CHAPTER III: MATERIALS AND
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Materials
The observation tour required following materials for the ease and effective study.
Binoculars (8×40 or 10×42): Most commonly used for observing birds at a distance in
forests
Spotting scope (with tripod): Useful for long-distance observation in wetlands and
open habitats
Camera with telephoto lens (300mm or above): For documentation and future
identification
Field notebook / datasheet: For recording species, time, behavior, and habitat
GPS device: To record exact observation locations
Diameter tape (D-tape): Measures DBH (Diameter at Breast Height)
3.2Methodology
The study areas were selected from Chitwan District, Hetauda District, Sunsari
District, and Sarlahi District, which were purposively chosen sites to capture
variations in forest kinds, biodiversity, and management practices.
3.2.1 Desk study
The desk study was carried out as a primary step to develop a basic understanding of
the study areas and main forestry concepts. Relevant secondary information was
collected from several sources such as books, reports, journals, and online materials
to support and balance the field observations.
Information related to forest types, vegetation structure, wildlife, and management
practices was reviewed from publications of the Department of Forests and Soil
Conservation and the Ministry of Forests and Environment. In advanve, general
statistical data on population, land use, and natural resources were gained from
reports of the Central Bureau of Statistics.
Likewise, available literature on protected areas such as Chitwan National Park,
Koshi Tapu, along with studies on community-managed forests, was studied to gain
understanding into conservation practices and biodiversity status in Nepal. Maps and
general related information of the selected study areas: Chitwan District, Hetauda
District, Sunsari District, and Sarlahi District were also studied to understand their
geographical and ecological features.
3.2.2 Field study
The field study phase involved a direct, hands-on assessment of Nepal's ecological
landscape, moving from the high-altitude granite formations of Daman and
Simbhangyang to the tropical wetlands of Koshi Tappu. At the higher elevations, the
team identified key medicinal species such as Taxus wallichiana and Bergenia ciliata,
while the visit to the Markhu watershed allowed for a technical evaluation of bio-
engineering solutions designed to mitigate the heavy sedimentation within the Indra
Sarowar Dam. In the Terai lowlands, the study focused on specialized conservation at
the Gharial and Elephant Breeding Centres, where we analyzed the "ranching"
method of population recovery and the core park priorities of habitat and species
protection. Ultimately, the field observations in Koshi Tappu highlighted the critical
intersection between biodiversity and socio-economics, revealing how low literacy
rates and human-wildlife conflicts involving the Arna (wild water buffalo) create
significant management challenges that must be addressed to ensure the sustainability
of Nepal's protected areas.
a. Method of identification of different species in the field
The method of identification during the field study relied on a combination of
traditional botanical techniques and modern digital tools to accurately categorize
species across diverse ecosystems. For flora, the primary method was Morphological
Observation, where the team analyzed physical characteristics such as leaf
arrangement (alternate/opposite), floral structure, bark texture, and the presence of
unique features like the thorns on Zanthoxylum armatum (Timur) or the hairy leaves
of Bergenia ciliata (Pakhanbed). For fauna, particularly in the wetlands of Koshi
Tappu and Chitwan, the identification method shifted to Non-Invasive Observation
using high-powered Binoculars to view distinct markings, beak shapes, and plumage
from a distance. This was further enhanced by Digital Bio-acoustics and Image
Recognition through the Merlin Bird ID and eBird applications, which allowed the
group to identify species through real-time sound analysis and photographic
comparison, ensuring that all data—from the critically endangered Gharial to the wild
Arna—were recorded with scientific precision.
b. Method of resin tapping
The Rill Method of resin tapping is a sustainable forestry technique used to collect
oleoresin by carving shallow, V-shaped rills into the bark of pine trees. The procedure
involves creating a central guide groove and cutting side rills at a 45° angle, ensuring
the depth does not exceed 2 mm to prevent permanent structural damage to the
timber. By applying a dilute acid stimulant to keep the resin ducts open, the method
maximizes yield while allowing the tree to remain productive for decades. This
"wood-saving" approach is a critical part of forest management in Nepal, as it allows
for the extraction of "green gold" (resin) without compromising the tree's future use
for high-quality timber.
c. Practices of elephant and crocodile breeding center
The breeding programs in Chitwan National Park operate as highly specialized ex-situ
conservation models, where human intervention is used to bypass the high mortality
rates found in the wild. For the Gharial, the management practice of "ranching" is a
precision-based biological process; by collecting eggs from vulnerable riverbanks and
incubating them in temperature-monitored sandy pits for 60 to 85 days, the center
effectively neutralizes threats from predators and seasonal flooding. Once hatched,
the juveniles are meticulously managed in a series of transition ponds, growing under
a controlled diet for 4 to 5 years until they reach a length of 1.5 meters. This specific
growth threshold is critical, as it ensures the individuals are large enough to survive
the hydraulic pressures of the Narayani and Rapti rivers and avoid predation, a
strategy that has successfully bolstered the wild population with over 2,295 released
individuals.
Simultaneously, the Elephant Breeding Center utilizes a management philosophy that
balances animal welfare with national security. Practices here prioritize the
psychological and physical health of the mother-calf unit, ensuring that young
elephants develop the strength and social skills necessary for their future roles. The
"core priority" of this center is the production of a "working herd" specifically trained
for anti-poaching operations and habitat monitoring. These trained elephants are
indispensable for navigating the dense, marshy grasslands of the Terai, providing park
rangers with a mobile platform to detect illegal activities that motorized vehicles
cannot reach. By integrating anatomical studies of mega-herbivores with rigorous
training protocols, the center ensures that species protection is not just a passive goal,
but an active, daily operation that safeguards the entire ecosystem's integrity.
d. Method of nursery management, fire-land management
The sustainability of Nepal's forests relies on the precision of Nursery Management to
initiate growth and the vigilance of Fireline Management to ensure its survival. By
utilizing scientific seedbed preparation and polythene bagging, nurseries produce
high-survival seedlings of species like the
Himalayan Yew, which are then protected in the field by a network of strategically
cleared firelines.
These firelines act as essential "fuel breaks," preventing seasonal dry-spell blazes
from consuming the "green gold" and destroying years of afforestation efforts.
Together, these practices form a continuous cycle of production and protection that is
fundamental to the "core priorities" of habitat and species conservation observed
throughout the tour.
e. Method of biomass calculation
The biomass estimation was performed using a non-destructive, allometric approach
that converts physical tree measurements into dry organic weight.
Field Inventory: For each sample plot, the Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) was
recorded at 1.3m using a D-tape, and the Total Height (H) was determined using a
clinometer.
Volume Derivation: The stem volume (V) was calculated using the formula V=
π×DBH/4 ×H×f , where f is the species-specific form factor.
Mass Conversion: Above-ground biomass was calculated by multiplying the volume
by the Wood Density of the species (e.g., Eucalyptus or Sal).
Total Estimation: To account for the full carbon stock, the Biomass Expansion Factor
(BEF) was applied for branches and leaves, while Below-Ground Biomass (BGB)
was estimated as 20% of the above-ground weight to account for the root systems.
Evaluation
In short, the biomass calculation serves as the technical verification of the "green
gold" observed during the tour. By transforming field data into carbon metrics, we
can quantify the success of Nursery Management and the necessity of Fire line
Management in protecting these high-value assets. This process proves that Nepal's
forests are not just ecological havens but measurable economic and climatic tools,
with each tree contributing to the national carbon pool and the sustainability of the
local environment.
CHAPTER IV: RESULT
4.1 Daman-Markhu Section, Makawanpur District Number of sites observed
in Daman-Markhu:5
The Daman–Markhu area lies in the mid-hill region of Nepal and represents a
transition zone between tropical and temperate climatic conditions. During the field
visit, a total of five different sites were observed, including forest areas, watershed
zones, grassland regions, and resin tapping sites. This area is ecologically significant
due to its variation in altitude, vegetation types, and climatic conditions. The study of
this area helped in understanding forest composition, land degradation issues, and
resource utilization practices.
Observation 1: Vegetation change (Hetauda – Daman).
A clear altitudinal variation in vegetation was observed along the route from Hetauda to
Daman. In the lower elevations, tropical forests dominated by Sal (Shorea robusta) were
found. These forests are dense and support high biodiversity. As the altitude increased, the
vegetation gradually changed into temperate forests dominated by pine (Pinus roxburghii).
This variation in vegetation is mainly due to differences in temperature, rainfall, and soil
conditions. Higher elevations have cooler temperatures and different moisture availability,
which support different plant species. This observation helped in understanding ecological
succession and the relationship between altitude and vegetation.
Figure 1: forest of Hetauda to Daman
The picture show a beautiful natural landscape covered with dense green trees spread across
hilly terrain. The area is rich in vegetation, giving it a peaceful and fresh environment. Tall
trees create a thick canopy, and the forest appears clean and untouched, reflecting the natural
beauty of the region. Such forests help maintain biodiversity, provide habitat for wildlife, and
contribute to a cool and refreshing climate in the area.
Observation 2: Medicinal Plants of Daman area
Various medicinal plants were observed in the Daman area, which are widely used in
traditional healing systems. Some of the common plants include Chiraito, Timur, Aloe
vera, and Rhododendron.
Chiraito is commonly used for treating fever and improving digestion. Timur is used for
dental problems and as a spice. Aloe vera is well known for its use in skin treatment
and wound healing. Rhododendron is used to prepare juice and has medicinal value in
treating inflammation and throat infections.
These plants are not only important for health purposes but also have economic value. Local
communities collect and sell these plants, which contribute to their livelihood. The
conservation of such plants is very important for sustainable use and biodiversity
preservation.
Figure 2: NTFPs species found in Daman area
The picture of the botanical garden plants in Daman shows a peaceful natural environment
filled with different types of green vegetation. The area is surrounded by healthy trees,
shrubs, and ornamental plants that create a refreshing and scenic view. The plants appear well
maintained, suggesting care and conservation of biodiversity. Because Daman is located in a
hilly region, the garden also reflects cool climate conditions suitable for a variety of plant
species. Overall, the scene represents the beauty of nature and the importance of protecting
plant diversity in such a calm and attractive setting.
A study tutor report (or session report) is a crucial document that serves as a progress card,
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An effective report should be concise, positive, and honest, providing a clear picture of the
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Summary of Work: Clearly list topics covered, assignments completed, or specific areas of study
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Action Items for Parents/Administrators: If the student is struggling or off-track, specify what
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Be Specific and Honest: Instead of "worked on math," state "practiced solving for
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Utilize Templates: Use online tools and templates to save time, such as those available on
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Accountability: They document the student’s efforts and progress over time, acting as a
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attention" marker and involve an administrator or senior tutor.
Tutors: How to Write an Effective After-Lesson Report?
Aug 12, 2020 — What is a Session Report? A session report is a special progress card students
can receive from their tutors. This will help stude...
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Write A Great Tutor Session Report | LearnSpeed
Be specific if you need help from an administrator. Use the Needs Attention check box if you
want to bring special attention to a ...
LearnSpeed
Monthly Literacy Tutor Report Form Template - Jotform
Feb 5, 2026 — About this template. A monthly literacy tutor report is a document used by
teachers to report the progress of students with litera...
A detailed study tutor report is a structured professional document that provides a
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1. Essential Sections of a Detailed Report
Student & Program Basics: Includes the student’s name, subject/year of study, tutor
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3. Comparison of Report Cadence
Report Type Purpose Frequency
Session Snapshot Quick update on daily tasks and homework. After every session
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Assessment Report Results from specific tests or diagnostic checkpoints. As needed
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Would you like a specific template for a particular subject or grade level to get started?