What mak
makes
es science different?
• Religious claims
• Scientific results
• Personal points of view
The difference is the METHOD for testing scientific claims
Claims and opinions about how the physical world works come from many sources.
What is the difference between the claims of scientists and those of the rest?
The difference is the METHOD of systematic and critical testing of the claims. This method implies that any scientific result can
be rejected - at any time - if it conflicts with new observations.
Systematic and R
Reproducible
eproducible
Systematic and Reproducible
In science, any proposed result is put through systematic and reproducible testing before it is accepted.
Reproducible means that anyone should be able to make the same experiment and get the same results.
Pillbug Diet
Pillbugs are considered omnivores, that is, they will feed on live or decaying plant materials, fungi, and dead animals. They
become scavengers during periods of drought.
Pillbugs are important to the environment because when they eat decaying organic matter, they return important nutrients to the
soil. They are frequently found living under rocks, in rotting wood, and in gardens.
When pillbugs defecate, they lose the mineral copper. In order to regain some of what was lost, they will eat their own feces.
Pillbug Movement
Pillbugs have 14 legs (arranged in 7 pairs) that all function exactly alike.
The legs of pillbugs only function in locomotion. This distinguishes them from other arthropods that have special legs for grasping,
feeding, walking, and flying.
The reaction of a pillbug to a stimulus is indicated by its movement. A positive response is movement toward a stimulus, and a
negative response is a movement away from it.
Rolling up is defensive and is not recorded as positive or negative.
Feeding Behaviors
Plants
Fungi
Leaf litter
Rotting wood
Pillbugs eat a wide variety of food including plants, fungi, and dead, decaying animals. Their natural habitats are areas that are
rich in organic matter, such as leaf litter and rotting wood.
Note the large pair of antennae on the pillbug's head. These have chemosensitive regions that allow them to detect odors.
By waving the antennae around, attractive odors are detected, leading the pillbug to a food source.
How to Use Choice Chambers
Choice chambers have two sides. One side contains the control substance and the other side contains the test substance.
The control and test substances are placed around the edge of the compartment with a ‘channel’ for the Pillbugs to move back
and forth without having to cross the substances.
2 How to Use Choice Chambers
How to Use Choice Chambers
Pillbugs are added to one of the chambers and if they prefer the test substance over the control substance, they will move
towards the test chamber.
An equal distribution of pillbugs would indicate no preference for the test substance relative to the control substance.
Control Substances are Similar to T
Test
est Substances
Control substances should ressemble the test substance as closely as possible.
For example, if you were to test an animal's preference for one substance over another substance it would be desirable for the
test and control substances to share as many characteristics as possible.
Controls Allow Effects of Experimental V
Variables
ariables to
be Determined
A good experiment has a control group and at least one experimental group, sometimes called the test group.
The control group is treated exactly like the experimental group except that it is not exposed to the experimental variable.
In this experiment, the experimental variable being tested is administration of antibiotics for treatment of an infection. The control
group is receiving a ‘fake’ treatment that doesn't contain antibiotics, called a placebo.
2 Controls Allow Effects of Experimental Variables to be Determined
Controls Allow Effects of Experimental V
Variables
ariables to
be Determined
The control group differs from the experimental groups by a single variable - the antibiotic. By comparing the experimental group
with the control group, you can determine the effect of the variable.
In this experiment, the presence of the control group allows the conclusion that both drugs are more effective than treatment with
the placebo that lacked antibiotics.
Controls Allow Effects of Experimental Variables to be Determined 3
Controls Allow Effects of Experimental V
Variables
ariables to
be Determined
A positive control receives treatment known to produce or elicit a positive response. A negative control is untreated.
Hypothesis
Before starting an experiment, you must first formulate a hypothesis. The hypothesis is an educated guess about how or why
something happens.
Your hypothesis should always be written in such a way that you can actually test it. Hypotheses are frequently written in the form
“if I do this (change something), then this will happen (the result of the change)”.
Strategy
An experiment has an independent variable (a factor you will change). Here, this will be the type of substance your pillbugs are
exposed to. The observed result (attraction, avoidance, or no effect) is the dependent variable.
You will also need a control. A control group receives the same treament as the experimental group in all ways except the inde-
pendent variable . The control gives a baseline for comparison.
When you are setting up your experiment, the control substance must resemble the independent variable. So, if you are testing
pillbugs' reaction to a liquid substance, your control should be plain water. For solids, sand can be used as a control.
control for powdered substances
It is important to remember that your choice of a control should resemble your test substance. Plain water can be used as a
control for liquids, and fine, clean sand as a control for powders. The sand must not contain any organic nutrients.
Water and sand should not have detectable odors to attract the pillbugs.
Importance of a Control
A scientific experiment compares a control group to an experimental group.
The control group should differ from the experimental group in with regard to the variable being tested.
Using a Controlled Experiment
A controlled experiment allows scientists to test hypotheses, and to draw conclusions based on reproducible results.
Statistical Support of Hypotheses
Results of a study to determine if saccharin causes cancer in rats
Numbers indicate rats that developed tumors after ingesting 5% of their daily food intake as saccharin
Individual rats Parents Offspring
Male rats
Saccharin exposure 7/38 (19%) 12/45 (27%)
No saccharin 1/36 (3%) 0/42 (0%)
Female rats
Saccharin exposure 0/40 (0%) 2/49 (4%)
No saccharin 0/38 (0%) 0/47 (0%)
This looks bad for the male rats eating saccharin and saccharin was banned in 1977.
The results of one experiment should not be used to draw universal conclusions.
A good example of this is the saccharin scare of the 1970's in which lab rats were fed large amounts of saccharin and then
observed for tumor formation.
The results of this study, shown in the table, seem to indicate that saccharin causes cancer.
However, subsequent studies revealed that the observed tumors were likely due to weakening of the rats from other toxic effects
of such large doses of saccharin and not from the saccharin itself.
Additional studies with other species did not repeat these results. Saccharin came back on the market in 1991.
Four Phases of the Scientific Method
There is no general or precise procedure but one can identify serveral phases in the process of scientific discoveries.
1. Formulate a hypothesis 2. Conduct an experiment to test the hypothesis
3. Analyze the results 4. Report your findings
In real life there is no such thing as one general procedure which you can use to get the precise instructions for an experiment.
But we can identify different phases of scientific discoveries.
After investigation and observation of a problem, a hypothesis is formulated. Then experiments are performed to test the hypoth-
esis.
Next we analyze the results of the experiments, to see if the hypothesis is supported by data. Finally we write a report of our
findings and share it with the world.
Scientific method
Phase elements
This is a more detailed list of what you do in the different phases.
[Link]
[Link]
THESIS
a) Form a hypothesis based on background knowledge and observations
b) Design an experiment to test the hypothesis
[Link]
a) Carry out the experiment according to your experiment design
b) Record your measurements and keep a log of what you are doing
[Link]
[Link]
YSIS
a) Make calculations based on data and create graphs
b) Evaluate: Does data support the hypothesis?
[Link]
[Link]
TS
a) Share the results with the rest of the world
b) Take actions based on the feedback
The Hypothesis Phase
Hypothesis phase plot
scope: An outcome to investigate and a factor to vary (e.g. braking distance and speed)
1. Choose a scope
2. Formulate a hypothesis based on your: - background knowledge, and - earlier observations (if you have made any)
3. Choose a strategy for testing the hypothesis
Science is about coming up with hypotheses and then testing them.
When you're the scientist in LabSmart, you formulate the hypothesis based on your background knowledge and earlier observa-
tions.
Formulating a true hypothesis in the first place is MUCH less important than making the right strategy to test it.
Anyone can guess a true hypothesis. But making the right strategy for testing - and carrying out the strategy in the lab - is what
distinguishes a scientist from an astrologist.
Example: Breaking distance
1. Observations
Observations: Braking distance seems to increase with the speed of the car.
2. Scope
Scope: braking distance and the factor speed
speed.
3. Hypothesis
Hypothesis: “Braking distance distance grows linearly with speed”.
4. Strategy
Strategy: Brake at various speeds, but keep the car and other factors the same.
Here is an example that we will use to illustrate the different steps of the scientific method: Let's say that we want to find out what
determines the braking distance of a car.
The scope is which factors determine the braking distance of a vehicle. Let's start by focusing on one factor: speed
speed.
A first hypothesis could be: “the braking distance of a vehicle grows linearly with the speed at braking time”.
The strategy to test the hypothesis is to brake down from various speeds and measure the distance. Other factors, like the car,
the road and the brakes are kept the same.
Experimental Strategy and Design
Careful experimental design is important to ensure results that are both accurate and repeatable.
A good experimental design will address and minimize errors that may be introduced by random events.
It is important to remember that an experiment should be designed to discover the effects of a specific treatment.
Valuable information is learned no matter whether the hypothesis is supported or if it is disproved.
2 kinds of variables
1. Independent variable
2. Dependent variable
Variable Ask Braking distance example
Independent What will I vary? Speed
Dependent What will I measure? Braking distance
The variable which you vary we call the independent variable. It's independent because we may give it any value we like. In the
example we vary the speed.
The variable we measure is called the dependent variable
variable. It's dependent because it depends on something else - in this case
we measure the braking distance - and it depends on the speed.
Experiment phase example
Example: Braking distance
1. Get the car up to speed
2. Brake
3. Measure the distance covered
4. Record the speed and corresponding distance
5. (Maybe) Repeat for other speeds
In our braking distance example, you would be accelerating the car to different speeds, braking, measuring distances and record-
ing your findings.
Analysis phase
Analysis phase plot
1. (If needed) make calculations based on the raw measurements
2. Graph the results with the independent parameter on the x-axis and the dependent parameter on the y-axis.
Remember:
• what you are varying is the independent variable
• what you are measuring is the dependent variable
3. Judge whether the results speak for or against the hypothesis
In the analysis phase, we are back behind the desk. Now we have time to analyze the [Link] we will make calculations based
on the raw data.
Next you will visualize your results, using a graph. You will put the factor you are varying - or the independent parameter - on the
x-axis.
The factor which you are measuring - perhaps indirectly - goes on the y-axis. That is called the dependent variable
variable.
Finally you look at the results and the graph and judge whether your hypothesis is supported or not.
Analysis phase example
Example: Braking distance
Speed(m/s) Braking distance(m)
2 2.2
11 17.05
16 28.8
26 59.8
35 96.25
Here are your measurements on the slide.
In this case we need no further calculations.
2 Analysis phase example
Analysis phase example
First, graph the results with speed on the x-axis and distance on the y-axis
Second, evaluate the hypothesis. “Braking distance grows linearly with speed”. Confirmed?
Report phase
Share your findings with the world!
A scientific paper usually contains:
1. An Introduction summarizing the background knowledge
2. An account of the experimental procedure and equipment used
3. A presentation of the results and analysis
4. A discussion that summarizes findings and their implications
LearnSmart Labs helps you write something similar to a scientific paper
paper. The purpose of a paper is to share your findings with the
scientific community and the rest of the world.
A scientific paper usually has four sections. An introduction, an account of procedures, a presentation of results and a discussion
of the implications and finally an interpretation of the results.
If the results are correct and important, they will go into the next generation of text books and ultimately be a part of the back-
ground knowledge of young researchers.