CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Water is one of the most essential natural resources for human survival, agriculture, and

industrial development. Streams, being a major source of surface water, play a significant role in

providing water for domestic, agricultural, and recreational purposes in many communities,

particularly in developing nations where treated water supplies are limited (Edokpayi et al.,

2018). Despite its importance, stream water is highly susceptible to contamination due to human

activities such as farming, fishing, open defecation, industrial discharge, and improper waste

disposal (Odonkor and Ampofo, 2013).

Microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and protozoa, are naturally present in water.

However, their composition and abundance are influenced by the level of pollution and

environmental conditions. While some microorganisms are harmless and even beneficial in

nutrient cycling, others are pathogenic and pose serious health risks to humans and animals

(Cabral, 2010). Pathogenic microorganisms such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Shigella

spp., Vibrio cholerae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have been frequently isolated from

contaminated surface waters and are associated with waterborne diseases (Ashbolt, 2015).

The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified unsafe water as a leading cause of

diseases such as cholera, dysentery, typhoid fever, and various gastrointestinal infections.

Globally, about 485,000 deaths annually are attributed to diarrheal diseases caused by

contaminated water (WHO, 2022). Developing countries, including Nigeria, face a greater

1
burden due to inadequate sanitation, poor waste management, and lack of access to potable water

(Olaoye and Onilude, 2010).

Microbiological analysis of stream water is therefore necessary to determine its quality and

suitability for use. Isolation and identification of microorganisms provide valuable information

about the microbial load and potential health hazards associated with such water sources

(Nnadozie and Odume, 2019). By understanding the microbial profile, communities and public

health authorities can adopt measures to minimize risks, improve sanitation, and promote safe

water use.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In many rural and peri-urban communities, streams are the primary sources of water for drinking,

cooking, and washing. However, these streams are frequently exposed to contamination from

sewage effluents, agricultural runoffs, and domestic wastes. Such contamination increases the

risk of waterborne diseases, which remain a major public health challenge in Nigeria and other

developing countries (Odonkor and Ampofo, 2013).

The presence of pathogenic microorganisms in untreated stream water makes it unsafe for direct

consumption, yet a large proportion of the population relies on it without any form of treatment.

This situation raises concerns about the microbial safety of such water sources. Despite the

evident risks, there is limited surveillance and research on the microbiological quality of streams

in many parts of Nigeria.

Therefore, the problem this study seeks to address is the lack of adequate information on the

types and prevalence of microorganisms present in stream water. Without such knowledge, it is

2
difficult to assess the potential health risks and to design effective water management and

intervention strategies.

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1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main aim of this study is to isolate and identify microorganisms in stream water in order to

assess its microbial quality and public health implications.

The specific objectives are to:

1. Collect water samples from selected streams.

2. Isolate microorganisms present in the stream water.

3. Identify and characterize the isolated microorganisms using standard microbiological

techniques.

4. Assess the potential health risks associated with the identified microorganisms.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The findings of this study will be significant in several ways. First, it will provide baseline data

on the microbial quality of stream water in the study area. This is crucial for water resource

management and public health planning. Second, the study will highlight the potential risks

associated with the consumption and use of untreated stream water, thereby sensitizing local

communities on the need for water treatment before use. Third, the results can guide

policymakers, environmental health officers, and public health practitioners in formulating

strategies to monitor and improve water quality. Finally, the study will serve as a valuable

academic resource for future researchers in the field of environmental microbiology and public

health.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 CONCEPT OF WATER AND MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION

Water is universally acknowledged as the most vital natural resource, not only for sustaining

human life but also for agricultural productivity and industrial development. Its availability and

quality directly influence economic growth, environmental sustainability, and public health

(Edokpayi et al., 2018). Among the various sources of water, surface waters such as rivers, lakes,

and streams play a central role in meeting the needs of populations, especially in rural and peri-

urban communities that lack access to treated water supplies. Unfortunately, these water sources

are vulnerable to contamination due to their open exposure to environmental factors and human

activities.

Surface water bodies are particularly susceptible to contamination because of their proximity to

settlements and agricultural lands. In many developing nations, streams often act as open

recipients of domestic and industrial effluents, making them reservoirs of microbial

contamination (Odonkor and Ampofo, 2013). Poor sanitation practices, inadequate waste

management systems, and unregulated human activities exacerbate the problem, resulting in

significant water quality degradation.

Microbial contamination refers to the introduction and multiplication of microorganisms in water

sources. These include both pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms. While some

microorganisms are harmless or beneficial in nutrient cycling and decomposition, pathogenic

species present substantial health hazards when ingested through contaminated water (Cabral,

5
2010). Pathogens thrive in stream water due to the presence of organic matter and favorable

environmental conditions such as temperature and pH.

Indicators of microbial contamination are commonly employed to assess water quality. Among

these, fecal coliforms, especially Escherichia coli, are the most widely recognized indicators of

fecal pollution in water. Their presence suggests recent contamination by human or animal waste

and the possible existence of harmful pathogens (WHO, 2022). Since direct detection of all

pathogens is complex, indicator organisms provide a practical means of determining the sanitary

status of water.

Globally, microbial contamination of water is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality,

particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Unsafe water is strongly associated with

diarrheal diseases, which remain a top contributor to childhood mortality (WHO, 2022). The

persistence of this issue underscores the urgent need for monitoring water quality in surface

water sources, particularly streams.

In addition to human health implications, microbial contamination also affects the usability of

water for industrial and agricultural purposes. High microbial loads contribute to biofilm

formation in pipes and water distribution systems, leading to blockages and infrastructure

damage (Cabral, 2010). In agriculture, contaminated water used for irrigation can transmit

pathogens to crops, creating another pathway for human infection.

Furthermore, microbial contamination influences aquatic ecosystems by altering natural

microbial communities. Excessive nutrient input and fecal pollution promote the growth of

harmful microorganisms at the expense of native aquatic flora and fauna, leading to ecosystem

6
imbalances (Nnadozie and Odume, 2019). Thus, microbial contamination is not only a public

health concern but also an ecological and economic challenge.

In conclusion, the concept of water and microbial contamination emphasizes that water quality is

a multidimensional issue involving health, environment, and development. Streams, though vital,

are highly vulnerable to microbial pollution, necessitating constant monitoring, isolation, and

identification of microorganisms as a fundamental step toward safeguarding public health and

achieving sustainable water management.

2.2 TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS IN STREAM WATER

Stream water is a dynamic ecosystem that harbors a wide range of microorganisms, both

beneficial and harmful. The microbial diversity present in streams is shaped by several factors

such as nutrient availability, surrounding human activity, climate, and seasonal variations.

Broadly, microorganisms in stream water are categorized into four groups: bacteria, fungi,

protozoa, and viruses.

Each of these groups plays a different role in the aquatic environment. While some are part of the

natural ecosystem processes such as nutrient recycling and organic matter decomposition, others

are opportunistic or pathogenic, threatening human health. Streams therefore act as both habitats

and transmission pathways for microorganisms.

2.2.1 Bacteria

Bacteria are the most abundant and commonly encountered microorganisms in stream water.

They include a wide range of genera, from harmless environmental bacteria to pathogenic

species that pose significant public health risks. Pathogenic bacteria frequently isolated from

7
streams include Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Vibrio cholerae, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, and Klebsiella spp. (Ashbolt, 2015).

The presence of fecal coliforms, particularly E. coli, is widely regarded as an indicator of fecal

contamination and poor sanitary conditions. Streams located near agricultural fields, informal

settlements, or sewage discharge points often record high bacterial counts (Odonkor & Ampofo,

2013). This situation is especially concerning where streams serve as drinking water sources

without treatment.

Bacteria enter streams through multiple pathways, including surface runoff, open defecation,

leaching from pit latrines, and discharge of untreated sewage. Once in the water, bacteria can

survive and multiply under favorable conditions. While some bacteria may die off quickly in

sunlight, others can persist for extended periods, increasing the risk of infection (Cabral, 2010).

Pathogenic bacteria in water are responsible for diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid

fever. For instance, Vibrio cholerae causes cholera outbreaks that are common in regions where

water sanitation is poor. Similarly, Salmonella and Shigella are linked to severe gastrointestinal

infections, particularly in vulnerable populations (WHO, 2022).

In addition to their role in disease transmission, bacteria contribute to water quality deterioration.

Some, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, form biofilms in water distribution systems, leading to

infrastructural challenges and increased treatment costs (Ashbolt, 2015). Thus, bacteria

constitute the primary focus of water quality monitoring programs.

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2.2.2 Fungi

Fungi are another group of microorganisms commonly found in streams. Species such as

Aspergillus, Penicillium, Candida, and Fusarium have been isolated from surface waters

worldwide (Krasner et al., 2016). While many fungi are environmental saprophytes that

decompose organic matter, others are opportunistic pathogens capable of causing infections in

immunocompromised individuals.

The occurrence of fungi in streams is influenced by organic pollution, pH, and nutrient

availability. Streams receiving agricultural runoff rich in organic matter often harbor high fungal

loads, as these provide favorable substrates for fungal growth (Nnadozie and Odume, 2019).

Although waterborne fungal infections are less common compared to bacterial infections, certain

fungi such as Candida albicans can cause systemic infections in humans. In addition, fungal

spores from streams can contaminate drinking water supplies and food crops irrigated with

polluted water (Krasner et al., 2016).

Fungal contamination also affects water quality by producing secondary metabolites and toxins.

These not only deteriorate water taste and odor but may also pose toxicological risks to humans

and animals. Furthermore, filamentous fungi in water systems can contribute to clogging of

filters and distribution pipes (Cabral, 2010).

Overall, while fungi are less emphasized in water quality monitoring compared to bacteria, their

presence in streams has both environmental and health implications that warrant attention.

9
2.2.3 Protozoa

Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotic organisms commonly found in streams. Pathogenic

protozoa of concern include Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, and Entamoeba

histolytica (Efstratiou et al., 2017). These parasites are transmitted through fecal contamination

of water sources and are major causes of waterborne diseases.

A key feature of protozoan parasites is their ability to form cysts or oocysts, which are highly

resistant to environmental stress and conventional water treatment methods such as chlorination.

This makes them particularly challenging to control and eradicate once present in water (WHO,

2022).

Infections caused by waterborne protozoa can result in severe gastrointestinal illnesses, including

prolonged diarrhea, abdominal pain, and dehydration. Children and immunocompromised

individuals are especially vulnerable to these infections (Efstratiou et al., 2017).

Epidemiological studies indicate that outbreaks of protozoan infections are often linked to

contaminated surface waters, especially streams and rivers used for drinking without treatment.

In developing regions, these infections contribute significantly to the burden of diarrheal

diseases.

Given their persistence in aquatic environments and resistance to treatment, protozoan parasites

represent a major challenge in water microbiology and necessitate advanced monitoring

techniques such as immunofluorescence assays and molecular diagnostics.

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2.2.4 Viruses

Viruses are among the smallest microorganisms found in water, yet they have significant

implications for public health. Waterborne viruses of concern include rotaviruses, adenoviruses,

enteroviruses, noroviruses, and hepatitis A virus (Hamza et al., 2017). These viruses are

transmitted through fecal contamination and can persist in water for long periods.

Detection of viruses in stream water is technically challenging because they cannot be cultured

using standard bacteriological methods. Instead, advanced molecular methods such as

polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunoassays are employed (Forbes et al., 2007).

Waterborne viral infections are often associated with gastroenteritis, hepatitis, and respiratory

illnesses. Rotavirus, for example, is a leading cause of severe diarrhea in children under five

years, while hepatitis A virus is linked to acute liver disease (WHO, 2022).

Viral contamination of streams often results from untreated sewage discharge, open defecation,

and stormwater runoff. Once present, viruses can survive for weeks and remain infectious,

posing high risks to communities relying on untreated stream water (Hamza et al., 2017).

Given their public health significance, viral pathogens represent a critical dimension of microbial

water contamination, although they are less frequently studied in developing countries due to

technical and financial constraints.

2.3 SOURCES OF MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION IN STREAMS

Stream water contamination is a multifaceted problem, influenced by both natural processes and

anthropogenic activities. Among the foremost contributors are human activities such as open

defecation, bathing, washing clothes, and direct waste disposal into water bodies. These practices

11
introduce a wide range of pathogens including fecal coliforms, enteric viruses, and protozoan

parasites, thereby compromising the microbial integrity of streams (Olaoye and Onilude, 2010).

The problem is particularly acute in rural and peri-urban communities across Africa, where

streams serve as both water supply sources and waste disposal channels.

Agricultural runoff constitutes another major pathway of microbial contamination in streams.

During rainfall, animal manure, fertilizers, and pesticides from farmlands are washed into nearby

streams. Runoff from livestock farms introduces fecal microorganisms such as Escherichia coli

and Salmonella spp., while fertilizers enrich the water with nutrients that promote microbial

proliferation (Edokpayi et al., 2018). This dual impact of pathogen introduction and nutrient

enrichment accelerates eutrophication, further promoting microbial survival and growth.

Industrial effluents also contribute significantly to stream contamination. Effluents from food

processing, pharmaceutical, textile, and chemical industries often contain high organic loads,

toxic chemicals, and in some cases, pathogenic microorganisms. Although many industries are

expected to treat their wastewater, poor regulatory enforcement in many developing countries

leads to the direct discharge of untreated or inadequately treated effluents into streams (Nnadozie

and Odume, 2019). This introduces not only microorganisms but also chemical pollutants that

alter the ecological balance of streams.

In addition to these direct sources, municipal solid waste and sewage disposal systems frequently

contribute to microbial pollution in streams. In many Nigerian cities and towns, waste

management practices are poor, and refuse dumpsites are often located close to streams. During

rainfall, microbial-laden leachates from these dumps infiltrate the water bodies, increasing

12
microbial load (Odonkor and Ampofo, 2013). This pathway introduces opportunistic pathogens

like Pseudomonas aeruginosa alongside enteric bacteria.

Natural processes such as soil erosion and animal activity also play roles in microbial

contamination. Wild animals and birds contribute fecal matter, introducing zoonotic pathogens

including Cryptosporidium and Giardia species into streams (Efstratiou et al., 2017).

Furthermore, soil erosion during storms washes soil microorganisms into streams, though these

are often less pathogenic than those introduced by anthropogenic activities.

Another source of microbial contamination in streams is urban storm water runoff. As rainfall

flows over impervious surfaces like roads and pavements, it collects contaminants including dog

feces, oil residues, and litter. When this runoff enters streams, it contributes significantly to

microbial loads, particularly in urban environments (Hamza et al., 2017). This highlights the

interconnectedness of land use, urbanization, and water quality.

Climate change has also been identified as an indirect contributor to microbial contamination in

streams. Increased rainfall intensity and flooding events mobilize pathogens from soils, septic

tanks, and landfills into water bodies (Edokpayi et al., 2018). Conversely, drought conditions

concentrate microbial pollutants in stagnant waters, exacerbating the risks of contamination.

Taken together, these sources illustrate that microbial contamination of streams is not caused by

a single factor but is the result of complex interactions between human activities, natural

processes, and environmental changes. Therefore, effective management requires integrated

strategies addressing sanitation, agricultural practices, industrial effluent treatment, and waste

management.

2.4 HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF MICROORGANISMS IN STREAM WATER

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The presence of pathogenic microorganisms in streams poses serious health implications for

populations that rely on untreated surface water for drinking, cooking, and domestic activities.

Among the most common waterborne diseases is cholera, caused by Vibrio cholerae. This acute

diarrheal disease remains a persistent public health issue in regions with inadequate water

treatment and sanitation, with numerous outbreaks linked to contaminated surface waters

(Ashbolt, 2015). Cholera outbreaks in Nigeria and other African countries highlight the dangers

of relying on streams for drinking water.

Another major disease associated with microbial contamination is typhoid fever, caused by

Salmonella typhi. Transmission occurs when individuals consume water contaminated with fecal

matter containing the pathogen. The disease presents with fever, abdominal pain, and systemic

complications if untreated. Typhoid is endemic in many parts of Nigeria, where untreated stream

water serves as a primary transmission route (Odonkor and Ampofo, 2013). Seasonal peaks in

typhoid cases often correspond with rainy seasons when streams are heavily contaminated.

Protozoan parasites such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum pose additional health

risks. These organisms are particularly concerning because they produce cysts that are resistant

to environmental stress and conventional chlorination methods used in water treatment

(Efstratiou et al., 2017). Infections caused by these parasites result in prolonged gastrointestinal

distress, particularly in children and immunocompromised individuals, increasing morbidity

rates in affected communities.

Waterborne viruses including rotaviruses, adenoviruses, and hepatitis A virus are equally

significant. Viral pathogens often cause acute gastroenteritis, hepatitis, and other systemic

illnesses (Hamza et al., 2017). Children under the age of five are most vulnerable to viral

waterborne diseases, and in developing countries, these infections contribute significantly to high

14
child mortality rates. Rotavirus, in particular, remains a leading cause of severe diarrhea in

children exposed to unsafe water.

In addition to acute illnesses, chronic exposure to microbial contamination in stream water can

have long-term consequences. Repeated episodes of diarrhea in children contribute to

malnutrition, stunted growth, and impaired cognitive development (WHO, 2022). These indirect

effects of unsafe water have long-term socioeconomic implications, affecting educational

attainment and productivity.

Opportunistic infections caused by fungi and bacteria in contaminated stream water also affect

individuals with weakened immune systems. For example, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and

Candida species can cause respiratory, urinary tract, and skin infections in immunocompromised

individuals (Krasner et al., 2016). These infections complicate existing health conditions,

particularly among HIV/AIDS patients.

Beyond individual health, microbial contamination in streams affects community wellbeing and

healthcare systems. Frequent outbreaks of waterborne diseases increase healthcare costs, place

pressure on public health facilities, and reduce productivity due to loss of man-hours (Edokpayi

et al., 2018). This creates a cycle of poverty and ill health in communities dependent on

untreated surface water.

Overall, the health implications of microorganisms in stream water underscore the urgent need

for regular monitoring, effective water treatment, and community-based health education.

Addressing these challenges is critical to reducing waterborne disease burden in developing

countries.

2.5 ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS IN WATER

15
The isolation and identification of microorganisms in water is a cornerstone of water quality

assessment and public health protection. Accurate identification allows researchers and

policymakers to evaluate contamination levels, determine sources of pollution, and implement

mitigation strategies. Standard procedures begin with the collection and preservation of water

samples, ensuring aseptic techniques to prevent external contamination (WHO, 2022). Proper

sampling is critical as microbial populations can vary significantly depending on location, time

of day, and environmental conditions.

Culture-based techniques remain the gold standard in microbial water analysis. Selective and

differential media such as MacConkey agar, Salmonella-Shigella agar, and Sabouraud Dextrose

agar are widely used to isolate and differentiate bacteria and fungi (Cheesbrough, 2006). These

media facilitate the growth of target organisms while inhibiting non-relevant microbes, providing

a reliable means of identifying specific contaminants.

Microscopy serves as a complementary tool in microbial identification. Gram staining, for

instance, differentiates bacteria into Gram-positive and Gram-negative groups, aiding in

preliminary classification (Forbes et al., 2007). Other stains such as acid-fast staining are useful

for detecting specialized pathogens like Mycobacterium species. Microscopic examination also

allows visualization of protozoan cysts and fungal spores, providing direct evidence of

contamination.

Biochemical tests are employed to further characterize bacterial isolates. Tests such as catalase,

oxidase, indole, and citrate utilization are commonly used to confirm bacterial species (Forbes et

al., 2007). These methods are inexpensive and widely accessible, making them particularly

suitable for laboratories in developing countries where advanced molecular techniques may not

be readily available.

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Molecular methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have revolutionized microbial

detection in water. PCR enables the rapid and highly specific identification of microbial DNA,

allowing for the detection of pathogens at very low concentrations (Hamza et al., 2017). PCR is

particularly valuable for identifying viruses, which are difficult to culture using conventional

techniques. Sequencing further enhances microbial identification by providing information on

genetic diversity and strain variation.

Flow cytometry and immunological assays have also been adopted in water microbiology.

Immunofluorescence assays, for example, allow for rapid detection of protozoan cysts such as

Cryptosporidium and Giardia (Efstratiou et al., 2017). These methods enhance the accuracy of

detection while reducing turnaround time for results.

Despite advancements, challenges remain in microbial isolation and identification. Culture-based

methods may underestimate microbial diversity as many organisms are viable but non-culturable

(VBNC). Molecular methods, while highly sensitive, are expensive and require specialized

training and equipment (Nnadozie and Odume, 2019).

2.6 PREVIOUS STUDIES ON MICROBIAL QUALITY OF STREAM WATER

Several studies have highlighted the microbial risks associated with streams and surface waters

in different parts of the world. Olaoye and Onilude (2010) reported high coliform contamination

in surface waters used for drinking in Western Nigeria, attributing the pollution to open

defecation and poor sanitation practices. Their findings emphasize the direct impact of human

activity on stream water microbial quality.

Edokpayi et al. (2018) conducted studies in South Africa, demonstrating seasonal variations in

microbial contamination of surface waters. They observed higher microbial counts during the

rainy season due to increased runoff carrying fecal material and agricultural waste into streams.

17
Such findings underline the role of environmental factors and seasonal patterns in microbial

contamination.

Nnadozie and Odume (2019) reported similar findings in Nigerian rural streams, emphasizing

that fecal coliform levels consistently exceeded WHO safety guidelines. They noted that

inadequate waste management and poor sanitation practices were primary contributors. These

findings are consistent with global trends in developing regions where sanitation infrastructure is

weak.

Cabral (2010) explored the role of microbial contamination in waterborne disease transmission,

identifying pathogens such as E. coli, Salmonella, and Shigella as recurring contaminants in

surface waters. His work demonstrates the persistence of enteric bacteria in aquatic environments

and their strong correlation with diarrheal outbreaks in communities relying on untreated water.

In a study conducted in Ghana, Odonkor and Ampofo (2013) found that streams serving as

drinking water sources for rural communities contained high levels of coliform bacteria, often

exceeding international safety thresholds. The researchers linked contamination primarily to

domestic activities such as bathing, laundry, and open defecation near streams.

Efstratiou et al. (2017) investigated protozoan contamination of streams in Europe and

highlighted the persistence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia cysts even after conventional water

treatment processes. This study underscores the global relevance of protozoan contamination and

its resilience against standard purification methods.

Hamza et al. (2017) documented the occurrence of waterborne viruses in streams across Egypt.

Using molecular techniques, they identified adenoviruses, rotaviruses, and hepatitis A virus in

untreated surface waters. Their findings demonstrate that viral contamination of streams is not

only a microbial quality issue but also a significant public health threat.

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Collectively, these studies affirm that microbial contamination of stream water is a global issue

with region-specific drivers and outcomes. They highlight the importance of continuous

monitoring, improved sanitation, and the adoption of advanced microbial detection techniques to

safeguard water quality and public health.

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2.7 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The conceptual framework for this study is grounded in the recognition that streams are open

ecosystems, vulnerable to microbial contamination from diverse sources. Human activities,

environmental conditions, and natural processes collectively determine the microbial load of

streams (Odonkor and Ampofo, 2013). This framework assumes that microbial contamination is

not random but reflects identifiable patterns influenced by specific drivers.

Central to the framework is the concept of contamination pathways. Streams receive microbial

inputs from anthropogenic activities such as open defecation, waste disposal, and agricultural

runoff (Edokpayi et al., 2018). Industrial effluents and urban runoff further exacerbate

contamination, making streams integrators of environmental pollution. Identifying and

quantifying these pathways provide a basis for linking contamination sources to observed

microbial loads.

Another key element is the role of microorganisms as indicators of pollution. Fecal coliforms,

particularly Escherichia coli, are widely used as proxy indicators of fecal contamination and

sanitary quality of streams (WHO, 2022). By focusing on such indicator organisms, the study

evaluates the safety of stream water and infers the presence of other pathogenic species.

The framework also incorporates environmental modifiers such as climate variability and

seasonal changes. Rainfall patterns, temperature fluctuations, and flooding events influence

microbial survival, proliferation, and transport in aquatic environments (Nnadozie and Odume,

2019). Recognizing these modifiers is essential for understanding temporal variations in

microbial contamination.

Health outcomes form the ultimate dimension of the framework. The presence of pathogenic

microorganisms in streams directly translates into risks of waterborne diseases including

20
diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis (Ashbolt, 2015). Thus, the framework links

environmental contamination to adverse public health outcomes, emphasizing the need for

intervention.

The framework also highlights the methodological dimension of microbial detection. Isolation

and identification techniques, ranging from culture-based methods to molecular diagnostics, play

a crucial role in quantifying contamination and guiding public health decisions (Hamza et al.,

2017). By employing these methods, the study ensures robust and reliable assessment of stream

water quality.

Furthermore, the framework acknowledges the socio-economic context in which contamination

occurs. In rural Nigeria, reliance on untreated stream water is driven by poverty, lack of

infrastructure, and limited access to safe water alternatives (Olaoye & Onilude, 2010). This

socio-economic dimension underscores the intersection of microbial contamination with broader

development challenges.

In conclusion, the conceptual framework integrates contamination sources, microbial indicators,

environmental modifiers, health outcomes, detection methods, and socio-economic factors.

Together, these elements provide a holistic understanding of microbial contamination in streams

and guide the design, implementation, and interpretation of this study.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION

Water samples were collected in sterile 500 ml glass bottles. Before collection, the bottles were

rinsed three times with the stream water. Samples were collected approximately 20–30 cm below

the water surface to avoid surface debris (WHO, 2022). Each sample was clearly labeled with the

site, date, and time of collection. Samples were transported to the laboratory and analyzed within

6 hours to prevent changes in microbial composition.

3.2 MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

3.2.1 Isolation of Microorganisms

The pour plate techniques were employed to isolate microorganisms from the water samples

(Cheesbrough, 2006). Serial dilutions of the water samples (10 ⁻¹ – 10 ⁻⁶) was prepared, and

aliquots were inoculated on selective and differential media. Plates was incubated at 37°C for

24–48 hours for bacterial growth and at 25°C for 3–5 days for fungi. Distinct colonies were sub-

cultured to obtain pure cultures.

3.2.2 Identification of Microorganisms

Identification will be carried out using:

Colony morphology – shape, size, color, and texture of colonies.

1. Microscopic examination – Gram staining for bacteria and lactophenol cotton blue

staining for fungi.

2. Biochemical tests – IMViC (Indole, Methyl Red, Voges-Proskauer, Citrate), catalase,

oxidase, urease, and sugar fermentation tests for bacteria (Forbes et al., 2007).

22
 3. Fungal identification – based on spore structure, hyphae arrangement, and conidial

morphology.

3.3 DATA ANALYSIS

Data obtained was analyzed using descriptive statistics, including frequency counts, percentages,

and tables to present the occurrence and distribution of microorganisms. Colony-forming units

(CFU/ml) will be calculated using the formula:

CFU/ml = Number of colonies x Dilution factor

Results will be compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) permissible limits for

drinking water microbiological quality, which stipulate zero coliforms per 100 ml of water

(WHO, 2022).

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

This chapter presents the findings from the microbiological analysis of stream water samples

collected from the selected sites. The results are organized into tables showing colony counts,

frequency of occurrence of microorganisms, and their identification. The findings are further

discussed in relation to existing literature and World Health Organization (WHO) standards for

drinking water quality.

4.2 COLONY COUNTS OF MICROORGANISMS ISOLATED FROM STREAM

WATER

Table 4.1 shows the mean colony-forming units per milliliter (CFU/ml) of bacteria and fungi

isolated from stream water samples.

TABLE 4.1: MEAN COLONY COUNTS OF MICROORGANISMS IN STREAM

WATER SAMPLES

Sampling Site Total Bacterial Count Total Fungal Count (CFU/ml)

(CFU/ml)

Site A 3.2 × 10⁵ 2.0 × 10³

Site B 4.5 × 10⁵ 2.1 × 10³

Site C 6.5 × 10⁵ 2.0 × 10³

Site D 5.8 × 10⁵ 2.5 × 10³

Site E 6.0 × 10⁵ 3.3 × 10³

Source: Laboratory Analysis (2025)

WHO (2022) guideline of zero coliforms per 100 ml of drinking water. The highest bacterial

load was observed in Site E (6.5 × 10⁵ CFU/ml), possibly due to its proximity to human

settlements and agricultural activities.

TABLE 4.2: MORPHOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIAL ISOLATES IN

STREAM WATER SAMPLES

ISOLATES CULTURAL MORPHOLOGY CELL ARRANGEMENT

Klebsiella spp Very viscous, mucoid moistured colonies short rod

Staphylococcus aureus Golden yellow, round slightly raised Cocci in clusters

colonies on Nutrient Agar

Staphylococcus epidemidis Golden yellow, round slightly raised Cocci in clusters

colonies on Nutrient Agar

Escherichia coli Oval, and Pinkish rod

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TABLE 4.3: BIOCHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION, GRAM REACTION AND SUGAR
UTILIZATION PROFILE OF BACTERIAL ISOLATES
Gram Reaction Cat Test Oxi Test Ind Test Cit Utilisation Ure Test Probable Identity

- + - - + + Klebsiella spp

+ + - - + - Staphylococcus aureus

+ + - - + - Staphylococcus aureus

- + - + - - Escherichia coli

KEYS:
CAT = Catalase (+) = Present
IND = Indole (-) = Absent
CIT = Citrate
Ure = Urease

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TABLE 4.4: CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MICROSCOPIC

CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGAL ISOLATES IN STREAM WATER SAMPLES

MACRO- CULTURE (COLONIAL MICROSCOPY (MORPHOLOGICAL ISOLATES

CHARACTERISTICS) FEATURES)

Large black head ( thick black Septate hyphae, non- septate Aspergillu niger

colonies) conidiophores, mop- like conidial head

Brown and cottony like Long erect conidiophores round-shaped Penicillium species

conidia

Yellow pink creamy colonies Cylindrical to ovoid conidia, curved Fusarium species

septate conidiophores

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TABLE 4.5 FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF BACTERIAL ISOLATES

Bacterial Species Frequency (n=15 samples) Percentage (%)

Staphylococcus aureus 12 80.0

Staphylococcus epidermidis 9 60.0

Escherichia coli 5 33.3

Klebsiella spp. 7 46.7

Source: Laboratory Analysis (2025)

The most frequently isolated bacterium was E. coli (80%), an indicator of fecal contamination.

This aligns with the findings of Olaoye & Onilude (2010), who reported E. coli as the dominant

coliform in surface waters in Nigeria.

TABLE 4.6 FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF FUNGAL ISOLATES

Fungal Species Frequency (n=15 samples) Percentage (%)

Aspergillus spp. 10 66.7

Fusarium species 7 46.7

Penicillium spp. 5 33.3

Source: Laboratory Analysis (2025)

The predominant fungus was Aspergillus spp. (66.7%), which is consistent with reports by

Krasner et al. (2016) that Aspergillus and Penicillium are common contaminants in aquatic

environments.

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4.5 COMPARISON WITH WHO STANDARDS

The WHO (2022) stipulates that drinking water should be free of coliform bacteria. However, all

samples analyzed in this study showed significant microbial contamination, suggesting that the

stream waters are unsuitable for direct human consumption without treatment.

4.6 DISCUSSION

The study revealed that Staphylococcus aureus was the most predominant bacterial isolates

encountered. Pathogenic bacteria are known to elaborate various extracellular products that may

contribute to their virulence in host. Some of the extracellular products include enzymes and

toxins. Some of this enzymes and toxin are important in virulence of this microorganism. The

result obtained from this study shows that all S. aureus were coagulase and DNAse positive

which may be as a result of the ‘coo’ gene. S. aureus has been known to cause poisoning,

through it is self-limiting, it causes prolonged vomiting, diarrhea dehydration and loss of

electrolyte in the very young and old (Jay et al., 2005), because immunity is immature and

overwhelm at both extremity in a companion study in Ago-Iwoye town, Ogun State.

Staphylococcus epidermidis are found in everywhere. Most species of Staphylococcus can

produce some form of enterotoxin, the causative agent of Staphylococcal enteritis (Smith et al.,

2008). Staphylococcus spp was second to Staphylococcus aureus in predominance.

Staphylococcus spp are not usually pathogenic but can cause infection in immunocompromised

individuals as opportunistic organisms (Jay et al., 2005).

Klebsiella spp was also isolated from the three streams and is one of the coliform bacteria that

can be opportunistic pathogenic bacteria if found in high proportion in human intestine. They are

generally found in soil, water, food and dirty materials.

29
The findings reveal that all sampled streams contained high microbial counts, particularly

bacteria such as E. coli. This indicates fecal contamination, likely introduced through open

defecation, washing, and agricultural runoff. Similar observations were reported by Edokpayi et

al. (2018), who found high bacterial loads in rural streams in South Africa, especially during the

rainy season.

The presence of Aspergillus and Penicillium in water samples highlights the risk of opportunistic

infections, particularly among immunocompromised individuals. While fungi are less studied in

aquatic environments compared to bacteria, their occurrence suggests poor sanitary quality of

streams (Krasner et al., 2016).

The present of E. coli in this study is consistent with findings in Nigerian surface waters (Olaoye

and Onilude, 2010; Odonkor and Ampofo, 2013). This further confirms that fecal contamination

of surface water remains a persistent challenge in Nigeria due to inadequate sanitation.

The detection of multiple pathogenic microorganisms indicates that the studied streams are

unsafe for drinking and domestic use without proper treatment. Continuous exposure to such

water increases the risk of outbreaks of cholera, typhoid, and gastroenteritis, particularly in

children under five (WHO, 2022).

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

The findings of this research clearly demonstrate that the streams investigated are heavily

contaminated with microorganisms of significant public health concern. Both bacterial and

fungal species were isolated at levels far exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) standards

for potable water. The predominance of Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and

enteric pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. confirms fecal pollution of the

water sources, while the detection of fungi such as Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., and

Fusarium species. further emphasizes the unhygienic status of the streams.

It can therefore be concluded that:

 The studied streams are unsafe for direct human consumption or domestic use without

appropriate treatment measures such as boiling, chlorination, or filtration.

 Anthropogenic activities including open defecation, bathing, laundry, animal grazing, and

agricultural runoff are major contributors to the microbial contamination observed.

 The presence of both pathogenic bacteria and opportunistic fungi underscores the

potential for widespread transmission of waterborne diseases within the communities that

depend on these streams.

 There is an urgent need for interventions aimed at improving water sanitation, treatment,

and public health awareness to mitigate the risks posed by contaminated water sources.

Overall, this study highlights the pressing necessity for sustainable water management practices

and reinforces the importance of providing safe, treated, and accessible water supplies as a

31
means of safeguarding public health and achieving global Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)

6: “Clean Water and Sanitation.”

5.2.1 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the results and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations are proposed

to improve water safety and protect public health in community’s dependent on stream water:

i. Water Treatment Before Use: Communities relying on stream water should adopt

simple and effective household-level water treatment methods such as boiling,

chlorination, and filtration before consumption or domestic use. Government and non-

governmental organizations should facilitate the distribution of affordable and user-

friendly household water treatment kits, particularly in rural and peri-urban areas where

access to modern treatment technologies is limited.

ii. Provision of Safe Drinking Water: Government authorities should prioritize

investments in the provision of alternative safe water sources such as boreholes, protected

wells, and piped water supply systems. These interventions will significantly reduce

dependence on contaminated surface water. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) should be

explored to mobilize resources for sustainable rural water supply projects. This

collaborative approach can enhance infrastructure development and ensure long-term

maintenance of water facilities.

iii. Improved Sanitation Practices: Strict environmental regulations should be enacted and

enforced against open defecation, indiscriminate waste disposal, and other unhygienic

practices near streams and water catchment areas. Local governments should construct

and maintain adequate public toilets and improved sewage systems in vulnerable

32
 communities. These facilities will reduce fecal contamination and protect water bodies

from human and animal waste.

iv. Health Education and Awareness: Continuous health education campaigns should be

conducted to sensitize community members on the dangers of consuming untreated water

and the importance of personal and environmental hygiene. School-based health

programs should be incorporated into curricula to instill proper water safety practices and

hygiene culture among children, thereby creating long-term behavioral change.

v. Regular Monitoring of Water Quality: Environmental and public health agencies

should routinely monitor the microbiological quality of streams and other surface water

sources to detect contamination early and take prompt remedial action. Establishing

community-based water monitoring groups can strengthen grassroots participation,

promote ownership, and ensure sustainability of water safety initiatives.

In summary, a combination of safe water provision, effective sanitation, community

sensitization, and routine monitoring will be critical in safeguarding public health and preventing

outbreaks of waterborne diseases associated with contaminated stream water.

33
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