TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

5.10 THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL  f(x)dx

 THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
Consider
F(x)=x2
The derivative is
F (x) = 2x

The reverse problem: If they give us the result

f(x)=2x
can we find a function F(x), such that F (x) = f(x) ?

Of course, one answer is F(x)=x2. We say that F(x)=x2 is an

antiderivative of f(x)=2x. But it is not the only one!
Notice that
(x2)΄ = 2x
(x2+1)΄ = 2x
(x2+2)΄ =2x
(x2+5)΄ =2x
in general
(x2+c)΄ = 2x for any constant c

Therefore, the functions x2+c are also antiderivatives of f(x)=2x.

We say that x2+c is the indefinite integral of f(x)=2x and we use the
notation

 2xdx = x2+c
Hence,

if F ΄(x) = f(x) then  f(x)dx = F(x)+ c

For example,
4
since (x5)΄=5x4 we obtain  5x dx = x5 + c
4 x5
We also deduce that  x dx = 5
+ c (why?)

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

Therefore, we can easily deduce the following results

f(x)  f(x)dx
1 x +c
x2
x +c
2
x3
x2 +c
3
x4
x3 +c
4
x 11
x10 +c
11

In general,

n x n 1
 x dx = n 1
+ c (if n  -1)

Notice also,

 5dx = 5x + c, since (5x)΄=5

 adx = ax + c, since (ax)΄=a (a=constant)

NOTICE: The operation of finding the integral is called integration.

 NEGATIVE OR RATIONAL VALUES OF n

The same formula applies for negative values of n. For example,

-5 x-4 1
 x dx = - 4 +c =  4x 4 +c
1 1
What about x 2
dx ? We know that
x2
=x-2, so

1 -2 x-1 1
 x2 dx =  x dx =
-1
+c =  +c
x

Also, the same formula applies for rational values of n:

3/5 x 8/5 5 8/5
 x dx = 8/5
+c =
8
x + c

What about  x dx ? We know that x =x1/2, so

x 3/2 2 3/2
 x dx =  x 1/2 dx = +c = x + c
3/2 3

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

f(x)  f(x)dx
1 x-1 1
2
 x-2 +c c
x -1 x
1 x-2 1
3
 x-3 +c  c
x -2 2x 2
1 x-3 1
4
 x-4 c  3 c
x -3 3x
2 3 53 33 5
3 2
x x 3 x c x c
5 5

1
 x dx =  x
-1
NOTICE: This formula does not apply for dx .

1
Only for this particular case we have the formula  x dx =lnx+c
But this case is not in the syllabus of Math AI SL.

 TWO BASIC RULES OF INTEGRATION

Rule 1:  [f(x)  g(x)]dx =  f(x)dx   g(x)dx

For example,
x5 x3
 (x  x )dx   x dx   x dx 
4 2 4 2
 c
5 3

Rule 2:
 af(x)dx = a  f(x)dx

For example,
x5
 10x dx  10  x dx  10
4 4
 c  2x 5  c
5

In practice, if we have a “long” expression like

 [af(x)  bg(x)  ch(x)  dk(x)]dx

where a, b, c, d are constant coefficients, we keep a, b, c, d and
integrate only f(x), g(x), h(x), k(x).

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1
x5 x4 x3 x2
 [2x  8x  5x  7x  2]dx = 2
4 3 2
+8 -5 +7 +2x + c
5 4 3 2
2 5 5 7
= x +2 x 4 - x3+ x2 +2x + c
5 3 2

EXAMPLE 2
2 8 5
 [ x 4  x 3  x 2  2]dx   [2x  8x  5x  2]dx
-4 -3 -2

x-3 x-2 x-1

= 2 +8 -5 +2x + c
-3 -2 -1
2 4 5
=  3
 2+ + 2x + c
3x x x

 FIND the constant c

Sometimes, we are given an extra condition of the form f(a)=b in

order to find the value of the constant c. We find in fact, the
specific antiderivative which satisfies this condition.

EXAMPLE 3
Let f ΄(x)=6x2- 4x+5. Find f(x), given that f(1)=8.

Clearly, f(x) is the integral of f ΄(x)=6x2- 4x+5. That is,

x3 x2
 [6x  4x  5]dx = 6
2
f(x)= - 4 +5x+c = 2x3-2x2+5x+c
3 2
Next, we have to find the value of c:

f(1)=8, so 2(1)3-2(1)2+5(1)+c=8
so 5+c=8
so c=3
Therefore,
f(x) = 2x3-2x2+5x+3

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

b
5.11 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL  f(x)dx
a

The definite integral is denoted by

b
 f(x)dx
a

where a and b are real numbers within the domain of f.

The calculation is easy:

If  f(x)dx = F(x) + c ,
 f(x)dx = F(x)
b b
then a
which means F(b)-F(a)
a

For example,
Indefinite:  2xdx  x2 + c
3 3
Definite: 
1
2xdx =  x 2  = (32)-(12) = 8
1

Indefinite:  (2x  3)dx = x2 + 3x + c

Definite: 
0
4
 
4
(2x  3)dx = x 2  3x 0 = (28)-(0) = 28

Notice: the constant c is omitted in the definite integral! (why?)

EXAMPLE 1
1 1
 (8x 3 + 12x 2 - 6x + 3)dx =  2x 4 + 4x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x 
-1 -1

= (2 + 4- 3 + 3)- (2- 4- 3- 3)
=8- (-8) = 16

EXAMPLE 2
3 3
3 8 3
-3  x-2   4 4 4 5
2 x 3
dx = 2
8x dx = 8  = - 2  = (- )- (-1) =- + 1 =
 -2  2  x  2 9 9 9

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

 GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION

Consider the graph of the straight line f(x)=2x

12
The area under the line between 0 and 1 (blue triangle) is 1.
2
1 1
but also 0
2xdx =  x 2  = (1)-(0) = 1.
0

36
The area under the line between 0 and 3 (big triangle) is 9.
2
3 3
but also 0
2xdx =  x 2  = (9)-(0) = 9.
0

The area under the line between 1 and 3 (red region) is 9-1=8.
3 3
but also 1
2xdx =  x 2  = (9)-(1) = 8.
1

This is not an accident!

In general, if y=f(x) is a “continuous” curve above the x-axis, then

the area between the curve and the x-axis, from x=a to x=b is
equal to the definite integral

b
 f(x)dx
a

We are going to discuss the areas in more detail in the following

paragraph. Now, let us concentrate on the algebraic part of the
definite integral.

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

 USE OF GDC
We can use the GDC to find the definite integral.
For Casio CFX we select
 MENU
 Run-Matrix
 MATH [F4]
 [F6] and then [F1]

We can also see the result graphically

 MENU
 Graph (insert the function)
 G-Solv [F5]
 [F6] and then [F3]
 At the moment select  dx [F1]
 Select lower and upper limit values (just enter the values)

 PROPERTIES OF THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

The rules of indefinite integrals are still valid here

b b b
  [f(x)  g(x)]dx =  f(x)dx +  g(x)dx
a a a

b b
  af(x)dx =a  f(x)dx
a a

Moreover,

b c c
  f(x)dx +  f(x)dx =  f(x)dx
a b a
(use areas to explain why!)

[notice that the limits a,b,c are consecutive]

a b
  f(x)dx =   f(x)dx
b a
(accepted by definition)

 f ΄(x)dx = f(x)
b b
 a
(derivative and integral
a

are inverse to each other)

b b b
  f(x)dx
a
=  f(y)dy
a
=  f(t)dt
a
=…

[in other words, the variable x is irrelevant!!]

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 3
5
Suppose that  f(x)dx  10 . It is also given that f(0)=15, f(5)=3
0

Then we can also find the following integrals:

5
 
0
2f(x)dx = 20

0
  f(x)dx
5
= -10

0 1
 
5 2
f(x)dx = -5

 
0
5
(f(x)  4x)dx =
5
 f(x)dx + 
0
5

0

4xdx = 10 + 2x 2 
5
0 = 10+50 = 60

5 5 5
2f(x)dx +  1dx = 20 + x 0 = 20+5 = 25
5
 
0
(2f(x)  1)dx = 
0 0

2 5 5
 
0
f(x)dx  
2
f(x)dx =  f(x)dx  10
0

= f(x)0 = f(5)-f(0) = 15- 3 = 12

5 5
  f ΄(x)dx
0

5 5
  f(t)dt
0
=  f(x)dx
0
= 10

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

5.12 AREA BETWEEN CURVES

b
In fact, the definite integral  f(x)dx is either positive or negative:
a

If y=f(x) is above the x-axis the result is positive.

If y=f(x) is below the x-axis the result is negative

b b
 f(x)dx
a
= (red area)  f(x)dx
a
= - (red area)

Indeed, if you look at the curve y=-2x from x=1 to x=3 then

3 3
 -2xdx = -x 2  = -9+1 = -8
1 1

But of course, we say that the area between the curve and x-axis
from x=1 to x=3 is equal to 8.

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

Sometimes we need some extra work to find the limits of the

integral.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the area of the region between the curve y=9-x2 and x-axis

Firstly, we need the roots of the function:

9-x2 =0  x=-3, x=3.

Hence,
3
Area =  (9- x 2 )dx
-3
3
 x3 
= 9x- 
 3 -3
= (27-9)- (-27 +9) = 18+ 18 = 36

Notice that the curve is symmetric about the y-axis so we can find
the area between x=0 and x=3 and multiply by 2.
3
3
2  x3 
Area = 2  (9- x )dx = 2 9x-  =2(27-9) = 36
0
 3 0

NOTICE for the GDC - graph mode

After G-solv and integral, select the option MIXED - [F4].
Then you may
either enter the limits on yourself
or use the arrows to enter the roots directly

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

Suppose that f(x) has both positive and negative values, say

y=f(x)

A
C

a b B c d

where A,B,C are the areas of the regions shown above.

Then
d
a
f(x)dx = A-B+C

Hence,
d
the integral 
a
f(x)dx does not give

the total area between the curve and the x-axis.

This is given by the formula

d
AREA =  a
| f(x) | dx

In our example the area is A+B+C. In practice, we have to split this

formula into three integrals

b c d
 f(x)dx =A
a  f(x)dx =-B
b 
c
f(x)dx =C

and then
AREA = A+B+C

NOTICE The GDC - graph mode gives the AREA as well.

After G-solv and integral, select the option MIXED - [F4].

You obtain both,

d
the value of 
a
f(x)dx
d
and the AREA a
| f(x) | dx

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 2
Consider the function
f(x) = x 3 - 6x 2 +8x

Find
2 4 4
(a) 
0
f(x)dx (b) 
2
f(x)dx (c) 
0
f(x)dx

(d) the total area between the curve and the x-axis within [0,4]

Solution
2
2  x4 
(a)  0
f(x)dx =  - 2x 3 + 4x 2  = 4–0 = 4
4 0
4
4  x4 
(b)  2
f(x)dx =  - 2x 3 + 4x 2  = 0–4 = -4
4 2
4
4  x4 
(c) 0
f(x)dx =  - 2x 3 + 4x 2  = 0–0 = 0
4 0
[it is in fact the sum of the first two integrals above]

(d) The total area is given by

4
A= 0
x 3 - 6x 2 +8x dx

In practice, we find (a) and (b) and add the absolute values
A = 4 + 4 = 8

Notice: your GDC in graph mode finds both

(c) the definite integral = 0 and
(d) the total area = 4

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

 AREA BETWEEN TWO CURVES

Consider the graphs of two functions y=f(x) and y=g(x), such that
f(x)  g(x) for any x

y=f(x)

y=g(x)

a b

The area between the two curves from x=a to x=b is given by
b
 [f(x)- g(x)]dx
a

b
Indeed,  f(x)dx gives the area between y=f(x) and x-axis
a
b
while  g(x)dx gives the area between y=g(x) and x-axis
a

hence their difference gives the shaded area requested!

EXAMPLE 3
Find the shaded area below:

6 1 6 1
Area =  [( x  4) - x]dx =  (4 - x)dx
2 2 2 2
6
 x2 
= 4x   = (24-9)-(8-1) = 15-7 = 8
 4 2

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

In general, the area between two curves is given by

b
 | f(x)- g(x) | dx
a

Consider the following situation

 METHODOLOGY
 Find the intersection points by solving the equation f(x)=g(x)
(in our example: x=a, x=b, x=c)
 Split the integral appropriately: for each interval, determine
which curve is “above” and which curve is “below”
b c
(in the example: 
a
[f(x)- g(x)]dx +  [g(x)- f(x)]dx
b
)

EXAMPLE 4
Find the area enclosed by the graphs f(x)=x2 and g(x)=x+2

 Intersection points:
f(x)=g(x)  x2=x+2
 x2-x-2=0

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

 The shaded area is

2
2
2
2  x2 2 x3 
-1 [(x  2)- x ]dx  -1 (x  2- x )dx = 
2
 2x  
3 -1
8 1 1 10 7 9
= (2+4- )- ( -2+ ) = + =
3 2 3 3 6 2

Mind carefully the region required.

EXAMPLE 5
Consider the curve
y x

We define two regions

A: among the curve y  x , x-axis and the line x=9.

B: among the curve y  x , y-axis and the line y=3.

The corresponding areas are given by

9 9 9
1/2 2  2
A   x dx   x dx   x 3/2   93/2  0  18
0 0 3 0 3

9 9 9

 
B   3  x dx   3- x  1/2
  2   2 
dx  3x  x 3/2    27  93/2   0  9
3 3
0 0  0  
or
B  ( Area of rectangle)  A  27 - 18  9

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5.13 TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

Consider the function f(x) below and the area under the curve from
x=a to x=b.

We will present an approximative way to estimate the area:

Let us divide the shaded region into four pieces of equal width

b- a
h=
4
using the points x0 =a, x1, x2, x3, x4=b (as shown below)

with y-coordinates y0, y1, y2, y3, y4.

Let the corresponding y-coordinates be y0, y1, y2, y3, y4.

We calculate the areas of the four trapeziums shown above

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

1 1
A1 = (y0 + y1 )h , A2 = (y1 + y2 )h ,
2 2
1 1
A3 = (y2 + y3 )h , A4 = (y3 + y4 )h
2 2
Their sum is
1
A= h(y0 + y1 + y1 + y2 + y2 + y3 + y3 + y4 )
2
1
A = h  (y0 + y4 ) + 2(y1 + y2 + y3 )
2
This seems to be a good approximation of the shaded area. The
more pieces we use the better approximation.
In general, if we divide the area into n pieces the formula takes the
form of the so-called trapezoidal rule:
b 1
A =  ydx  h (y0 + yn ) + 2(y1 + y2 + ⋯ + yn-1 )
a 2
where
b- a
h=
n

EXAMPLE 1
Consider the area under the curve of the function
f(x) = x 3 - 6x 2 +8x + 1
from x=0 to x=2.
2
The exact area is  0
f(x)dx = 6 (check!)

The trapezoidal rule for n=4 gives

b- a 2- 0
h= = = 0.5
n 4

x0 x1 x2 x3 x4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
y0 y1 y2 y3 y4
1 3.625 4 2.875 1

b 1
A =  ydx   0.5  (1 + 1) + 2(3.625 + 4 + 2.785) = 5.75
a 2
which is reasonably close to 6.

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TOPIC 5: CALCULUS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE
How can we improve the approximation?
By considering smaller pieces. If we divide the interval [0,2] into 6
equal parts then
b- a 2- 0 1
h= = =
n 6 3

x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
1 2 4 5
0 1 2
3 3 3 3
y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6
1 3.037 3.963 4 3.370 2.296 1

b 1 1
A =  ydx    (1 + 1) + 2(3.037 + 3.963+ 4 + 3.370 + 2.296)
a 2 3
= 5.89

which is much closer to 6.

NOTICE
It is not necessary to know the whole curve to use the trapezoidal
rule. Given a table of coordinates (xn,yn) as above we can still apply
the formula to find an approximation of the required area.

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