UNIT - 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Definition
A computer is an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and controlling
operations that can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms.

Applications
The applications domain of a computer depends totally on human creativity and
imagination it covers a huge area of applications including education, industries, government
medicine, scientific research, low and even music and arts.
•• Millions of complex calculations can be done in a mere fraction of time
•• Difficult decisions can be made with unerring accuracy for comparatively little cost

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

Speed
Computer process data at an extremely fast rate – millions of instructions per second in
few seconds, a computer can perform a huge task that a normal human being may take days or
even years to complete.

The speed of a computer is calculated in Mhz

Accuracy
Besides efficiency, computer are accurate as well. The level of accuracy depends an the
instructions and the type of machine being used.

Diligence
Computer being a machine does not suffer form the human trailts of tiredness and lack of
concentration

Reliability
Reliability is the measurement of performance of a computer, which is measured against
some predetermined standard for operation without any failure.
1.2 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming

Storage capability
The main memory of the computer is relatively small and it can hold only a certain
amount of information, therefore, the data is stored on secondary storage devices such as magnetic
tape or disks.

Versatility
perform multiple taks simultaneously with great ease. For example,
It can
at one moment it can be used to draft a letter, another moment it can be used to
play music an in between, one can print a document as well.
All this work is possible by changing the program.

Resource sharing
It made the sharing of costly resources like printer possible.

Apart from device sharing data and information can also be shared among group of
computers, thus creating a large information and knowledge base.

1.3 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

•• In the beginning, when the task was simply counting or adding, people used either
their fingers or pebbles along lines in the sand.
In order to simplify the process of counting, people in Asia Minor built a counting
device called abacus. This device allowed users to do calculations using a system of
sliding beads arranged on a rack.
•• With the passage of time, many computing devices such as Napier bones and slide
rule were invented.
•• In 1642, a French mathematician, Blaise Pascal invented the first functional automatic
calculator.
This brass rectangular box, also called a Pascaline, used eight movable dios to adds
sums eight figures long.
•• In 1694, german mathematician Gottfried wilhem von Leibniz extended pascal’s
design to perform multiplication, division and to find square root. This machine is
known as Stepped Reckoner.
•• The real beginnings of computers as we know them today, however, lay with an
English mathematics professor, Charles Babbage.
In 1822, he proposed a machine to perform differential equations, called a Difference
Engine.
•• In 1889, Herman Hollerith, who worked for us census bureau, also applied the
Jacquard loom concept to computing.
Hollerith’s method used cards to store data, which he fed into a machine that complled
the results mechanically.
 Introduction to Computers 1.3

•• Mark I, which was built as a partnership between Harvard Aiken and IBM in 1944.
This electronic calculating machine used relays and electromagnetic components to
replace mechanical components
•• In 1946, John Eclcert and John Mauchy of developed ENIAC (electronic numerical
integrator and calculator)
Thus computer used electronic vacuum tubes to make internal parts of the computer
•• Eckert and mauchy also proposed the development of EDVAC ( electronic discrete
variable automatic computer.
It was the first electronic computer to use the stored program concept introduced by
John von Neumann.
•• In 1949, at the Cambridge university, Maurice wilkes developed EDSAC (electronic
delay storage automatic calculator)
This machine used mercury delay lines for memory and vacuum tubes for logic.
•• The Eckert – mauchy corporation manufactured UNIVAC ( universal automatic
computer) in 1951 and its implementation marked the real beginning of the computer
era.

1.4 COMPUTER GENERATIONS

1.4.1 First Generation (1940-56) : Vacuum Tube
First generation computer were vacuum tubes/thermionic value based machines these
computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.

A magnetic drum is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which
data and programs can be stored.

Input was based on punched cards and paper tape and output was in the form of printouts.

For example: ENIAC, EDVAC AND UNIVAC.

Characteristics of First Generation Computers.

•• These computers were based on vacuum tube technology.
•• These were the fastest computing devices of their time.
•• These computers were very large, and required a lot of space for installation.
•• These were non-portable and very slow equipments.

1.4.2 Second Generations (1956-63): Transistors

A transistor is made up of semiconductor material like germanium and silicon. It usually
had three leads and performed electrical functions such as voltage, current or power amplification
with low power requirement.

Since transistor is a small device, the physical size of computers was greatly reduced.
1.4 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming

Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-efficient and more reliable than their
predecssors.

Magnetic cores- were used as primary memory and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. However, they still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

For example: PDP – 8 , IBM 1401 and IBM 7090

Characterstics of Second Generation Computer.

•• These machines were based on transistor technology
•• These were smaller as compared to the first generation computers.
•• These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.

1.4.3 Third Generation (1964 – Early 1970), Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the trait of the third generation computer.
Also called an ic, an integrated circuit consists of a single chip with many components such as
transistors and resistors fabricated on it.

Integrated circuit replaced several individually wired transistor. This development made
computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with operating system.

For example : NCR 395 and B6500

Characteristic of Third Generation Computer

•• These computers were based on integrated circuit (ic) technology.
•• They were able to reduce computational time from micro seconds to nano seconds.
•• Extensive use of high – level language became possible

1.4.4 Fourth Generation (Early (1970 – Till Date) Microprocessors)

The technology of this generation was still based on the intergrated circuit, these have
been made readily available to use because of the development of the microprocessor.

The fourth generation computers led to an era of large scale integration (LSI) and very
large scale integration (vlsi) technology. LSI technology allowed thousands of transistors to be
constructed on one small slice of silicon material whereas vlsi squeezed hundreds of thousands of
components on to a single ewp

ULTRA – large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number into millions the fourth
generation computer became more powerful compact, reliable and affordable.

For example: apple ii, attair 8800 and CRAY-1

 Introduction to Computers 1.5

Characteristics of Fourth Generation Computers

•• Fourth generation computers are microprocessor based systems
•• These computers are very small
•• GUI an d pointing devices enable users to learn to use the computer quickly
•• Interconnection of computers leads to better communication and resource sharing

1.4.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence

A computer would learn from its mistakes and possess the skill of experts the starting point for
the fifth generation of computers has been set in the early 1990. The expert system it defined as a
computer information system that attempts to mimic the thought process and reasoning of experts in
specific areas three characteristics can be identified with the fifth generation computer these are.

Mega chips
Fifth generation computers will use super large scale integrated (SLSI) chips, which will result
in the production of microprocessor having millions of electronic components on a single chip

Parallel processing
A computer using parallel processing accesses several instructions at once and works on
them at the same time through use of multiple central processing units.

Artificial intelligence: (AI)

AI comprises a group of related technologies expert systems (ES), natural language
processing (NLP) speech recognition, vision recognition and robotics.

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Four major categories: micro, mini, mainframe and super computers

Micro computers
A micro computer is a small, low cost digital computer, which usually consists of a
microprocessor, a storage unit, an input channel and an output channel, all of which may be on
one chip inserted into are or several pc boards.

IBM – pc,Pentium 100, ibm-pc Pentium 200 and Apple Macintosh are some of the
example of micro computers
1.6 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming

Micro computers include desktop, laptop and hand – held models such as PDAS
(personal) digital assistants.

Desktop computer
Desktop computer also known as personal computer (pc) is principally intended per stand
alone use by an individual micro computer typically consist of a system unit a display monitor, a
keyboard internal hard disk storage and other peripheral devices.

Some of the major personal computer manufactures are Apple, IBM, Dell and Hewlett
Packard.

Laptop
A laptop is a portable computer that is a user can carry it around. Laptops are small
computer enclosing all the basic features of a normal desktop computer.

The biggest advantage of this computer is that one can use this computer anywhere and at
anytime, especially when are is travelling

Hand held computers

A hard-held, also called personal digital assistant (PDA), is a computer that can
conveniently be stored in a pocket and used while the user is holding it.

PDAs are essentially small portable computers and are slightly bigger than the common
calculators.

Some example of PDAs are Apple Newton, Casio Cassiopeia and Franklin ebook man

Mini computers
The mini computer is a small digital computer whose process and storage capacity is
lesser than that of a mainframe, but more than that of micro computer.

Its speed of processing data is in between that of a mainframe and a micro computes,
generally, it is used as desktop device that is often connected to a mainframe in order to perform
the auxiliaxy operations.
Mini computers are usually multi-user systems, so these are used in interactive
applications in industries, research organisations colleges and universities.
High – performance workstations with graphics I/o capability use mini computers Some

of the widely used mini computers are PDP II, IBM (8000 series) and VAX 7500.

Mainframe computer
A mainframe is an ultra – high performance computer made for high – volume, processor
– intensive computing. It consists of a high end computer processor, with related peripheral
devices, capable of supporting large volumes of data processing systems and extensive data
storage and retrieval.
 Introduction to Computers 1.7

Mainframes are the second largest of the computer family, the largest being super computers.

Mainframe allows its user to maintain large information storage at a conrralised location
and be able to access and process this data from different computers located at different locations
It is typically used by large businesses and for scientific purpose.
Examples of mainframe computers are IBM’s E5000, VAX8000 and CDC6600.

Super computers
Super computers are the special purpose machine, which are specially designed to
maximise the numbers of FLOPS (floating point operation per second). Any computer below one
gigaflop/sec is not considered a super computer. A super computer has the highest processing
speed at a given time for solving scientific and engineering problems.

Essentially, it contains a number of cpu, that operate in parallel to make it faster. Its
processing speed lies in the range of 400 – 10,000 MF LOP’s (millions of floating point operation
per second).

Super computers are used to solve multivariant mathematical problems of existent

physical processes, such as aerodynamics, metrologis, and plasms physics.

The largest commercial use of super computers is in the entertainment advertising

industry, CRAY – 3, Cyber 205 and PARAM are some well known super computers.

1.6 BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

The block diagram of the computer system have the following three units, each functional
unit corresponds to their basic operations performed as described in details.
(a) Input unit
(b) Central processing unit
(c) Output unit
1.8 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming

(a) Input Unit

•• Accept data and instructions from the outside world.
•• Convert it to a form that the computer can understand
•• Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing
•• The input unit is used to send information or instructions or commands to the
computer. The data received from the input input unit is immediately stered in main
memory and then processed.
Following are the some of the input devise.
(i) Keyboard
(ii) Mouse
(iii) Light pen
(iv) Joystick
(v) Ocr (optical character recognizer)
(vi) MICR (magnetic ink character recognizer)
(vii) OMR ( optical mark recognizer)

(b) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

•• It performs all calculations and all decisions.
•• It controls and co-ordinates all units of the computer
•• It interprets instructions of a program
•• It stores data temporarily and monitors external requests.

The CPU is sub-divided into the following sub-system.

(i) Control unit
(ii) Arithmetic and logical unit
(iii) Memory unit
(a) Primary storage
(b) Secondary storage.

(i) Control unit

The control unit instructs the computer how to carry out program instructions. It
directs the flow of data between memory and arithmetic logical unit.

The input unit does not know when to receive data and where to put the data in the
storage unit after receiving it similarly, the control unit instruces the input unit where to
store the data after receiving it from the user.

In the same way, it controls the flow of data and instructions from the storage unit to
 Introduction to Computers 1.9

ALU during program execution the control unit fetches instructions from the primary
memory, decodes them to determine the operations required, and then sets up instructions
execution.

Eg. To add two numbers or to read a character from a keyboard. A number registers
are associated with the control unit.

(ii) Arithmetic And Logical Unit

Arithmetic and logical unit performs all the arithmetic and logical operations.
Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and logical operations,
such as comparisons are performed in ALU.

All calculations are performed in the arithmetic and logical unit (ALU) of the
computer ALU also does comparisons and take decision .

Example: it can check if the number A is less than equal to or greater than the number
B. once the calculations or the logical operation is performed by ALU, then the result is
transferred to the storage unit.

(iii) Memory unit

Memory is the part of computer which holds data for processing and other information
it is also called as main memory or primary memory.

A device that stores program instructions or data used by the cpu when performing a
given function.

Memory is a device, which is used to store information temporarity/permanently, it is

the place where the information is safekeeped. Secondary memory, such as disk storage, is
functionalty considered I/O because it is accessed through the I/O system.

(a) Primary storage

The primary storage is also called as “main memory” stores and access information
very fastly. This is generally used to hold the program being currently executed in the
computer, the data being received from the input unit, the intermediate and final
results of the program.
Primary storage is also known as system memory, internal, temporary and “RAM”
▪▪ Installed on the main computer board (motherboard)
▪▪ Typically comprised of ICs (integrated circuits)
▪▪ Fast access – usually in the order of nano seconds

(b) Secondary storage

The secondary storage is also known as Auxiliary Storage it may store several
programs, documents, databases etc.
1.10 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming

The program that we want to run on the computer is first transferred to the primary
memory before it can run. Similarly, after running the program if need to save the
result, we will transfer them to the secondary storage.
The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory. Some of the
commonly used secondary memory devices are Floppy diskette, Zip diskette, Hard
disk and Magnetic disks and Tapes etc.

(c) Output unit

Devices used to get the response or result of a process from the computer is called
output output unit is the communication between the user and the computer.
The output unit of a computer provider the information and results of a computation to
the outside world.
Computers do not work in the decimal system, they work in the binary system.
Therefore if required, the output unit also converts the binary data into a form that
users can understand.
Commonly used output devices are.
▪▪ Visual display unit (VDU) or monitor
▪▪ Printer
▪▪ Computer output microfilm
▪▪ Plotter.

1.7 NUMBER SYSTEMS

Introduction
A number is required for counting or to express the amount of some quantity it consists of a
group of symbols called digits, which are arranged in a definite manner. There can be many ways in
which the digits can be arranged to form a number. This gives rise to what we call a number system.

The decimal number system which has ten digits (0, 1, 2,……9), the octal system has eight
digits (0,1,2,….7) the hexadecimal system has sixteen digits (0,1,2,…..9,a,b,c,d,e,f), the binary
number system has only two (0,1)

The number of digits in a system is called radix or base. Thus the decimal system may be
called as radix-10 system, the binary system as radix – 2, system.

The number system are basically two types

(i) Non – positioning number system
(ii) Positioning number system.

(i) Non –positional number system

Using this system, the symbols i.e, I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII for 4, iiiii for 5 etc, are used
 Introduction to Computers 1.11

In non-positioning number system each symbol represents the same values regardless of its
position in the number. The symbols are simply added to find out the value of a particular number.

(ii) Positional number system

The positional number user only few symbol called digits

Example:
The decimal number 3977.39(10)

3×103 + 9×102 + 7×101 + 7×100 + 3×10-1 * 9×10-2

1000th 100th 10th Unit 1/10th 1/100th
position position position position position position

The following four positional number system are commonly used.

(1) Decimal number system
(2) Binary number system
(3) Octal number system
(4) Hexadecimal system

(1) Decimal number system

In this number system the base or radix is 10 and there are altogethes ten number i.e,
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.

A number in a radix system would be written as (an an-1 an-2 ……… a0 a-1 a-2 ……… a-m)

In this representation an is called the ‘Most-Significant Digit’ (MSD) of the number and a-
m is called the ‘Least Significant Digit’ (LSD).
Example:
In decimal number system 3967(10) or 3967 Consists the
digits 7 in the unit position (7×100)
6 in the unit position (6×101)
9 in the unit position (9×102)
3 in the unit position (3×103)
It values can be written as
3×103+9×102+6×101+7×100
3×1000+9×100+6×10+7×1
3000+900+60+7
3967
3967(10) = 3967
1.12 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming

(2) Binary number system

The binary system user only two digits i.e, 0’s and 1’s the base or radis of binary number
system is 2 because it contains only two numbers.

User
•• The circuits in computer have to handled by two binary digits or bits rather than
decimal number
•• The computer only identifies signals in the form of digital pulses, which represent
either high or low voltage.
•• Everything that can be alone with decimal numbers can also be done using binary
numbers.

Example:
Convert the binary number 100111(2) to decimal numbers.
Solution: 100111(2) =? (10)
6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st Position
1 0 0 1 1 1 Given Binary Number
×25 ×24 ×23 ×22 ×21 ×20 Weights
1×32 +0×16 + 0×8 + 1×4 + 1×2 + 1×1
= 39
32 + 0 + 0 + 4 +2 + 1 (10)

= 39
100111(2) (10)

Decimal number Binary equivalent

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001

(3) Octal number system

The number system with base or radix digit (8) is known as octal number system. There
are only eight digits is i.e. 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
 Introduction to Computers 1.13

Each position in this number system represents a power of the base(8)

The decimal equivalent of the octal number 3077(8) is

3077(8) = 3×83 +0×82+7×81+7×80
= 3×512 +0×64 +7×8+7×1
=1536+0+56+7 =1599(10)
3077(8) =1599(10)

Decimal Octal Binary Equivalent

0 0 000
1 1 001
2 2 010
3 3 011
4 4 100
5 5 101
6 6 110
7 7 111

(4) Hexadecimal number system

The base 16 suggests choices of 16 single character digits or symbol

The first 10 digits are digits of decimal system (0 to 9) and the remaining 6 digits are
denoted by (A to F) representing decimal value (10 to 15) where a = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13,
E=14 and F = 16. The largest single digit is F or 15 ( one less that the base).
Since number (0 to 9) and alphabets (A to F) are used to represent the digit in hexadecimal
numbers system, it is also called the alphanumeric number systems.
Decimal Hexadecimal Binary Equivalent
0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
10 A 1010
1.14 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming

11 B 1011
12 C 1100
13 D 1101
14 E 1110
15 F 1111

Example:
Convert the hexadecimal number 39a (16) To decimal
number Solution

39A =?
(16) (10)

= 3×162+9×161+A×160
= 3×256 +9×16 +A×1
= 3×256 +9×16
+10×1 =768+144+10
=922(10)

39A = 922
(16) (10)

1.8 CONVERSION OF NUMBER SYSTEM

•• Conversion of Decimal Number System
•• Conversion of Binary
•• Conversion of Octal
•• Conversion of Hexadecimal

1.8.1 Conversion of Decimal Number System

⇒ Decimal to binary system

⇒ Decimal to octal

⇒ Decimal to hexadecimal

(1) Conversion of Decimal to Binary System

Example:
Convert the 37.8125(10) decimal number to its binary equivalent

2 37
2 18 –1
2 9 –0
 Introduction to Computers 1.15

2 4 –1
2 2 –0
1 –0

Therefore, 37(10) = 100101(2)

Fraction Radix Result

0.8125 *2 =1.625 =0.625 with carry as 1

0.625 *2 =1.25 =0.25 with carry as 1
0.25 *2 =0.5 =0.50 with carry as 0
0.5 *2 =1.0 =0.00 with carry as 1

0.8125(10) = 0.1101

Therefore 37.8125(10) = 100101.1101(2)

Exercise:
Convert (68)10 to binary
Answer = (1000100)2

(2) Conversion of Decimal to-Octal

System Example:
Convert the 35.45(10) decimal number to its octal equivalent

8 35
4 –3

Therefore, 35(10)=43(8)
Fraction Radix Result

0.45 *8 =3.6 = 0.6 with carry as 3

0.6 *8 =4.8 = 0.8 with carry as 4
0.8 *8 =6.4 = 0.4 with carry as 6
0.4 *8 =3.2 = 0.2 with carry as 3
0.2 *8 =1.6 = 0.6 with carry as 1
0.45(10) = 0.34631(8)

Therefore, 35.45(10) = 43.34631(8)

1.16 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming

Exercise:
Convert decimal number 214 to its octal equivalent
Answer = 326

(3) Conversion of Decimal to Hexadecimal System

Example:
Convert the 22.64(10) decimal number to its hexadecimal equivalent.

16 22
1 –6

Therefore, 22(10) = 16(16)

Fraction Radix Result
0.64 *16 =10.24 =10.24 with carry as 10
0.24 *16 =3.84 =0.84 with carry as 3
0.84 *16 =13.44 =0.44 with carry as 13
0.44 *16 =7.04 =0.04 with carry as 7
0.64(10) = 0.A3D7(16)

Therefore, 22.64(10) =16.A3D7(16)

Exercise:
Convert decimal number 3509 to its hexadecimal equivalent
Answer = 13115
=DB5
(16)

1.8.2 Conversion of Binary System

⇒ Binary to decimal conversion
⇒ Binary to octal
⇒ Binary to hexadecimal

(1) Binary to Decimal Conversion

Example:
Convert 1101.101(2) to its decimal equivalent

= 1×2³+1×2²+0×2¹+1×2+1+1×2-1×0×2-2+1×2-3
= 8+4+0+1+0.5+0+0.125
= 13.625(10)
 Introduction to Computers 1.17

Exercise:
Convert (1000100)2 to its decimal equivalent
Answer = (68)10

(2) Binary to Octal

Conversion Example:
Convert the 111101100(2) to its octal equivalent.
⇒ Group the number by 3
111 101 100
⇒ Specify the octal equivalent
111 101 100
7 5 4
Therefore, the octal number is 754(8)

Exercise:
Convert 111 01 111 0 (2) to its equivalent octal number
Answer = 735(8)

(3) Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

Example:
Convert the 1101100010011011(2) to its hexadecimal equivalent.

⇒ Group the number by 4

1101 1000 1001 1011
⇒ Specify the hexadecimal equivalent
1101 1000 1001 1011
D 8 9 B
Therefore, the octal number is D89B(16)

Exercise:
Convert 11111101 . 0001 0011(2) to its equivalent hexadecimal number.

Answer = FD13(16)

1.8.3 Conversion of Octal Number System

⇒ Octal to Decimal Conversion
⇒ Octal to Binary Conversion
⇒ Octal to Hexadecimal
1.18 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming

(1) Octal to Decimal Conversion

Example:
Convert the 51.63(8) to its decimal equivalent.
=5×81+1×80+0.6×8-1×0.3×8-2
=40+1+(0.075+0.0046875)
=41.0796875(10)

Therefore, 51.63(8) = 41.0796875(10)

Exercise:
516(8) = 324

(2) Octal to Binary

Conversion Example:
Convert the 51.63(8) to its binary equivalent.
5 1 • 6 3
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
101 001 110 011

101001.110011(2)
51.63(8)=101001.110011(2)
Therefore, the binary number is 101001.110011(2)

Exercise:
convert 5613 to its binary equivalent
Answer = 1010011110011(2)

(3) Octal to Hexadecimal Conversion

Example:
Convert the 345.30(8) to its hexadecimal equivalent.

Octal ↔ Binary ↔ Hexadecimal

⇒3 4 5 • 3 0
⇒ 011 100 101 • 011 00 0
↓ ↓ ↓
⇒ 0000 1110 0101 • 0110 0000
⇒0 E 5 • 6 0
Therefore, the hexadecimal number is E5.60(16)
 Introduction to Computers 1.19

Exercise
34530(8)
Answer = E560(16)

011 1 00 101 011 0000

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
E 5 6 0

1.8.4 Conversion of Hexadecimal Number System

⇒ Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
⇒ Hexadecimal to Binary
⇒ Hexadecimal to Octal
⇒ Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

(1) Hexadecimal to Decimal

Conversion Example:
Convert the 5B.2E(10) to its decimal equivalent.
=5×161+B×160+2×16-1×E×16-2
=80+11+(0.125+0.0546875)
=91.1796875(10)
5B.2E(16)=91.1796875(10)

Exercise
5B2(16)
Answer = 1458

(2) Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

Convert the 8B2F.9A(16) to its binary equivalent.
8 B 2 F • 9 A
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ • ↓ ↓
1000 1011 0011 1111 • 1001 1010

8B2F.9A(16)=1000101100111111.10011010(2)
Therefore, the binary number is 1000101100111111.10011010(2)

Exercise
8B2F
Answer = 1000101100101111(2)
1.20 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming

(3) Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion

Example:
Convert the BDAF.AC9(16) to its octal equivalent.

⇒ B D A F • A C 9

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ • ↓ ↓ ↓

1011 1101 1010 1111 • 1010 1100 1001

⇒1 011 110 110 101 111 • 101 011 001 001

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ • ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

1 3 6 6 5 7 • 5 3 1 1

Therefore, the hexadecimal number is 136657.5311(8)

1.9 Data representation (bits,bytes etc) as storage units

Data representation uses bits (binary digits 0 or 1) as the smallest units of information,
representing electrical charges, magnetic states, or logical values. 8 bits combine to form 1
byte, which is the standard unit for encoding text (ASCII/Unicode), images, and storage.
Data is organized as bits

Key Concepts in Data Representation:

• Bits (Binary Digits): The smallest unit of data, representing 0 (off/uncharged) or 1
(on/charged).
• Bytes: A group of 8 bits, which is the standard, addressable unit for computing and
storage. A single byte can represent 256 different values, ranging from 0 to 255 or -128 to
127.
• Data Types & Encoding:
o Text: Encoded using standards like ASCII or Unicode, where one or more bytes
represent a character.
o Numbers: Stored in binary, using 1 byte for small integers, 2 for integers, 4 for
long, etc..
o Images: Pixels are represented by bytes detailing color and intensity.
o Audio/Video: Sampled and stored as binary values.
• Storage Units (Decimal/Binary Conversion):
o 1 Byte) = 8 Bits
o 1 Kilobyte = 1,024 Bytes
o 1 Megabyte = 1,024 Kilobytes
o 1 Gigabyte = 1,024 Megabytes
o 1 Terabyte = 1,024 Gigabytes
• Other Units: A nibble is 4 bits (half a byte). A word is typically 2 bytes (16 bits) or more,
depending on the system architecture.