, iodine-131 is used to treat t hyroid cancer

 Figure 3.3.3 Radiotherapy is used to

treat cancerous growths and radioactive seeds containing iridium-192, palladium-103 and iodine-125

are used to treat breast and prostate cancer and brain tumours.

Tracers

Radioactive isotopes are used as tracers in the medical eld as a diagnostic

tool. These tracers generally have a short half-life so they do not remain in the

body for ver y long. A small amount of the tracer is usually injected into the

bloodstream and as it moves around the body it emits gamma rays which can

be obser ved using special equipment. This allows the physician to obser ve the

functioning of specic organs. Examples of medical tracers are:

● Technetium-99 is used to produce images and carr y out functional

studies of most organs in t he body, especially t he brain, hear t muscle,

skeleton, lungs, liver, gall bladder and kidneys.

● Iodine-131 is used to image and carr y out functional studies of t he

t hyroid gland.

Another example of the use of radioactive tracers is in determining the uptake of

atmospheric carbon dioxide by plants. Plants can be grown in an environment

containing radioactive carbon dioxide, i.e. carbon dioxide that has been made

by replacing the carbon-12 atoms in the molecules with carbon-14 atoms.

42
Atomic structure Isotopes and radioactivity

Using a Geiger counter (a machine that detects radiation) the parts of the plant

that absorb the radioactive carbon dioxide can be identied.

Energy generation

Radioactive isotopes are used to generate electricity in nuclear power stations.

The isotopes used are ones that release ver y large amounts of energy when

they undergo nuclear ssion, i.e. when the nucleus splits, usually into two

smaller nuclei. Nuclear power stations use uranium-235 or plutonium-239. If

an atom of either uranium-235 or plutonium-239 is str uck by a free neutron,

it splits into two smaller atoms and releases two or three neutrons and a large

amount of energy. The released neutrons can then strike other atoms, which

also split releasing more neutrons and energy. This sets up a chain reaction

which releases enormous amounts of energy.

Did you know?

Ba

energy One type of atom bomb derives

235

U
neutrons
Ba Kr
its destructive force from nuclear

fission. Only two atom bombs have

neutron

Ba

235 235
been used during warfare, both by
U energy U

Kr the USA towards the end of World

War II. The first, a uranium fission

Kr Ba
235

U bomb, code named ‘Little Boy’,

energy

was exploded over the Japanese

Kr

city of Hiroshima on 6 August,

 Figure 3.3.4 The chain reaction in splitting a uranium atom

1945. The second, a plutonium

fission bomb, code named

If t he chain reaction is controlled, t he energy produced can be used to

‘Fat Man’, was detonated over

generate electricity. If t he chain reaction is not controlled, it results in a

Nagasaki in Japan three days later.

nuclear explosion such as occurs in an atom bomb.

Heart pacemakers

A pacemaker is a medical device t hat is used to regulate t he beating of

Did you know?

t he hear t. It is implanted under t he skin just below t he collar bone and is
?

connected to t he hear t muscle by electrodes.

It is thought that only about 50

In the early 1970s, some pacemakers were developed that were powered by
to 100 people living today have

batteries containing plutonium-238. As the plutonium-238 undergoes natural pacemakers that are powered

radioactive decay, it emits energy. In the pacemaker batter y, this energy is used by plutonium-238 batteries. Their

use was never really developed

to generate an electric current which delivers about 0.2 milliwatt of power.

for several reasons, one of the

Pacemakers powered by chemical batteries have a lifespan of about 10 years.

main ones being the reluctance of

To replace the batteries, the pacemaker has to be surgically removed and then

people to have a device containing

replaced. Since the half-life of plutonium-238 is about 87 years, pacemakers

radioactive plutonium in their body

powered by plutonium-238 batteries should be able to deliver current for a

for life.

patient’s lifetime without having to be replaced.

Summary questions

1 Dene the following terms:

a isotope b relative atomic mass.

2 Give the similarities and differences between the two isotopes of

sodium, Na-23 and Na-22.

3 Explain why relative atomic mass has no units.

4 Explain what a radioactive isotope is.

5 How is carbon-14 used in the dating of fossil samples?

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 Isotopes and radioactivity Atomic structure

Key concepts

● Atoms are t he basic building blocks of matter. An atom is t he smallest

identifying par ticle of an element t hat has t he proper ties of t he element.

● Atoms consist of t hree fundamental par ticles, known as subatomic

par ticles: protons, neutrons and electrons

● Protons and neutrons are found in the centre of t he atom in an area

known as t he nucleus. Protons and neutrons are collectively known as

nucleons

● Electrons are found at quite a distance from t he nucleus in a series of

levels known as energ y shells. Electrons in t he same shell have t he same

amount of energy.

● Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and

neutrons have no charge.

● The size of t he charge on a proton is equal to t he size of t he charge on

an electron. In an atom, t he number of protons equals t he number of

electrons.

● The mass of a proton is equal to t he mass of a neutron. An electron has a

1
____

mass of t he mass of a proton or a neutron.

1836

● Protons and neutrons are responsible for t he mass of an atom. Electrons

are responsible for t he volume of an atom.

● The number of protons in an atom is known as t he atomic number

● The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as t he

mass number

● The electrons are arranged in t he energy shells in a specic way known

as t he electronic conguration

● Each electron shell can hold up to a cer tain maximum number of

electrons.

● Shells closest to t he nucleus ll up rst.

● The electronic conguration of an atom can be represented in writing

using numbers or by a shell diagram.

● Electrons in t he outermost shell are known as valence electrons

● The chemical proper ties of an element depend on t he arrangement of

electrons in t he atoms of t he element.

● Isotopes are different atoms of t he same element t hat have t he same

number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons.

They have t he same atomic number but different mass numbers.

● Isotopy is t he occurrence of atoms of t he same element t hat have

t he same number of protons and electrons but different numbers of

neutrons.

● Isotopes of an element have t he same chemical proper ties but different

physical proper ties.

● The relative atomic mass, A , is a number t hat compares t he average

r

mass of an atom wit h one-twelf t h t he mass of a carbon-12 atom.

● Some isotopes have unstable nuclei. These are known as rad ioactive

isotopes

● Radioactive isotopes have many uses. Some of t hese are carbon-14

dating, radiot herapy, tracers, energy generation and pacemakers.

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