Integrated Circuits

Course Code : DJS22EC402/DJS22EL402

Mrunalini Pimpale
Assistant Professor
Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Department
Dwarkadas J. Sanghvi College of Engineering
MODULE NO 2
CLOSE-LOOP OPAMP CONFIGURATIONS

A] Inverting Amplifier
• The current Through input resistance is

I  IF Since I B1  I B2  0
Vin  V2 V2  Vo

R1 Rf
But by Virtual ground concept V1 is grounded,
therefore V2 is also grounded i.e. V1  V2  0
Vin  0 0  Vo

R1 Rf
R f  Vo

R 1 Vin
Vo R
AVf   f
Vin R1
• Negative sign indicates that out put is out of phase with input.
Inverter or Sign Changer

• It is special case of inverting amplifier.

• If in inverting amplifier R1=Rf ,then gan is -1 ,then it is known as
inverter or sign changer.

Vo R
AVf    f  1
Vin R1
or Vo  Vin
CLOSE-LOOP OPAMP CONFIGURATIONS

A] Non-Inverting Amplifier
Applications of Voltage Follower
1) As Isolator
2) Impedance Matching
Difference Between Inverting & Non Inverting Amplifier
1) Op-Amp as a Adder
Summing Amplifier

• Inverting Configuration:
• This circuit will add the input voltages.
• Summing can only occur for inputs to the inverting side of the op amp.
• This is because of the V− node is a current summing junction where the
input currents sum to the feedback current.
• Fig. shows the inverting configuration with three inputs Va, Vb,
and Vc. Depending on the relationship between the feedback
resistor RF and the input resistors Ra, Rb, and Rc, the circuit can be used
as a summing amplifier, a scaling amplifier, or an averaging amplifier.
Analysis
• Applying KCL at inverting input.
I a  Ib  Ic  I B2  I F

• Since Ri and A of the op-amp are ideally infinity, IB = 0 A and V1 = V2 ≅ 0 V (by VGC).
• Therefore,
I a  Ib  Ic  I F
Va  V2 Vb  V2 Vc  V2 V2  Vo
  
Ra Rb Rc RF
Va Vb Vc  Vo
  
Ra Rb Rc RF
or
 Va Vb Vc 
Vo   RF    
 Ra Rb Rc 
R R R 
Vo   F Va  F Vb  F Vc ..........(1)
 Ra Rb Rc 
Summing Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• If in equation (1) Ra  Rb  Rc , Then equation (1) becomes

Vo  
RF
Va  Vb  Vc ..........(2)
R

• Adder:
• If in equation (1) Ra  Rb  Rc  RF , Then equation (1) becomes

Vo  Va  Vb  Vc ..........(3)

• Averaging amplifier:
RF 1
• If in equation (2)  , Where n is no of inputs, in this case n  3
R n
V  V  V 
Vo   a b c ..........(4)
3
Summing Amplifier

• Scaling or weighted amplifier:

• If each input voltage is amplified by a different factor, in other words, weighted differently at the
output, the circuit in Fig. is then called a scaling or weighted amplifier.
• then equation (1) becomes,

R R R 
Vo   F Va  F Vb  F Vc ..........(5)
 Ra Rb Rc 
RF RF RF
Where  
Ra Rb Rc
Summing Amplifier
• Non-Inverting Configuration:
• Analysis:
• The output of the non inverting amplifier is
 R 
Vo  1  F V 1..........(1)
 R1 
• The input impedance of non-inverting amplifier is large, Therefore, using the superposition
theorem, the voltage V1 at the non-inverting terminal is

Va  Vb  Vc
V1 
3
Summing Amplifier
 equation (1) becomes
 RF  Va  Vb  Vc 
Vo  1   .........(2)
 R1  3 

Averaging amplifier:
If in equation (2) ,the gain of non-inverting amplifier is
 RF 
1    1
 R1 
Then equation (2) becomes
 V  Vb  Vc 
Vo   a ............(3)
 3 
Summing amplifier: If in equation (2),gain
 RF 
1    n  3, where n is no of inputs
 R1 
Then equation (2) becomes
Vo  Va  Vb  Vc ............(4)
2) Op-Amp as a Substractor
Difference Amplifier

• Analysis
• Voltage gain:
• The circuit has two inputs, vx and vy ;
• we will, therefore, use the superposition theorem in order to establish the
relationship between inputs and output.
• When vy = 0 V, the configuration becomes an inverting amplifier; hence the output
due to vx only is

R f (Vx )
Vox  
R1
 Difference Amplifier
• Similarly, when Vx = 0 V, the configuration is a non-inverting amplifier
having a voltage-divider network composed of R2 and R3 at the non-
inverting input. Therefore,

• and the output due to vy then is

• That is,

• Since R1 = R2 and RF = R3,

Difference Amplifier
• Thus, the net output voltage is

Vo  Vox  Voy

Vo  
Rf
V x  Vy   
R f (Vxy )
R1 R1

• or the voltage gain

Vo Vo Rf
AD   
Vxy Vx  V y  R1
Vo Vo Rf
Or AD   
V yx V y  Vx  R1
• Note that the gain of the difference amplifier is the same as that of the inverting
amplifier.
Adder and Substractor
 THE INTEGRATOR
• A circuit in which the
output voltage waveform is
the integral of the input
voltage waveform is
the integrator.
• Such a circuit is obtained
by using a basic inverting
amplifier configuration if
the feedback resistor RF is
replaced by a capacitor CF .
THE INTEGRATOR
• The expression for the output voltage vo can be obtained by
writing Kirchhoff’s current equation at node v2:
i1 = IB + iF
• Since IB is negligibly small,
i1 ≅ iF
• The relationship between current through and voltage across the
capacitor is
dvc
ic  iF  C
dt
Therefore
vin  V2  d (V2  vo ) 
 CF  
R1  dt 
THE INTEGRATOR
• However, v1 = v2 ≅ 0 because A is very large. Therefore,
vin d (vo )
 CF
R1 dt
• The output voltage can be obtained by integrating both sides
with respect to time:
t t
vin d
0 R1  0 CF dt (vo )dt
 C F (vo )dt  vo |t 0
t
1
 vo   
R1C F 0
vin dt  C

• where C is the integration constant and is proportional to the

value of the output voltage vo at time t = 0 seconds.
THE INTEGRATOR
• When vin = 0, the integrator of Fig. works as an open-loop amplifier. This is
because the capacitor CF acts as an open circuit (XCF = ∞) to the input offset
voltage Vio.
• In other words, the input offset voltage Vio and the part of the input current
charging capacitor CF produce the error voltage at the output of the
integrator.
• Therefore, in the practical integrator shown in Fig., to reduce the error
voltage at the output, a resistor RF is connected across the feedback
capacitor CF.
• Thus, RF limits the low-frequency gain and hence minimizes the variations
in the output voltage.
THE INTEGRATOR

• Frequency response of basic and practical integrators.

fa = 1/(2πRFCF) and fb = 1/(2π1CFR1).
THE INTEGRATOR
• In frequency response, fb is the frequency at which the gain is 0
dB and is given by
1
fb  ...............(1)
2R1C F
• Both the stability and the low-frequency roll-off problems can
be corrected by the addition of a resistor RF as shown in
the practical integrator of Fig 2. The term stability refers to a
constant gain as frequency of an input signal is varied over a
certain range.
• The gain-limiting frequency fa is given by

1
fa  ...............(2)
2RF C F
THE INTEGRATOR
• Generally, the value of fa and in turn R1CF and RFCF values
should be selected such that fa < fb. For example, if fa = fb/10,
then RF = 10R1.
• In fact, the input signal will be integrated properly if the time
period T of the signal is larger than or equal to RFCF. That is,

T  RF C F
Where
1
RF C F 
2f a
• The integrator is most commonly used in analog computers and
analog-to-digital (ADC) and signal-wave shaping circuits.
3)Op-Amp as a Integrator
Frequency of response will be obtained by taking the magnitude of gain(G)
The Differentiator
• The output waveform is the derivative of the input waveform.
• The differentiator may be constructed from a basic inverting amplifier if an
input resistor R1 is replaced by a capacitor C1.
• Analysis:
• Applying KCL at node v2 as follows:
iC = IB + iF
Since IB ≅ 0,

But v1 = v2 ≅ 0V, because A is very large. Therefore,

 The Differentiator

dvin
• or v0   RF C1
dt
The Differentiator
• Practical problems:
• The gain of the circuit (RF/XC1) increases with increase in frequency at a rate
of 20 dB/decade. This makes the circuit unstable.
• Also, the input impedance XC1 decreases with increase in frequency, which
makes the circuit- very susceptible to high-frequency noise.
• Both problems can be corrected by the addition of two
components: R1 and CF, as shown in Fig.2
 The Differentiator
• Frequency Response:
• fa is the frequency at which the gain is 0 dB
and is given by
1
fa  ...............(1)
2RF C1

• fc is the unity gain-bandwidth of the op-amp,

and/is some relative operating frequency
• From frequency f to fb, the gain increases at
20 dB/decade.
• However, after fb the gain decreases at 20
dB/decade.
• This 40-dB/decade change in gain is caused
by the R1C1 and RFCF combinations.
• The gain-limiting frequency fb is given by
1
fb  ...............(2)
2R1C1

where R1C1 = RFCF.

The Differentiator

• Generally, the value of fb and in turn R1C1 and RFCF values should be selected such that

f a  fb  fc

• Where

• The input signal will be differentiated properly if the time period T of the input signal is larger
than or equal to RFC1.
• That is, T ≥ RFC1
3)Op-Amp as a Differentiator
Input and Output waveform of Differentiator
 The gain of ideal differentiator if (Rf/XC1). As XC1 decreases with increase in frequency ,
the gain will increase with increase in frequency.
 This increase in gain at high frequencies will make the circuit unstable. Also the input
impedance which is equal to XC1 reduces with increase in frequency. This makes the
circuit very much susceptible to high frequency noise. The amplified noise at the output
can completely override the output signal.
 Design Procedure of Integrator :
Step 1: From the values of gain , calculate R1 and Rf
Step 2: Calculate fa from fb as fa=fb/10.
Step 3: Calculate Cf from the expression of fa.
Step 4: Calculate Rcomp= R1||Rf.
Q: Design a practical integrator circuit to properly process input sinusoidal waveform upto 1KHz. The input
amplitude is 10mV.
Design Procedure

Procedure: Differentiator
1. Select fa equal to the highest frequency of the input signal to
be differentiated.
2. Then, assuming a value of C1 < 1 µF,
3. Calculate the value of RF. using the expression of fa.
4. Select fb = 20fa .
5. Calculate the values of R1 and CF so that R1C1 = RFCF..
EXAMPLE:
(Question)
(A)Design a differentiator to differentiate an input signal that varies in frequency from 10 Hz to about 1 kHz. (Use the
practical differentiator circuit)
(b) Draw the output waveform of the designed differentiator circuit for an input signal with 1Vpeak to peak amplitude
with 1KHz frequency.

(a) To design a differentiator, we

simply follow the steps outlined Let R1 =82 Ω.
previously: 4. Since R1 C1 = RFCF
1. fa = 1 kHz

Let CF = 0.005 µF.

2. Let C1 = 0.1 µF; 5. Finally, Offset Minimization resistor

ROM = RF ≅ 1.5 kΩ.

3. Then
Let RF = 1.5 kΩ.
2. Let fb = 20 kHz
 Cont..

(b) Since VP = 1 V and f = 1000 Hz, the input voltage is

vin = VP sin ωt
= sin (2π) (103)t
Hence from output equation,

The input and differentiated output waveforms are as shown in Fig.

 Instrumentation Amplifier
• Many industrial and consumer applications require the measurement and control of physical conditions,
such as measurements of temperature and humidity, water flow etc.
• For example, measurements of temperature and humidity inside a dairy plant permit the operator to make
necessary adjustments to maintain product quality.
• Basic block diagram of Instrumentation System
 Instrumentation Amplifier
• The transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another.
• An instrumentation system is used to measure the output signal produced by a transducer
and often to control the physical signal producing it.
• The input stage is composed of a preamplifier and transducer, depending on the physical
quantity to be measured.
• The output stage may use devices such as meters, oscilloscopes, charts, or magnetic
recorders.
• Connecting lines between the blocks represent transmission lines, used especially when
the transducer is at a remote test site monitoring hazardous conditions such as high
temperatures or liquid levels of flammable chemicals.
• These transmission lines permit signal transfer from unit to unit.
 Instrumentation Amplifier
• Requirements :
• Easier Gain Adjustment:
• High Input Impedance:
• Low Output Impedance:
• High CMRR:
• High Slew Rate:
• Accurate and stable gain:
• Low time and temperature drift:
• Low power consumption:
Instrumentation Amplifier

• In below Fig , to vary the gain of instrumentation amplifier, we need to control the
resistance pairs (RF and R1, R4 and R5) precisely in order to get a true measure of
the physical quantity.
• In other words, resistance ratios (RF /R1 and R4/R5) must be quite accurate and
stable by using resistors of good quality.
• we can modify this circuit by replacing simple buffers by non-inverting amplifier
stages, so that the gain can be varied easily by varying a single resistance without
disturbing the resistance ratios of the differential amplifier stage.
Instrumentation Amplifier
Note:
The overall voltage gain of an IA can be controlled by adjusting the value of resistor R5.
The common mode signal attenuation for the IA is provided by the difference amplifier.
Advantages of IA
• The gain of a 3 op-amp IA circuit can be easily varied and controlled by adjusting
the value of R1 without changing the circuit structure.
• The gain of the amplifier depends only on the external resistors used. Hence, it is
easy to set the gain accurately by choosing the resistor values carefully.
• The input impedance of the IA is dependent on the non-inverting amplifier circuits
in the input stage. The input impedance of a non-inverting amplifier is very high.
• The output impedance of the IA is the output impedance of the difference
amplifier, which is very low.
• The CMRR of the op-amp 3 is very high and almost all of the common mode
signal will be rejected.
Log and Antilog Amplifiers:

Example : By using Scaling

circuit

• Source: [Link]
Ideality factor for ideal diode is 1 but practically it varies from 1 to 2, Is and Vt are
temperature dependent parameter , so these 2 parameters will change, due to the change
in temperature. Reverse saturation current will get double after every 10 degree rise in
temperature.
Output voltage (Vout) is proportional to natural log of input voltage(Vin).
Output voltage Vout is also depend on Vt, Is, and ideality factor η . Is and Vt are the temperature dependent
parameters with temperature they will change. Ideality factor η used to be in the range of 1-2, because of this η
the dynamic range of the circuit used to get reduced. So that is the disadvantage of diode based log and antilog
amplifier, and that problem can be solved by using transistor based log and antilog amplifier.

Transistor based Logarithmic amplifier : As base of transistor is connected to ground and according to VGC
collector terminal is also at ground potential so only base and emitter junction will be active in this transistor. So
effectively transistor will act as a diode .
Here η is 1 so dynamic range of circuit will increase.
 Active Filters
• A filter is basically a “frequency selective” circuit. It is designed to
pass a specific band of frequencies and blocks or attenuate input
signals of frequencies outside this band.
• The filters are classified as
Filters  Digital and Analog filters
Analog Filters Passive and Active Filters
Passive and Active Filters:
First Order Butterworth Low-Pass Filter:
Expression for the gain of the LP filter:
In above equation substitute 2πRC=1/fh
Design Procedure of first order LPF
Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter:
Design Procedure of Second order LPF:
First Order Butterworth High-Pass Filter:
Expression for the gain of the HP filter:
Design Procedure of First order HPF:
Second Order High Pass Butterworth Filter:
Design procedure of 2nd order HPF
Current to Voltage Converter (I to V converter)
Sensitivity of I to V Converter
Voltage to Current Converter (V to I converter)
 Comparator

• A comparator a signal voltage on one input of an op-amp with a known voltage

called the reference voltage on the other input.
• The output may be (+) or (–) saturation voltage, depending on which input is the
larger.
• Comparators are used in circuits such as
• Digital interfacing.
• Schmitt triggers, discriminators,
• Voltage-level detectors, and
• Oscillators.
Comparator
• Characteristics and Basic comparator

• Types of Comparators:
• Non-inverting Comparator
• Inverting Comparator
Non-Inverting Comparator
Transfer charactertics of non inverting Comparator
Inverting Comparator
Transfer charactertics of inverting
Comparator
Zero Crossing Detector
• Vref isZero
set to crossing detector
zero and sinusoidal input is applied to INV terminal
• When Vin passes through zero, in the negative and positive directions
respectively, output voltage switches between positive and negative
saturation levels as shown in the waveforms
• When positive half of the sinusoidal signal appears at the input. Then the op-amp
comparator compares the reference voltage level with the peak level of the applied signal

• And Vref = 0, hence

• +ve

+Ve half cycle -Ve half cycle

Zero Crossing Detector
Comparison of inverting and non inverting
Comparator
Comparator Applications:
Window Detector
Inverting Schmitt Trigger
• The input voltage υin triggers (changes the state of) the output vo every time it
exceeds certain voltage levels called the upper threshold voltage Vut and lower
threshold voltage Vlt.
Inverting Schmitt Trigger
• The output voltage is +Vsat or –Vsat depends on the input.
• The voltage across resistor R1 is
R1
VR  Vo
R1  R2

• When vo = +Vsat, the voltage across R1 is called the upper threshold voltage, Vut.

Vut 
R1
 Vsat 
R1  R2
• On the other hand, when υo = –V sat, the voltage across R1, is referred to as
the lower threshold voltage, VIt.

Vlt 
R1
 Vsat 
R1  R2
• If Vut and V1t are made larger than the input noise voltages, the positive
feedback will eliminate the false output transitions.
• Also, the positive feedback, because of its regenerative action, will make
υo switch faster between +Vsat and –Vsat.
 Hysteresis
• The comparator with positive feedback is said to exhibit hysteresis, a dead-band
condition.
• That is, when the input of the comparator exceeds Vut, its output switches from
+Vsat to –Vsat and reverts back to its original state, +Vsat, when the input goes
below V1t .
• The hysteresis voltage is, of course, equal to the difference between Vut and V1t.
Therefore, V  V  V
hy ut lt

Vut 
R1
 Vsat   Vsat 
R1  R2

• v0 versus vin plot of the hysteresis voltage

Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger
• The input in this case is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the Op-Amp. The output voltage is
fed back to the non-inverting terminal through the resistor R1.
 Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger

• Let us assume that initially,

Vo=VSAT. Until VIN becomes less
than VLT, the Vo stays at this
saturation level. Once the input
voltage crosses the VLT level, the
output changes state to -VSAT.
• The output remains at this state
until the input rises beyond the
upper threshold voltage.
• Following image shows the
transfer characteristics of non-
inverting Schmitt Trigger circuit.
 Hysteresis Loop

• Following image shows the transfer characteristics of non-inverting Schmitt Trigger circuit.
SCHMIIT TRIGGER (Non Inverting)

[Link]/watch?v=LywpX39aoHQ
SCHMIIT TRIGGER (Non Inverting)
 Precision Rectifier:
It is not possible to use the conventional rectifier circuits to rectify AC voltages below 0.6 volts, because
the minimum voltage required to forward bias a silicon diode is 0.6 V.
Types of Precision Rectifier
The precision rectifiers can be broadly classified into two categories:
1) Precision half wave rectifier (HWR)
Precision half wave rectifiers are further classified into two categories as:
a)Inverting precision HWR
b)Non-inverting precision HWR

2) Precision full wave rectifier (FWR)

a) Inverting Precision Full Wave Rectifier
b) Non-Inverting Precision Full Wave Rectifier
1)Precision Half Wave Rectifier
a) Non-Inverting type Precision HWR
1)Precision Half Wave Rectifier
b) Inverting type Precision HWR
2) Precision Full Wave Rectifier
2) Precision Full Wave Rectifier
a) Inverting Precision Full Wave Rectifier
Advantages of Precision Rectifiers over
Conventional Rectifiers
• The precision rectifiers can rectify AC input signal of very small
amplitudes (of the order of few mV).
• They have high input impedance, hence loading on the input source is
reduced.
• Transfer characteristics is linear
Applications of Precision Rectifiers
• In AC and DC converters
• In clampers
• In clippers
• In instrumentation systems.
 Active Filters
• A filter is basically a “frequency selective” circuit. It is designed to
pass a specific band of frequencies and blocks or attenuate input
signals of frequencies outside this band.
• The filters are classified as
Filters  Digital and Analog filters
Analog Filters Passive and Active Filters
Passive and Active Filters:
First Order Butterworth Low-Pass Filter:
Expression for the gain of the LP filter:
In above equation substitute 2πRC=1/fh
Design Procedure of first order LPF
Second Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter:
Design Procedure of Second order LPF:
First Order Butterworth High-Pass Filter:
Expression for the gain of the HP filter:
Design Procedure of First order HPF:
Second Order High Pass Butterworth Filter:
Design procedure of 2nd order HPF