Design, Execution and Analysis of a High-Voltage Series

LED Linear Lighting System

Student Name: Vadym Titkov

Subject Area: Electrical Engineering

Project Type: Technical Design & Implications

Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 3
Fundamental Electrical Theory ............................................................................................................... 3
Voltage, Current, Power ..................................................................................................................... 3
Series Circuit Configuration ................................................................................................................ 3
Semiconductor Physics of LEDs ......................................................................................................... 3-4
P–N Junction Operation ....................................................................................................................... 3
Electroluminescence Mechanism ........................................................................................................ 3
Polarity and Electrical Behavior .......................................................................................................... 4
Flux Evaluation ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Luminous Flux (Lumens) .................................................................................................................... 4
Color Temperature Selection ............................................................................................................... 4
Efficiency Comparison ............................................................................................................................ 4
Electrical System Design .................................................................................................................... 4-5
Voltage Requirements ......................................................................................................................... 4
Power Calculations .............................................................................................................................. 4
Circuit Diagram ................................................................................................................................... 5
Constant Current Driver Theory ............................................................................................................. 6
Thermal Runaway Prevention ............................................................................................................. 6
Driver Efficiency and Power Loss ....................................................................................................... 6
Thermal Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 6-8
Heat Generation in LEDs..................................................................................................................... 6
Passive Cooling Design ....................................................................................................................... 7
Aluminum as a Heat Sink Material ..................................................................................................... 7
Thermal Interface Material .............................................................................................................. 7-8
Conductor Selection and Electrical Losses ......................................................................................... 6,8
Safety Engineering Considerations ......................................................................................................... 8
High-Voltage DC Risks ....................................................................................................................... 8
Electrical Isolation ............................................................................................................................... 8
Insulation Strategy ............................................................................................................................... 8
Testing, Results, and Verification ..................................................................................................... 9-10
Final Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 10

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Abstract:
This report details the engineering process behind the design and implementation of a 29-Watt linear
lighting system. The project utilizes 29 1W white Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) configured in a high-
voltage series string to provide uniform illumination for an electrical workbench. Operating at
approximately 100V and a constant current 0.3A of the system presents unique challenges in power
regulation and thermal management. This analysis evaluates the electrical behavior of the series circuit, the
thermal conductivity of the 6063-T5 Aluminum housing, and the critical role of constant current drivers in
preventing thermal runaway.
Required Apparatus & Materials:
• 29x 1W White LEDs: High-voltage diodes with a forward voltage of 3.4V each.
• Constant Current (CC) LED Driver: Model 24-36W, AC85-265V input, outputting 72-144V at a
steady 300mA
• Connecting Wire: 22 AWG copper wire
• Aluminum Angle Profile 182 cm
• Thermal Paste
• Heat-Shrink Tubing
• Soldering Iron + Solder
Fundamental Electrical Theory
To understand the behavior of a high-voltage LED string, we must define the governing laws of the system.

The Relationship of Voltage, Current, and Power

In an LED system, electricity is governed by Ohm’s Law and Watt’s Law.

Voltage (V): Represented as electrical potential. In this system, the potential difference across the entire
string is the sum of the forward voltages of each individual diode. The expected final voltage is calculated
as
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (3.4 ∗ 29) = 98.6𝑉
This assumes the maximum voltage required for the system. The maximum voltage of the system does not
exceed the 110AC Power Supply used.

Current (I): Measured in Amperes. In a series circuit, current remains constant throughout the entire path.
Excess current is the primary cause of heat generation in conductors. The following calculation is done
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.3𝐴
This is the most critical advantage of the series layout. Because LED brightness is directly proportional to
current, every LED in the profile emits the exact same luminous flux (lumens). In a parallel configuration,
slight variations in internal resistance would cause imbalance, where one LED runs brighter (and hotter)
than the others, leading to premature failure.
Power (P): Calculated as 𝑃 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼For this project it goes as
𝑃 = 98.6 ∗ 0.3 = 29.58𝑊
It is safe to assume one diode uses 1 W of power 3.4V and 0.3A. Despite the required amount of power is
30W for the LED diodes, the power consumption of LED Driver must be acknowledged. It is assumed the
system take 34W of Power.
The LED Mechanism
P-N mechanism of LED
An LED is a semiconductor device. Under forward bias, electrons from the n-type region and holes from
the p-type region migrate toward the active layer (the depletion zone). When these charge carriers
recombine, they release energy. Energy is released as a photon. The wavelength (color) is determined by
the bandgap energy of the semiconductor material.

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What happens if a single LED fails?
Because they are in series, a single LED failing as an "open circuit" (the most common failure mode) will
act like a flipped switch, and the entire 2-meter lamp will turn off. While this seems like a disadvantage, it
is actually a safety feature that prevents the LED driver from trying to push 300mA through a smaller,
damaged group of LEDs.
Polar Geometry
An LED is a unidirectional semiconductor. Unlike a resistor, which
allows current to flow in any direction, an LED only permits electron
flow when biased correctly. This polarity is defined by two distinct
terminals: the Anode and the Cathode.
The Anode (+): The positive terminal. In the atomic structure of the
P-N junction, the anode is connected to the P-type (positive) layer,
which is designed to have an insufficient abundance of electron holes.
The Cathode (-): The negative terminal. This is connected to the N-
type (negative) layer, which contains an abundance of extra electrons.
In a series circuit, the tail of one component must connect to the head
of the next. For this 29-LED string, the Cathode of LED #1 must be
soldered to the Anode of LED #2, and so on. If a single LED is
soldered backwards (Anode-to-Anode), it acts as an open switch.
Because the diode blocks current in reverse, the entire system will fail
to ignite, as the backward LED prevents the 300mA current from
completing the loop.
Identification of Lumen
A lumen (lm) is the standard unit of measure for luminous flux, which
quantifies the total amount of visible light emitted by a source, in all directions. It is the modern,
standardized way to measure brightness, replacing the outdated method of using watts, which only measures
energy consumption.
Color Temperature
Project uses LEDs in the 4000K to 5000K range, which is classified as Neutral White. This range was
intentionally selected for a workbench environment because cooler, brighter light enhances alertness and
concentration, minimizes eye stress, and provides high contrast. This is essential for detailed work like
identifying small electronic components or reading fine print on circuit boards.

What is the benefit of the 4000K-5000K color range for a workbench?

This range mimics natural daylight. It suppresses melatonin production (keeping the user alert) and
provides a high Color Rendering Index (CRI), which makes it easier to distinguish between wire colors
(e.g., telling a dark blue wire from a black wire) compared to "Warm White" (2700K) bulbs.

Efficiency
Each 1W LED produces about 100 lm. Where 29 equals to 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 29 ∗ 100 = 2900 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠
Compared to an incandescent bulb (which produces ~15 lm/W), this system operates at ~103 lm/W, making
it roughly 6.8 times more efficient.
Electrical Configuration
In a series configuration, the components are connected end-to-end (Cathode to Anode) such that there is
only a single path for the current to flow.
The current entering any node must equal the current leaving it. In our 29-LED string 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.3𝐴.
Maximum voltage equals to 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 98.6𝑉 and Power equals to 𝑃 = 33𝑊. The following diagram is
created using KiCad editor:

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Power Regulator
The LED driver, model 24-36W is
responsible for converting high-voltage
Alternating Current (AC) from the mains into
the specific Direct Current (DC) required for
the 29-LED series string. For this project, the
LED Driver is capable for outputting 72-
144V 300mA Constant Current (CC)
LEDs are non-linear devices. As they heat up,
their internal resistance drops. If you
provided a constant 93V, the heating LEDs
would begin to draw more and more current
(e.g., 350mA, then 500mA), leading to
a Thermal Runaway event where the LEDs
burn out instantly. This issue is evaluated
further in the project. LED driver would
prevent this from happening.
By locking the current at 300mA, the driver automatically lowers the voltage as the LEDs get hot to
compensate for their dropping resistance. This makes the driver - primary safety device in the circuit.
Additionally, the driver has an estimated 90% efficiency. This means that out of the total power pulled from
the wall, only 10% (~3W) is lost as heat inside the driver housing itself.
Thermal Analysis
As mentioned earlier, the LED is much more efficient compared to lightbulb, LED systems often point to the
fact that 70–80% of energy is lost as heat (𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 21𝑊). Without passive or active cooling of high-voltage
diodes, overtime their temperature will increase. LED diodes are sensitive to heat and begin to degrade at
about 100-125°C.
Although the LED Driver attempts to regulate this, the internal heat causes the semiconductors to shrink. This
shifts the light output toward the red spectrum (color shifting) and eventually leads to the physical melting
and destruction of LED. Resulting in need to replacing the LED.
Passive Cooling
To manage 21W of thermal load, a 182 cm Aluminum Angle Profile was selected. Thermal adhesive is used
between the LED and the aluminum. Air has a conductivity of 0.024W/m*K. Aluminum frame will reduce
the thermal resistance by a large factor.
Justification to use aluminum angle profile is due to its high thermal conductivity (k), which measures a
material's ability to conduct heat. The assumed temperature conductivity of aluminum is 150 to 220W/m*K.
As LEDs are attached to aluminum, ensures that the temperature gradient between the LED junction and the
heat sink (aluminum) remains minimal, preventing the "heat bottling" effect that causes rapid semiconductor
degradation.
Conductor Selection: Analysis of 22 AWG Wiring
The system requires 0.3A. The expected loss of power is only about 0.005 Watts per meters heat, meaning the
wire will not noticeably warm up. In addition, 22 AWG maximum current rating in a closed power transfer of
0.92A. As we consume 0.3A, the cable will be safe to use as it will have low resistance, and no risk of
overheating. It is assumed the resistance of a wire is negligible.
Is 22 AWG wire sufficient for this system?
Yes. 22 AWG copper wire is generally rated for up to 5–7 Amperes in chassis wiring. Since your system only
pulls 0.3A (300mA), the wire is operating at less than 10% of its capacity. This means the "voltage drop"
across the wire itself will be negligible, and the wire will not generate any noticeable heat.

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Justification using Aluminum over
other conductors
Aluminum provides better
conductivity than steel while being
much lighter. While copper is a
superior conductor, the 2-meter
length of the lamp provides
sufficient surface area for aluminum
to achieve thermal equilibrium at a
much lower cost and weight. The
following graph shows the efficiency
of aluminum and copper. Despite
copper is superior, the aluminum
was picked due to cost reduction.
Thermal paste fixation
A common misconception in basic
assembly is that bolting or riveting a
metal LED base to a metal heat sink provides sufficient cooling. Thermal conductivity of air is 0.024 W/m*K.
In a dry mount over 90% of the interface area is actually filled with air. This creates "Hot Spots" where the
LED junction temperature can exceed while the aluminum heat sink remains cool to the touch. This
temperature disconnection is a leading cause of premature LED burnout.
The use of thermal paste in this 29-LED system is the optimal balance of thermal performance and long-term
maintainability. Since thermal conduct of thermal paste is 1.5 to 8.0 W/m*K. By displacing the insulating air
and creating a high-conductivity bridge, the paste ensures that the temperature difference between the LED
and the aluminum profile is minimum. This is the single most important factor in achieving the maximum
lifespan of LED diode.
What would happen if the Thermal Interface Material (TIM) was omitted?
Without thermal paste, over 90% of the interface area between the LED and the aluminum would be filled
with air, which is a thermal insulator (0.024 W/m*K). This would create uneven hot spots where the LED
junction temperature could exceed the 100-120 °C degradation threshold even if the aluminum profile feels
cool to the touch. This temperature disconnection is a leading cause of premature LED burnout.
Why choose a series configuration over a parallel one?
In a series circuit, the current remains identical across every LED. Since LED brightness is determined by
current (I), this ensures perfectly uniform light output across the 182cm profile. In parallel, if one LED has
slightly lower internal resistance, it would limit the current (Current Hogging), run hotter, and eventually fail,
potentially causing a domino effect across the rest of the string
Theoretical temperature vs time model
Approximation using a first-order exponential heating model, which is characteristic of passive thermal
systems has been taken under consideration. When electrical power is supplied, approximately 21 W of energy
is converted into heat and must be dissipated through the aluminum profile into the surrounding air. The
steady-state temperature can be estimated using the relationship ∆𝑇 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅
Where P – thermal power (W), R – thermal resistance (Ω)
Assuming a thermal resistance of approximately 1.3 °C/W for a long aluminum profile in still air, the expected
maximum temperature is modeled as 21 ∗ 1.3 = 27.3°𝐶
In case the lamp operates on maximum power, during summer the assumption is the room temperature equals
to 30°C. As time progresses the predicted steady-state temperature of the lamp is therefore approximately 57.3
°C. The diodes begin to degrade at a temperature of 100-120°C which is roughly a half of theoretical expected
value. This ensures the real-world temperature still falls under maximum temperature. Additionally, low
temperature will maintain high life-expectancy of diode.

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The maximum theoretical heating
rate of the system is approximately Theoretical Temperature of Aluminum
0.93°C per minute. This rate under load over Time
decreases exponentially as the 55
temperature approaches thermal

Temperature (°C)
equilibrium. Meaning the start is 50
fast, slower later and zero change at
45
equilibrium. The following equation
is used to model the behavior of 40
temperature over time period. This
equation is only theoretical 35
assumption
30
𝑇 = 30 + 27.3(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/29.25 ) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Safety precautions Time (min)

The integration of a high-voltage
series LED string necessitates a multi-layered safety strategy. Because DC voltage above 60V is classified as
hazardous to the human body (capable of overcoming skin resistance to cause cardiac arrest), the following
engineering controls were implemented.
The selected LED driver acts as an isolator. It uses a high-frequency transformer to physically separate the AC
side from the DC side. This ensures that a fault in the power grid cannot send high-voltage surges directly into
the aluminum frame.
Cambric insulation. Every one of the 58 solder joints (2 per LED) is encapsulated in heat-shrink tubing.
The lighting system constructed in this project is designed strictly for indoor use and does not possess any
certified water-resistance rating. Although all solder joints are insulated using heat-shrink tubing and the
electrical system is mechanically secured to a 182cm aluminum profile, the structure remains open and
unsealed. The LED modules, wiring, and driver enclosure are not protected against moisture ingress.
The 22 AWG wire was chosen to ensure no cable burnout. The current supplied is half of its maximum current,
ensuring the lamp may shine for long period of time with no risk of overheating of cable.
The aluminum frame with addition of thermal paste will ensure the heat dissipation from LED will not cause
overheating of the system. Rapid heat transfer of aluminum and equally spaced LEDs (5.2cm) distance will
be accounted for moderation of risk assessments.
The system operates at approximately 90–100 V DC, exposure to water or high humidity could significantly
reduce surface resistance, potentially causing short circuits, corrosion, or electrical shock hazards. Based on
its construction, the assembly can be approximated to an IP20 protection level, meaning it is protected against
accidental solid contact but provides no protection against water. For these reasons, the lamp is suitable only
for dry, controlled indoor environments such as a workshop or workbench area. Outdoor use would require
full environmental sealing, waterproof connectors, and an IP65-rated driver, none of which are implemented
in the current design.
Is 21W of heat enough to make the aluminum profile dangerous to touch?
Unlikely. The dissipating ~21W over a very large surface area (182 cm). Because the 6063-T5 Aluminum has
high thermal conductivity, the heat spreads rapidly. Given the length, the "watts per square inch" is low enough
that the profile will likely remain "warm" (approx. 40-50°C) rather than "hot," making it safe for indoor
environments.
How dangerous is the ~100V DC output compared to 110V AC?
DC voltage at 100V is significant. While AC is dangerous because it can cause heart arrhythmias, DC at this
voltage can cause sustained muscle contraction (making it hard to "let go") and potential skin burns. This is
why Electrical Isolation between the LED solder pads and the aluminum profile is your most critical safety
priority.

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Testing, Results and Verification
To validate the theoretical framework
established in the preceding chapters,
a series of controlled laboratory tests
were conducted on the 29-LED
system. The electrical configuration
has been created and mounted onto
aluminum frame and connected to AC
Power Supply. With all of ethical and
safety concerns, the project shows
empirical proof of system’s electrical
stability, thermal transfer, and
luminous efficiency.
Firstly, the lamp was mounted to the
ceiling using 3 handmade metal
hooks which are evenly spaced out
throughout the lamp and clamped
using bolts, washer and nuts. The
clamps at the ends are placed at 10cm
distance and last one is placed at the middle of the frame. In case of any modification, easy disassembly of
mounts can be taken off. The lamp stands above workbench.
Constant Current (CC) driver was subjected to a test to evaluate its regulation precision and thermal stability.
The LED Driver has demonstrated
precise work with sufficient output of
0.3A. The LEDs had light up.
Over continuous work of the lamp, no
major temperature increase has been
noticed. The temperature between the
LED star base and the aluminum
profile was identical to touch.
Meaning no perceptible difference has
been determined.
While specialized equipment was
unavailable for exact lumen counting,
the system was evaluated against task-
lighting standards for an electrical
workbench. The lamp serves well in
addition to the working environment,
ensuring proper lighting for
concentrated work.

Frequently Asked Questions:

Can a different shape or material be used for the heat sink?
Technically, yes, but any alternative must match or exceed the thermal dissipation of the current design.
Aluminum was selected because it provides better conductivity than steel while being lighter and more cost-
effective than copper. A different shape (such as a flat bar or a tube) could be used as long as it provides enough
surface area to prevent "heat bottling" and maintains a minimal temperature gradient between the LED
junction and the heat sink.

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Why use a "Constant Current" driver instead of a "Constant Voltage" power supply?
LEDs are non-linear semiconductors. As they heat up, their resistance decreases. If you used a fixed 98V
power supply, the LEDs would draw more current as they got hotter, leading to more heat, and even less
resistance. This cycle is called Thermal Runaway. A Constant Current driver prevents this by automatically
lowering the voltage to maintain exactly 300mA.
How much does it cost?
The build consists of affordable materials from Temu, AliExpress and Canadian Tire. Aluminum frame –
16.99$, LED 2.36$, wire 1.87$, LED Driver 5.29$. The build assumes the user has basic electrical instruments.
The expected price before tax is 26.51$
What if the system switched to European standards instead of American?
Since your LED driver is "Universal Voltage" (AC85-265V), it is already compatible with European standards.
Whether it receives 110V AC (North American standard) or 230V AC (European standard), the internal
circuitry automatically regulates the power to provide the same output. The same explanation applies to
frequency.
What is the risk of using this lighting system in a humid environment?
The current assembly is approximated to an IP20 protection level, meaning it is protected against solid contact
but offers no protection against water (p. 10). Because the system operates at a high-voltage of approximately
90-100V DC exposure to moisture could reduce surface resistance, leading to short circuits, corrosion, or
significant electrical shock hazards.
Final Conclusion
The project has successfully demonstrated the intersection of electrical efficiency and thermal management.
By utilizing 0.3A to minimize current-based losses in 22 AWG wiring, and employing an aluminum profile as
a heat sink to manage the 21W thermal load, the project achieved a professional-grade luminous efficiency.
The length of 182cm for the aluminum frame ensures sufficient equal distance between each diode. It is spaced
at 5.2cm in between.
This system provides a high-contrast, safe, and reliable lighting solution for precision engineering tasks. The
project had taught operation and calculation of LED diode in series, heat dissipation of metal, connection to
Ohm’s Law and introduction to LED Diode which provides constant current to the system. The project has
shown how an idea could be implemented for everyday use using simple electrical details. It is hands on
practice of performing electrical engineering projects starting from theoretical investigation to
experimentation execution. The project shows satisfactory results.

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