UCH202-Biology for Engineers
Module 7 Genetics
Genetics is the study of how genes are passed down from one generation to the next. It's a branch
of biology that also studies genetic variation and how genes interact with the environment.
Genetics mainly includes:
● Study of Heredity: How traits are passed from parents to offspring
● Study of Genetic variation: How genes vary between individuals
● Study of Gene-environment interactions: How genes interact with environmental factors
How does genetics apply to people?
● Appearance: Genes influence a person's height, hair color, skin color, and eye color
● Health: Genes influence a person's likelihood of getting certain diseases
● Mental abilities: Genes influence a person's mental abilities
● Natural talents: Genes influence a person's natural talents
Who started the field of genetics?
● Gregor Mendel was the first to study genetics scientifically in the 19th century. .
How does genetics research progress?
● New technology, like PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) machine, is a laboratory
instrument that amplifies DNA or RNA, allow scientists to study the entire human
genome.
● Scientists have also described the genomes of other animals, including bacteria, worms,
flies, and mice.
Mitosis and Meiosis
These are types of cell divisions. Mitosis is a fundamental process for life Meiosis is a two-step
process that ensures humans have the same number of chromosomes in each generation.
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of daughter cells Two identical daughter cells Four daughter cells
Half the number of chromosomes as
Genetic material Identical to parent cell
parent cell
Purpose Creates new body cells Creates gametes (eggs and sperm)
Mendel's laws
Gregor Mendel's laws of inheritance are the law of dominance, law of segregation, and law of
independent assortment. Mendel discovered these laws by conducting experiments on pea plants
over seven years. Mendel's laws of inheritance are:
Law of dominance: An organism with at least one dominant allele will display the dominant
trait.
Law of segregation: During gametogenesis (the process of producing sperm and eggs from
germ cells), the two alleles for each gene separate, so that each gamete receives only one allele.
Law of independent assortment: During gametogenesis, alleles of different genes segregate
independently of each other.
Concept of Alleles
Alleles are different versions of a gene that occupy a specific location on a chromosome. Each
person inherits two alleles for each gene, one from each parent.
Types of alleles
Dominant alleles: These alleles are always expressed in the phenotype if present in the genotype.
Recessive alleles: These alleles are only expressed in the phenotype if both alleles are recessive.
Example of alleles
If you have two blue eye alleles, your eyes will be blue. But if you have one allele for blue eyes
and another for brown eyes, your eye color will be dictated by whichever allele is dominant. A
dominant allele is one that always determines the phenotype when present.
Concept of Recessiveness and Dominance
In genetics, dominance and recessiveness are terms that describe how different versions of a gene
(alleles) interact to produce a trait.
Traits, such as skin, hair or eye colour, are determined by genes. Each gene consists of two
alleles, one from the mother and the other from the father. These alleles can either be recessive or
dominant. In other words, traits are usually expressed when both the alleles are dominant. If
some traits are absent or not expressed, but found in the parent, then the allele is said to be
recessive.
Gene mapping
Gene mapping, also known as linkage mapping, is the process of finding the location of genes on
chromosomes. It helps identify the genes that cause certain inherited disorders.
A genome – the "book of life" – is the entire set of genetic information about a person or
organism. Mapping an individual's DNA can help us to study gene mutations that cause diseases,
including cancer, and could allow doctors to prescribe personalized precision medicine in future.
Gene interactions
Gene interactions are when two or more genes affect the development of a trait in an organism.
This can happen when genes modify each other's expression, or when one gene masks another's
effect.
How do genes interact?
Epistasis: When one gene masks the effect of another gene. For example, in foxgloves, the
dominant allele W restricts pigment synthesis to the throat spots.
Gene-environment interactions: When genes interact with environmental factors like chemicals,
nutrition, and sunlight.
Drug-gene interactions: When a genetic variant affects a patient's response to a drug.
Concept of mapping of phenotype to gene
Mapping phenotype to gene, also known as genotype–phenotype (G→P) mapping, is a
conceptual model that shows how an organism's genotype relates to its phenotype.
How does G→P mapping work?
Genotype: An organism's full hereditary information
Phenotype: An organism's observed properties
G→P mapping: The process of encoding information from a genotype to a phenotype
Why is G→P mapping important?
It helps explain how genetics and developmental biology are integrated
It helps explain how evolution selects neural network topologies
It helps understand how the distribution of phenotypes across genotypes affects evolutionary
outcomes.
Single gene disorders in humans
Single gene disorders, also known as monogenic disorders, are genetic conditions caused by
mutations in a single gene. They are among the most well-understood genetic disorders.
Examples
Hemochromatosis: An iron overload disorder
Sickle cell anemia: An autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the HBB gene
Turner syndrome: A condition that occurs when a female has an abnormal or missing X
chromosome
Concept of complementation using human genetics
In human genetics, complementation is a genetic process that occurs when two different
mutations combine to produce a normal phenotype.
Why it's important
Complementation tests are used to assign mutations to genes
They can also help determine if mutations are in different genes or in the same gene
Complementation tests can be used to infer gene function and interaction