Chapter 3

Vectors

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components

⚫ Physics deals with quantities that have both size and direction.
⚫ A vector is a mathematical object with size and direction.
⚫ A vector quantity is a quantity that can be represented by a vector.
⚫ Examples: displacment, velocity, acceleration.
⚫ Vectors have their own rules for manipulation.
head
Arrow:
• Length: magnitude
tail • Head: direction

⚫ A scalar is a quantity that does not have a direction.

⚫ Examples: time, temperature, energy, mass.
⚫ Scalars are manipulated with ordinary algebra

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components
The displacement vector describes the change in the position
of an object as it moves from point A to point B.

• This is represented by an arrow that points from A to B.

The length of the arrow is proportional to the displacement
magnitude.
• The direction of the arrow indicated the displacement
direction.
The three arrows from A to B, from A' to B', and from A'' to
B'', have the same magnitude and direction.
Are they the same vectors? Yes
Vector Representation
Method 1: 𝑎Ԧ (arrow)
Method 2: 𝐚 (bold character)
All three paths result in the same
displacement vector.

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components
Adding Vectors Geometrically

𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏 = 𝑠Ԧ
displacement vectors 
b

a 
 b
s

Place the second vector, 𝑏,

with its tail touching the head of the first vector, 𝑎Ԧ

𝑠Ԧ is the resulting vector joining the tail of 𝑎Ԧ to the

Geometric Addition head of 𝑏

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components
Adding Vectors Geometrically

However, the magnitudes are not added:

𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏 ≠ 𝑠Ԧ

Magnitudes of vectors → italic symbols

𝑎 = 𝑎Ԧ , 𝑏 = 𝑏 , 𝑠 = |𝑠|
Ԧ (no overhead arrow)

Only vectors of the same kind can be added

• (displacement) + (displacement) makes sense
Geometric Addition • (displacement) + (velocity) does not
𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏 = 𝑠Ԧ

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components

Addition of several vectors 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏 + 𝑐Ԧ + 𝑑Ԧ + 𝑒Ԧ = 𝑠Ԧ

 d
a

b s e

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components

• Vector addition is commutative: We can add vectors in any order

𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎Ԧ (Commutative law)

General Physics 𝐈
 3-1 Vectors and Their Components

• Vector addition is associative: Vectors can be grouped in any order during addition

Ԧ Associative law
(𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏) + 𝑐Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ + (𝑏 + 𝑐)

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components
Negative of a vector:
A negative sign reverses vector direction

𝑏 + (−𝑏) = 0
Vector subtraction:
𝑎Ԧ − 𝑏 = 𝑎Ԧ + (−𝑏) = 𝑑Ԧ

 
a d
b
-b

General Physics 𝐈
Checkpoint 1
The magnitude of displacements 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑏 are 3m and 4m, respectively,
and 𝑐=
Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏. Considering various orientations of 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑏, What is (a) the
maximum possible magnitude for c and (b) the minimum possible magnitude?

(a) 3 m + 4 m = 7m
(b) 4 m − 3 m = 1m

Hint : Triangular Inequality 𝑎Ԧ − 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐Ԧ ≤ 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components
Components of Vectors

• Rather than using a graphical method, vectors can be added by components.

• A component is the projection of a vector on an axis.

• The process of finding components is called

resolving the vector.

• The components of a vector can be

positive or negative.

• They are unchanged if the vector is shifted in

any direction (but not rotated).

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components
Components in two dimensions : 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 and 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 , 𝑏 sin 𝜃
Where 𝜃 is the angle the vector makes with the
positive 𝑥 axis, and 𝑎 is the vector length.
𝜃 > 0 (< 0) as measured counterclockwise (clockwise)

𝑎Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ
𝜃>0 𝜃<0

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components

Vector Components vs. Angles Between

• Angles may be measured in degrees or radians

• Recall that a full circle is 360° = 2𝜋 rad 2𝜋 rad
40° = 0.70 rad
360°

• Know the three basic trigonometric functions

(빗변)

(높이)

(밑변)

General Physics 𝐈
3-1 Vectors and Their Components

The length and angle can be found if the components are known.
𝑎𝑦
Magnitude-angle notation: 𝑎= 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 and tan 𝜃 =
𝑎𝑥
Note: these expressions do not provide the complete information. Why?
(𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 ) and (−𝑎𝑥 , −𝑎𝑦 ) have the same magnitude and tan 𝜃.

𝑎Ԧ = (𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 )
𝜃 + 180°
𝜃

𝑏 = ( − 𝑎𝑥 , −𝑎𝑦 )

General Physics 𝐈
Checkpoint 2
In the figure, which of the indicated methods
for combining the x and y components of
vector are proper to determine that vector?

c, d, and f

General Physics 𝐈
3-2 Unit Vectors, Adding Vectors By Components
• A unit vector
– Has magnitude 1
– Has a particular direction
– Lacks both dimension and unit
– Is labeled with a hat: ^
• We use a right-handed coordinate system
– The system maintains its right-handedness
under rotation
Right-handed coordinate system: Curl the fingers of your right hand from the x-axis to
the y-axis. Your right thumb points in the positive direction of z-axis

෠ respectively.
The unit vectors along the x, y and z axes are labeled መi, መj, and k,

In a three dimension, 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 መi + 𝑎𝑦 መj + 𝑎𝑧 k෠

General Physics 𝐈
3-2 Unit Vectors, Adding Vectors By Components

Vectors can be added using components parallel to each coordinate axis

𝑟Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏 𝑟𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥
𝑎Ԧ + 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥 መi + 𝑎𝑦 መj + 𝑎𝑧 k෠ + 𝑏𝑥 መi + 𝑏𝑦 መj + 𝑏𝑧 k෠ 𝑟𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦
= 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 መi + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 መj + 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏𝑧 k෠ 𝑟𝑧 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏𝑧

To subtract two vectors, we subtract components

𝑑Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ − 𝑏
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑥
𝑎Ԧ − 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥 መi + 𝑎𝑦 መj + 𝑎𝑧 k෠ − 𝑏𝑥 መi + 𝑏𝑦 መj + 𝑏𝑧 k෠ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦 − 𝑏𝑦
= 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑥 መi + 𝑎𝑦 − 𝑏𝑦 መj + 𝑎𝑧 − 𝑏𝑧 k෠ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑎𝑧 − 𝑏𝑧

General Physics 𝐈
3-2 Unit Vectors, Adding Vectors By Components

Sample Problem 1
Figure shows the following three vectors:
𝑎Ԧ = 4.2 m መi − 1.5 m መj
𝑏 = −1.6 m መi + 2.9 m መj
and 𝑐Ԧ = −3.7 m መj

What is their vector sum 𝑟Ԧ which is also shown?

𝑟Ԧ = 4.2 m − 1.6 m መi + −1.5 m + 2.9 m − 3.7 m መj

= 2.6 m መi − 2.3 m መj

General Physics 𝐈
Sample Problem 2
A fellow camper is to walk away from you in a
Ԧ turn, walk in a second
straight line (vector 𝐴),
straight line (vector 𝐵) and then stop. How far
Ԧ to
must you walk in a straight line (vector 𝐶)
reach her? The three vectors (shown in Fig. 3-18)
are related by 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵

𝐴Ԧ has a magnitude of 22.0 m and is directed at

an angle of −47.0° (clockwise) from the positive
direction of an x axis. 𝐵 has a magnitude of 17.0
m and is directed counterclockwise from the
positive direction of the x axis by angle f. 𝐶Ԧ is
in the positive direction of the x axis. What is
the magnitude of 𝐶? Ԧ

General Physics 𝐈
Sample Problem 2

𝑪𝒙 = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒙
𝐴𝑥 = 22.0 cos −47°

47 𝐵𝑥 = 17.0 cos 𝜙

𝐶𝑥 = 𝐶 cos 0° = 𝐶

22.0 m 17.0 m 𝐶 = 22.0 cos −47° + 17.0 cos 𝜙 ⋯ (1)

𝑪𝒚 = 𝑨𝒚 + 𝑩𝒚
𝐴𝑦 = 22.0 sin −47° 0 = 22.0 sin −47° + 17.0 sin 𝜙 ⋯ (2)
𝐵𝑦 = 17.0 sin 𝜙
22.0 sin −47°
𝐶𝑦 = 𝐶 sin 0° = 0 𝜙= sin−1 − = 71.17°
17.0

From Eq. (1), 𝐶 = 22.0 cos −47° + 17.0 cos 71.17° = 20.5 m

General Physics 𝐈
3-2 Unit Vectors, Adding Vectors By Components
Vectors and the Laws of Physics
Vectors are independent of the coordinate system used to measure
them.
We can rotate the coordinate system, without rotating the vector,
and the vector remains the same (equal magnitude and direction)
In (b), the coordinate system rotated through an angle 𝜙.

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 መi + 𝑎𝑦 መj and 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎′𝑥 i′෠ + 𝑎′𝑦 መj′

Let’s express 𝑎′𝑥 and 𝑎′𝑦 in terms of 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 , and 𝜙.

𝑎𝑥 ′ = 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝜙 + 𝑎𝑦 sin 𝜙
𝑎𝑦 ′ = −𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜙 + 𝑎𝑦 cos 𝜙
2 2
We can prove that 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 = 𝑎′𝑥 + 𝑎′ 𝑦
The same magnitude for the vector!

General Physics 𝐈
 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝜙

𝑦
𝑦′
𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑥
𝑎′𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝜙 + 𝑎𝑦 sin 𝜙
𝜙 𝑥′
𝑎′𝑦 = −𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜙 + 𝑎𝑦 cos 𝜙
𝑎′𝑥
𝜙
𝑎′𝑦 𝜙
𝑥
𝑎𝑥

General Physics 𝐈
3-2 Unit Vectors, Adding Vectors By Components
Vectors and the Laws of Physics

It is true that the laws of physics are all independent of the choice of the
coordinate system.

We have freedom in choosing a coordinate system

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
• Multiplying a vector 𝑎Ԧ by a scalar 𝑠

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 መi + 𝑎𝑦 መj ⟹ 𝑠𝑎Ԧ = 𝑠𝑎𝑥 መi + 𝑠𝑎𝑦 መj

𝑠 >1 𝑠 >1
𝑎Ԧ 𝑠𝑎Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ 𝑠𝑎Ԧ Magnitude: 𝑠 𝑎Ԧ = |𝑠|𝑎

𝑠 > 0: same direction 𝑠 < 0: opposite direction

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors

• Scalar Product (or Dot Product)

𝜙 is the angle between the directions of the two vectors 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑏

𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜙 (The result is a scalar)

𝑎 = 𝑎Ԧ , 𝑏 = 𝑏

𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜙 = 𝑎 𝑏 cos 𝜙 = 𝑎 cos 𝜙 𝑏

It is equal to 𝑎(𝑏) times the component of 𝑏 𝑎Ԧ along the
direction of 𝑎Ԧ 𝑏

Q: What is the maximum and minimum of 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 as a function

of the angle?
maximum: 𝑎𝑏 𝜙 = 0° (parallel)
minimum: −𝑎𝑏 𝜙 = 180° (antiparallel)

𝜙 = 90°, cos90° = 0 ⟹ 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 = 0

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
• Scalar product is commutative: 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜙 = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑎Ԧ

• Scalar product is distributive: 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑐Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑐Ԧ

መi ⋅ መi = መj ⋅ መj = k෠ ⋅ k෠ = 1
መi ⋅ መj = መj ⋅ k෠ = k෠ ⋅ መi = 0

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 መi + 𝑎𝑦 መj + 𝑎𝑧 k෠

𝑎Ԧ ⋅ መi = 𝑎𝑥 መi ⋅ መi + 𝑎𝑦 መj ⋅ መi + 𝑎𝑧 k෠ ⋅ መi = 𝑎𝑥

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors

• Scalar product using component expression:

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 መi + 𝑎𝑦 መj + 𝑎𝑧 k෠ 𝑏 = 𝑏𝑥 መi + 𝑏𝑦 መj + 𝑏𝑧 k෠ መi ⋅ መi = መj ⋅ መj = k෠ ⋅ k෠ = 1
መi ⋅ መj = መj ⋅ k෠ = k෠ ⋅ መi = 0

𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑧

Q: Is the dot product associative?

No. 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐Ԧ is not even defined.

General Physics 𝐈
Sample Problem 3
෠
What is the angle between 𝑎Ԧ = 3.0መi − 4.0መj and 𝑏 = −2.0መi + 3.0k?

𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜙
𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 −6
Hence, 𝜙 = cos −1 = cos −1 ≅ 1.9 radian ≅ 110°
𝑎𝑏 5 13

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
• Vector Product ( or Cross Product) 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 𝑐Ԧ
Magnitude of the cross product: 𝑐 = 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜙 ,

where 𝜙 is the smaller angle between the directions of 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑏.

Direction: 𝑐Ԧ is perpendicular to vectors 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑏

→ 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑐Ԧ = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐Ԧ = 0

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
• Vector Product ( or Cross Product) 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 𝑐Ԧ

The direction of the vector product is determined by right-hand rule

Place vectors tail-to-tail, sweep fingers from the first to the second, and thumb
points in the direction of the resultant vector

𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏

𝑏 × 𝑎Ԧ

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
• Vector Product ( or Cross Product) 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 𝑐Ԧ

Magnitude of the cross product: 𝑐 = 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜙 ,

where 𝜙 is the smaller angle between the directions of 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑏.

If 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑏 are parallel(0°) or antiparallel(180°), 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 0.

or
𝑎Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ 𝑏
𝑏

If 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑏 are perpendicular to each other, c = 𝑎𝑏 sin 90° = 𝑎𝑏.

𝑎Ԧ

∟
𝑏

maximum magnitude: 𝑎𝑏 minimum magnitude: 0

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
The cross product is not commutative: 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = −𝑏 × 𝑎Ԧ
𝑎Ԧ × 𝑎Ԧ = 0
According to these rules
෠
መi × መj = k, መj × k෠ = መi, k෠ × መi = መj
෠
መj × መi = −k, k෠ × መj = −መi, መi × k෠ = −መj
መi × i = መj × መj = k෠ × k෠ = 0

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
Vector product is distributive over addition

𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 + 𝑐Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 + 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏

Component Expression of the Cross Product

𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥 መi + 𝑎𝑦 መj + 𝑎𝑧 k෠ × 𝑏𝑥 መi + 𝑏𝑦 መj + 𝑏𝑧 k෠

𝒂𝒙 መi × 𝒃𝒙 መi = 𝒂𝒙 𝒃𝒙 መi × መi = 𝟎, ෠
𝒂𝒙 መi × 𝒃𝒚 መj = 𝒂𝒙 𝒃𝒚 መi × መj = 𝒂𝒙 𝒃𝒚 k,
𝒂𝒙 መi × 𝒃𝒛 k෠ = 𝒂𝒙 𝒃𝒛 መi × k෠ = −𝒂𝒙 𝒃𝒛መj, ෠
𝒂𝒚 መj × 𝒃𝒙 መi = 𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒙 መj × መi = −𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒙 k,
𝒂𝒚 መj × 𝒃𝒚 መj = 𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒚 መj × መj = 𝟎, 𝒂𝒚 መj × 𝒃𝒛 k෠ = 𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒛 መj × k෠ = 𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒛መi,
𝒂𝒛 k෠ × 𝒃𝒙 መi = 𝒂𝒛 𝒃𝒙 k෠ × መi = 𝒂𝒛 𝒃𝒙መj, 𝒂𝒛 k෠ × 𝒃𝒚 መj = 𝒂𝒛 𝒃𝒚 k෠ × መj = −𝒂𝒛 𝒃𝒚መi,
𝒂𝒛 k෠ × 𝒃𝒛 k෠ = 𝒂𝒛 𝒃𝒛 k෠ × k෠ = 𝟎,

⟹ 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒛 − 𝒂𝒛 𝒃𝒚 መi + 𝒂𝒛 𝒃𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙 𝒃𝒛 መj + 𝒂𝒙 𝒃𝒚 − 𝒂𝒚 𝒃𝒙 k෠

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors

Note that the vector product is not associative.

(𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏) × 𝑐Ԧ ≠ 𝑎Ԧ × (𝑏 × 𝑐)
Ԧ

The vector product is defined only for 3-dimensional vectors.

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
Note: A method using determinant

መi መj k෠
𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 = (𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑧 − 𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑦 )መi + (𝑎𝑧 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑧 )መj + (𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑦 − 𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑥 )k෠
𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑧

General Physics 𝐈
Sample Problem 4
෠ what is 𝑐Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏
If 𝑎Ԧ = 3መi − 4መjand 𝑏 = −2መi + 3k,
𝑐Ԧ = 3መi − 4መj × −2መi + 3k෠ = −9𝑗Ƹ − 8𝑘෠ − 12𝑖Ƹ

Addition Problem:
Confirm that 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑐Ԧ = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐Ԧ = 0

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
Expanding dot product in higher dimensions:
𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑁 𝑏𝑁

How is the angle defined in 𝑁(> 3) dimensional world?

cos 𝜑 = 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏/𝑎𝑏 is the angle between two N-dimensional vectors (for all 𝑁)

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
Evaluating Cross Product Using Levi-Civita symbol

Here indices 1,2,3 represent each direction, and 𝑒Ԧ𝑖 is the unit vector in i’th direction.

If (𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘) = (1,2,3), (2,3,1) or (3,1,2)

3 1
𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 = ෍ 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑒Ԧ𝑖 𝑎𝑗 𝑏𝑘 𝜀𝑖𝑗𝑘 = ቐ−1 If (𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘) = (1,3,2), (3,2,1) or (2,1,3)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘=1 0 Otherwise

Ex) If 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 =
1,1,3 , 1,3,1 1,1,3 2,2,1 , 2,1,2 ,
1,2,2 , 3,3,1 , 3,1,3 , 1,3,3, , 1,1,1 ,
(3,3,3), (2,2,2)

General Physics 𝐈
3-3 Multiplying Vectors
Extra Challenges
Using component notation, prove the following identities.

(𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑐Ԧ = (𝑏 × 𝑐)
Ԧ ⋅ 𝑎Ԧ = (𝑐Ԧ × 𝑎)
Ԧ ⋅𝑏 (scalar triple product)

The volume of this parallelepiped is (𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑐Ԧ

𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 × 𝑐Ԧ = 𝑏 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑐Ԧ − 𝑐Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏 , 𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏 × 𝑐Ԧ = 𝑏 𝑐Ԧ ⋅ 𝑎Ԧ − 𝑎Ԧ 𝑐Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏
BAC-CAB rule.

Other useful relations

(𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏) × 𝑐Ԧ + (𝑏 × 𝑐)
Ԧ × 𝑎Ԧ + (𝑐Ԧ × 𝑎)
Ԧ ×𝑏 =0
(𝑎Ԧ × 𝑏)2 + (𝑎Ԧ ⋅ 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏2
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