Chapter 2

Motion Along a Straight Line

In this chapter, we will explore the following concepts:

1. Displacement
2. Average velocity
3. Average Speed
4. Instantaneous velocity
5. Average and instantaneous acceleration

General Physics 𝐈
2-1 Position and Displacement
Consider an object moving along a straight line taken to be the 𝑥-axis.

𝑥
Position: a positive or negative number (coordinate) on the 𝑥-axis

direction of increasing numbers

direction of decreasing numbers

(can be placed at any convenient location)

General Physics 𝐈
2-1 Position and Displacement

Object’s position at any time 𝑡: coordinate 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑥 m
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑥 𝑡 =2m

At 𝑡 = 𝑡1 , 𝑥 𝑡1 = 𝑥1 At 𝑡 = 𝑡2 , 𝑥 𝑡2 = 𝑥2

𝑂 𝑥1 𝑥2

General Physics 𝐈
2-1 Position and Displacement
If an object moves from position 𝑥1 to position 𝑥2 , displacement gives the change
in position (only the starting and ending points matter).

𝑥1 : initial position
𝑥-axis
𝑂 𝑥1 motion 𝑥2 𝑥2 : final position

For the motion along the 𝑥-axis, it is written as Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , where 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are
initial and final positions, respectively.

Displacement is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

Example: Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 4 > 0: magnitude= Δ𝑥 = 4, positive direction

Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = −4 < 0: magnitude= Δ𝑥 = 4, negative direction

General Physics 𝐈
2-1 Position and Displacement

Checkpoint 1
Here are three pairs of initial and final positions, respectively, along an 𝑥
axis. Which pairs give a negative displacement: (a) -3m, +5m; (b) -3m, -7m;
(c) 7m, -3m

(a) Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 5 m − −3 m = 8 m

(b) Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = −7 m − −3 m = −4 m

(c) Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = −3 m − 7 m = −10 m

Answer: b and c

General Physics 𝐈
2-1 Position and Displacement

Note: Distance is the total length of the path traveled by an object.

The actual distance for a trip is irrelevant as far as the displacement is concerned.

A
The displacement is the same for path A and B.
B
Only the starting and ending points matter for
displacement.

same displacement for path A and B

distance for path A < distance for path B

General Physics 𝐈
2-1 Average Velocity

𝑡 = 𝑡1 𝑡 = 𝑡2

𝑥-axis
𝑂 𝑥1 motion 𝑥2

displacment
Time interval: Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 average velocity 𝑣avg =
time interval
𝑥1 : initial position
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 Δ𝑥 𝑡1 : initial time
𝑣avg = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡 𝑥2 : final position
𝑡2 : final time

Average velocity has dimensions of length per time (length/time), and its SI unit is
meters per second (m/s).
Example: kilometers per hour (km/h) — commonly used in everyday contexts
General Physics 𝐈
2-1 Average Velocity
Graph of position 𝑥 vs time 𝑡

slope of the straight line = average velocity 𝑣avg

end of interval positive slope → 𝑣avg > 0

negative slope → 𝑣avg < 0

𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 − (−4) 6 m
𝑣avg = = = = 2 m/s
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 4−1 3s

start of interval

General Physics 𝐈
2-1 Average Speed
Average speed 𝑠avg is the ratio of the total distance (not the displacement Δ𝑥)
to the time interval to cover the distance:

total distance
𝑠avg =
Δ𝑡

𝑠avg is always positive (no direction).

Both average speed and average velocity have units of length per time.

Note 1: 𝑠avg ≠ 𝑣avg , because the total distance traveled is greater than or equal
to the magnitude of the displacement Δ𝑥 .

Δ𝑥 𝐵 𝑥2 , 𝑡2
𝐴 (𝑥1 , 𝑡1 )

total distance
total distance ≥ magnitude of the displacement |Δ𝑥|.
General Physics 𝐈
2-1 Average Speed
Note 2: For the same time interval Δ𝑡, the average velocity can be the same,
while the average speed can be different because the average speed depends on
the path taken.
1 𝐵 𝑥2 , 𝑡2
𝐴 (𝑥1 , 𝑡1 )

2
The average velocities are the same for paths 1 and 2 because the initial and final
points are the same for the same time interval Δ𝑡:
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑣avg,1 = 𝑣avg,2 =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1

However, the average speeds are different because the distances of paths 1 and 2
are different
distance of path 1 distance of path 2
𝑠avg,1 =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
< 𝑠avg,2 =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1

General Physics 𝐈
2-2 Instantaneous Velocity & Speed
Δ𝑥
Average velocity is defined over a finite time interval Δ𝑡. 𝑣avg =
Δ𝑡

In order to describe how fast an object moves at any time 𝑡, we introduce the notion of
instantaneous velocity 𝑣 (or simply velocity).
Instantaneous velocity is the limit of the average velocity as the time interval becomes
arbitrarily short:
Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = lim 𝑣avg = lim =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Velocity is the slope of the tangent line to the

position-time curve at a given instant (red line).

Instantaneous speed (or simply speed) is

the magnitude of the instantaneous
velocity 𝑣 .

General Physics 𝐈
2-2 Instantaneous Velocity & Speed

In the position–time graph:

The slope (with sign) of the tangent line

at an instant → instantaneous velocity

The absolute value of the slope of the tangent line

at an instant → instantaneous speed

General Physics 𝐈
2-2 Instantaneous Velocity & Speed
Graphical Expressions for Instantaneous Speed and Velocity

The slope of 𝑥(𝑡), and thus the velocity 𝑣, is

zero from 0–1 s and from 9 s onward.
During interval bc, the slope is constant and
nonzero, giving a constant velocity of 4 m/s.

Slopes on the 𝑥 versus 𝑡 graph are the values on

the 𝑣 versus 𝑡 graph.

General Physics 𝐈
Checkpoint 2
The following equations give the position 𝑥(𝑡) of a particle in four situations (in
each equation, 𝑥 is in meters, 𝑡 is in seconds, and 𝑡 > 0):
(1) 𝑥 = 3𝑡 − 2; (2) 𝑥 = −4𝑡2 − 2; (3) 𝑥 = 2/𝑡 2 ; and (4) 𝑥 = −2. (a) In which
situation is the velocity 𝑣 of the particle constant? (b) In which is 𝑣 in the
negative x direction?
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= : the derivative of 𝑥 with respect to 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Note
𝑑 𝑚 (1) 𝑣 = 3
𝑡 = 𝑚𝑡 𝑚−1
𝑑𝑡 (2) 𝑣 = −8𝑡 (a) 1 and 4
𝑑𝑓 𝑡 𝑑ℎ(𝑡)
𝑑 𝑓 𝑡 ℎ(𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑡) (3) 𝑣 = −4/𝑡 3 (b) 2 and 3
= 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 ℎ 𝑡 ℎ 𝑡 2 (4) 𝑣 = 0

* D and d D represents change of finite size

d represents infinitesimal change

General Physics 𝐈
2-3 Acceleration
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity

✓ Average acceleration over a time interval ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 is

𝑣2 − 𝑣1 Δ𝑣
𝑎avg = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡
✓ Instantaneous acceleration (or simply acceleration) 𝑎 at a given instant
is defined as the limit of average acceleration as Δ𝑡 → 0:

Δ𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎 = lim 𝑎avg = lim = = = 2
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

✓ It describes how fast the velocity is changing with respect to time.

𝑑𝑣
𝑎= ⟹ The acceleration is the slope of the velocity versus time graph.
𝑑𝑡
✓ The dimension of acceleration is length per time squared (length/time2 ), and
its SI unit is meters per second squared (m/s2 ).

General Physics 𝐈
2-3 Acceleration
Graphical relationship between acceleration and velocity

ab (from 1 to 3 s): 𝑎 > 0; 𝑣 increases (positive slope).

bc (from 3 to 8 s): 𝑎 = 0; 𝑣 is constant (zero slope).

cd (from 8 to 9 s): 𝑎 < 0, ; 𝑣 decreases (negative slope).

Slopes on the 𝑣 versus 𝑡 graph are the values on

the 𝑎 versus 𝑡 graph.

General Physics 𝐈
2-3 Acceleration

Checkpoint 3

An object moves along an x axis. What is the sign of its acceleration if it is

moving (a) in the positive direction with increasing speed, (b) in the positive
direction with decreasing speed, (c) in the negative direction with increasing
speed, and (d) in the negative direction with decreasing speed?

(a)
𝑣 𝑎: positive

(b) 𝑣 𝑎: negative

(c) 𝑣 𝑎: negative

(d) 𝑣 𝑎: positive

General Physics 𝐈
2-4 Constant Acceleration
When the acceleration is constant, its average and instantaneous values are the same.

𝑎 = 𝑎avg

𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑎avg = 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎avg 𝑡 • Here, a velocity at 𝑡 = 0 is 𝑣0 .
𝑡−0
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 (eqs.1)

• The derivative 𝑣 with respect to time

yields the acceleration a,

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡

General Physics 𝐈
2-4 Constant Acceleration

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 (Eq.1)

𝑥 − 𝑥0
𝑣avg = 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣avg 𝑡
𝑡−0
𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑣avg =
For the linear velocity function, 2
𝑣 + 𝑣0 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣0 1
𝑣avg = = = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
2 2 2
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡

1 1 2
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣avg 𝑡 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 (Eq.2)
2 2

General Physics 𝐈
2-4 Constant Acceleration
1
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (Eq.2)
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Slope varies with time 𝑡

• Additional useful form

Eliminating 𝑡 between equations 1 and 2, we get:

𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 ⟹ 𝑡 = ,
𝑎
1 𝑣 − 𝑣0 1 𝑣 − 𝑣0 2 𝑣 2 − 𝑣02
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎 =
2 𝑎 2 𝑎 2𝑎

𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 = 2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥0 (Eq.3)

General Physics 𝐈
2-5 Free-Fall Acceleration

An object is falling Free-fall acceleration is the rate at which an object

accelerates downward in the absence of air resistance

• Varies slightly with latitude and elevation

• Written as g, standard value of 9.8 m/s 2 , g = 9.8 m/s2 .
(near Earth’s surface)
g • Independent of the properties of the object
(mass, density, shape, see the figure)
𝑚1 𝑚2

No other forces ℎ
Only gravity!

Two object will hit the ground at

the same timewith the same speed
Demo: Penny and Feather

General Physics 𝐈
2-5 Free-Fall Acceleration
If we take the positive 𝑦-axis as pointing upward,
then the acceleration of an object in free fall (free-fall acceleration) is 𝑎 = −g = −9.8 m/s 2
𝐵 𝑣 = 𝑣0 − g𝑡 (Eq.1)
g𝑡 2
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 − (Eq.2)
2
𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 = −2g 𝑦 − 𝑦0 (Eq.3)
+𝑦
𝑣<0
Note 1: 𝑎 = g = 9.8 m/s2 if the positive 𝑦-direction is
𝑣>0 defined as downward

Note 2: While 𝑎 < 0, the velocity can be positive

(upward motion from point 𝐴 to point 𝐵).

It is momentarily zero at the peak (point 𝐵)

𝐴
The velocity becomes negative on the downward motion from
point 𝐵 to point 𝐴.

General Physics 𝐈
Sample Problem 1
An object is released from rest at the top of a building with a height of 48 m.
Assuming the acceleration due to gravity is g = 9.8 m/s 2 and neglecting air
resistance, answer the following questions:.

(a) Calculate the time it takes for the object to reach the ground.
g𝑡 2
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 − , 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦0 = 48 m, 𝑣0 = 0 → 48 m = 1/2 g𝑡 2 → 𝑡 = 3.1 𝑠
2

(b) Determine the position (displacement) of the object at 𝑡 = 1 s, 2 s, and 3 s

after its release.
After 1 s, 1/2 g𝑡 2 = 0.5×9.8×12 = 4.9 m below the starting point.
After 2 s, 19.6 m. After 3 s, 44.1 m

(c) What is the magnitude of the object's velocity (speed) at the moment of impact
with the ground?

Using 𝑣2 = 2g𝑦 = 2×9.8×48 m2/s2, the speed is 31 m/s (in the down direction)

General Physics 𝐈
Sample Problem 1
(d) Determine the velocity of the object at each one-second interval (𝑡 =1 s, 2 s, 3 s).
Based on these values, describe how the velocity changes over time.
𝑣 = 𝑣0 − g𝑡, 𝑣0 = 0 → 𝑣 = −g𝑡
After 1 s, 9.8 m/s in the down direction. After 2 s, 19.6 m/s. After 3 s, 29.4 m/s.

This shows that he magnitude of the velocity increases at a constant rate, which
corresponds to the acceleration due to gravity

General Physics 𝐈
Sample Problem 1
(a)
+𝑦 1 2
𝑦0 = 48 m, 𝑣0 = 0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 − g𝑡
2
1
0 − 𝑦0 = −48 = 0 − g𝑡 2
2
1 2
48 = g𝑡 → 𝑡 = 3.1 𝑠
2

𝑦 = 0, 𝑣 =?

(c) 𝑣 = 𝑣0 − g𝑡 or 𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 = −2g 𝑦 − 𝑦0

𝑣 = −g𝑡 or 𝑣 2 − 02 = −2g 0 − 48
𝑣 2 = 2g × 48

General Physics 𝐈
2-6 Graphical Integration in Motion Analysis
When the acceleration of a moving object is not constant, we must use integration to
determine the velocity 𝑣(𝑡) and the position 𝑥(𝑡) of the object.

The integration can be done either using the analytic or the graphical approach

𝑣1 𝑡1
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= → 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡 → න 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑜 𝑡𝑜
𝑡1 𝑡1

→ 𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑜 = න 𝑎𝑑𝑡 → 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑜 + න 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜

Where: 𝑣1= final velocity, 𝑣0 = initial velocity, 𝑡1= final time, 𝑡0 = initial time
𝑡1

න 𝑎𝑑𝑡 = Area under the 𝑎 versus 𝑡 curve between 𝑡0 and 𝑡1

𝑡0
= change in velocity

General Physics 𝐈
2-6 Graphical Integration in Motion Analysis
𝑥1 𝑡1
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡 → න 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑥𝑜 𝑡𝑜
𝑡1 𝑡1

→ 𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑜 = න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 → 𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑜 + න 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜

Where: 𝑥1= final position, 𝑥0 = initial position, 𝑡1= final time, 𝑡0 = initial time

𝑡1

න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = Area under the 𝑣 versus 𝑡 curve between 𝑡0 and 𝑡1

𝑡0

= change in position

General Physics 𝐈
Sample Problem 2
A particle’s position on the x axis of the figure is given by
𝑥 = 4 – 27𝑡 + 𝑡3
with x in meters and 𝑡 in seconds.
(a) Find the particle’s velocity function 𝑣(𝑡) and acceleration function 𝑎(𝑡).
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = − 27 + 3𝑡2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 6𝑡
𝑑𝑡

(b) Is there ever a time when 𝑣 = 0?

By solving 𝑣 = − 27 + 3𝑡2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑡 = ±3.

General Physics 𝐈
Sample Problem 2
A particle’s position on the x axis of the figure is given by
𝑥 = 4 – 27𝑡 + 𝑡3
with x in meters and t in seconds.
(c) Describe the particle’s motion for 𝑡 ≥ 0.
From 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 3 the particle is moving backward (𝑣 is negative)
Afterwards, the particle is moving forward. (𝑣 is positive)
𝑣(𝑡) = − 27 + 3𝑡2

𝑣(𝑡)
𝑣>0

𝑣<0

𝑡
General Physics 𝐈