KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES

PLAN:
THE NOTION OF KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES AND ITS TYPES.
VERBALIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES
The function of language intended to extract, store and transfer information
necessites the study of the ways and mechanisms of presenting knowledge in
language. Knowledge and its representation are key issues of cognitive sciences in
general, and cognitive linguistics in particular. From the point of view of cognitive
linguistics knowledge is regarded as the result of cognition and categorization of
the surrounding world, as an adequate reflection of reality in the human mind, as a
product of processing verbal and non-verbal experience that forms “the image of
the world”, on the basis of which one can make his own judgments and
conclusions (Герасимов, Петров, 1988, c.14).
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It should be mentioned that the notion of knowledge structures was first used
by F. Bartlett, one of the forerunners of cognitive psychology. F. Bartlett claimed
that humans have core knowledge in the form of unconscious mental structures and
that this knowledge interacts with new incoming information and produce schemas
(Bartlett, 1932). Later knowledge structures were reintroduced into modern
cognitive science by M. Minsky (1975), who worked in the field of artificial
intellect. He attempted to develop machines that showed human-like abilities and
proposed that human knowledge is represented in memory in frames. Later, the
notion of knowledge structures was widely used in Cognitive Linguistics.
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Most cognitivists agree that knowledge in the human mind consists of
mental representations constructed of concepts, analogies, images, relations
between elements within a single mental space. It is acknowledged that knowledge
is not an amorphous entity; it is structured to present certain blocks of information,
and that conditioned the use of the term “knowledge structures”. It is worthy of
note that this phenomenon is known under various names “depositaries of
knowledge”, “encyclopaedic knowledge”, “knowledge-base”, “background
knowledge”, “formats of knowledge”, etc. Despite some terminological
discrepancy, on the whole knowledge structures are understood as blocks of
information containing a system of interrelated concepts.
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Many researchers assert that linguistic units represent discrete conceptual
entities, properties, activities and relations, which constitute the knowledge space
of a particular subject field (Sager, 1998:261). The concepts are embedded in
complex knowledge structures, and in the process of conceptualization “linguistic
units serve as prompts for an array of conceptual operations and the recruitment of
background knowledge” (Evans, 2006:160). It happens due to the fact that
meaning, as R. Langacker claims, is a dynamic and mental process that involves
conceptualization (mental experience) (Langacker, 1988:50).
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One of the key issues in Cognitive Linguistics is the problem of knowledge
structures classification. There are many approaches to this problem since scholars
provide different classifications taking into account this or that aspect of
knowledge structures. Some scholars (Lakoff, 1987; Fillmore, 1988; Minsky,
1975; Болдырев, 2006; Кубрякова, 1992, 1994, 2004) study different ways of
configuration of the conceptual system, i.e. revealing knowledge formats or
models: frames, scripts, scenario, categories, etc. Others (Бабушкин, 1996;
Болдырев, 2001; 2004; Карасик, 2002; Степанов, 2004) concentrate their
attention on the linguistic means representing conceptual systems, i.e. concepts
verbalizing national, ethnic, linguistic peculiarities. So, knowledge structures are
based on the idea that people organize information into patterns that reflect the
relationships between concepts and the features constituting them (Johnson-Laird,
1983).
As the survey of the theoretical literature proves the scholars differentiate
various types of knowledge structures presented in opposition:
empirical (derived from investigation, observation, experimentation, or
experience) – rationale/theoretical (based on logical or mathematical
assumptions);
a priori/explicit (the knowledge that does not need experience) –
posteriori/tacit (the knowledge derived from reasoning, experience and
observation (inductive);
propositional/descriptive/declarative – (knowing “what”; knowledge of smth., f.e.
the construct of human body, a phone) – non-propositional/procedural (knowing
“how”, f.e. how to drive, how to use a phone);
linguistic (verbal) – extralinguistic (non-verbal);
collective (knowledge shared by a definite community) – individual (personal
qualitative and quantitative features of collective knowledge);
concrete (facts, statistics, dates) – abstract (feelings, emotions, religious notions);
general (encyclopedic) – special (f.e. professional area);
conceptual (notions, ideas) – factual (f.e. the length of the river, the density of
iron).
It should be mentioned that the scientists use different terms to identify a
certain type of knowledge. For example, postreriori knowledge has much in
common with empirical and tacit knowledge while a priori can stand very close to
declarative and rational knowledge.

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Another classification accepted in modern Cognitive Linguistics
presupposes the division of knowledge structures into the following types:
linguistic (lexicon, grammar, phonetics word-formation, etc.). Linguistic
knowledge is the result of cognition and conceptualization of language system and
structure, its main units and categories, principles and mechanisms of forming and
transforming different senses via language;
encyclopedic (knowledge about the world, history, politics, economies, nature,
etc.). This type of knowledge presupposes general knowledge about geographical
positions, history of the world, main events in politics and economics, etc.;
communicative (knowledge of communicative aims and intentions, conditions and
circumstances of communication, behavior norms and aims of different speech
acts);
cultural (knowledge about literature, art, cultural values, customs and traditions,
religion, mythology and beliefs, etc.). (Герасимов, Петров, 1988).
It should be mentioned that all these types of knowledge are subdivided into
two main groups: linguistic knowledge and non-linguistic or knowledge of the
world presented in the human mind.
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The problem of relationships between knowledge structures and their verbal
explications is the main concern of cognitive linguistics (Болдырев, 2006). In this
respect a crucial task is to define which elements of language are most relevant to
knowledge representations. Knowledge structures can be analyzed via mental
representations or mental models of knowledge and are generally called “idealized
cognitive models” (ICM). ICM can be presented in the human mind in the forms
of frames, schemas, scripts, scenario, gestalts, etc:
frames – a sсhеmatisation of ехpеriеnсе (a knowlеdgе struсturе), whiсh is
rеprеsеntеd at thе сonсеptual lеvеl and hеld in a long-tеrm mеmory and whiсh
rеlatеs еlеmеnts and еntitiеs to a partiсular сulturally еmbеddеd sсеnе, situation or
еvеnt from human еxpеriеnсе. Framеs inсludе diffеrеnt sorts of knowlеdgе
inсluding attributеs, and rеlations bеtwееn attributеs (GCL, 2007, p.86);
schema – a way of organizing knowledge; a cohesive, repeatable action sequence
possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a
core meaning (Piaget); a set of linked mental representations of the world; a unit of
knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions and
abstract (i.e. theoretical) concepts. Cohen (1981), Kelley (1972), Weiner (1981,
1986), Markus (1977) identify the following types of schemata: 1) social schemas
are about general social knowledge; 2) person schemas are about individuals; 3)
idealized person schemas are called prototypes; 4) self-schemas are about oneself;
the humans hold possible or projected selves; 5) role schemas are about proper
behaviors in the given situations; 6) trait schemas about the innate people’s
characteristics; 7) event schemas are about what happens in specific situations; 8)
object schemas are about inanimate things and how they work;
scripts, scenario (a stereotyped dynamic sequence of events, episodes, facts, f.e.
visit to the stadium, football match, examinations);
gestalts (shape, form) – unсonsсious pеrсеptual mесhanisms to сonstruсt the
wholеs or gеstalts out оf inсomplеtе pеrсеptual inputs. It refers to the theories of
visual perception developed by German psychologists that attempt to describe how
people tend to organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes on the basis
of certain principles such as proximity, similarity, symmetry, etc. For example, the
principle of similarity states that elements similar to each other in shape, colour,
shading or other qualities are grouped together and perceived as a whole;
concept – thе fundamеntal structured and organized unit of knowledge structure
сеntral to сatеgorisatiоn and conceptualization, Concepts сan bе еnсodеd in a
languagе-spесifiс format known as lеxiсal сonсеpt. Though concepts are relatively
stable cognitive entities thеy arе modifiеd by ongoing episodiс and rесurrеnt
еxpеriеnсеs (GCL, 2007, p.86);
So, knowledge structures are structured and organized into cognitive
patterns that can be imprinted in the human’s memory. The terms such as schema,
script, frame and mental model are used along with the term knowledge structures
or idealized cognitive models. They are also called “units” of knowledge, or a set
of mental representations of the world.
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4.2. VERBALIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES

Although a lot of linguistic examples have been provided in the works by V.

Evans, M. Green, G. Lakoff and others the taxonomy of linguistic units most
relevant to knowledge representations has not been worked out yet. Our
observations have proved that most conspicuous in this respect is lexicon. For
example, the word Trip contains a wide range of notions, events and associations
based on human experience and background informational elements. It includes the
following frames:
Trip – a journey in which a person goes somewhere usually for a short time;
1) purpose:to have a rest, to go on business, for entertainment, to reach an
agreement, to establish a relationship;
2) arrangement:packing the suitcase, choosing clothes, choosing the form of
transportation, planning the dates;
3) participants:family members, friends, collegues, partners;
4) place:abroad, historical cities, mountains, forest/wood, near the
sea/river/lake;
5) types of transportation: a plane, a ship, a train, a car, a boat, a horse;
6) the emotional atmosphere:excitement, happiness, merriment, homesick;
7) activities:meetings, sightseeing, visits to theatres, cooking, sport games,
fishing, singing, playing musical instruments, etc.;
This example demonstrates how a simple word represents a very complex
conceptual structure.
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Even more important in terms of knowledge structures are derivative and
compound words. A distinctive feature of these units is their complex, composite,
componential structure. Consequently, derivative and compound words compared
to simple words are more informative and semantically richer. Due to their
composite character these units do not only nominate objects but also ascribe them
some properties, characteristics, attitudes. Derivatives and compounds to some
extent are similar to syntactical constructions; they fulfill both the function of
identification of objects and the function of predication designating the features
and properties of these objects. In other words, these units are characterized by
propositional structure. In Cognitive Linguistics propositional structures are
regarded as the main “formats” of knowledge. Hence, derivatives as cognitive
signs present new knowledge on the basis of old knowledge provided by a word-
formation model. In the process of word-formation syntactical constructions are
compressed into a simple word, a derivative or a compound word. It does not
mean, however, that from the semantic and cognitive point of view these units are
less informative. On the contrary they acquire additional conceptual senses. Here is
an example:
I couldn’t be a householder, a bread-winner, a home-at-sixer, a husband, a
shopper-on-Saturdays, a guardian to four kids (Gillespie E., The Best American
Short Stories, New York, 1974, p.18).
This utterance is characterized by a high degree of informativity both of
notional and emotional character. This is mainly achieved by a chain of compound
words, characterized by the semantic compression and saturation of information. In
the process of word-formation the compound words acquire additional senses
which become apparent if we compare the compounds to the syntactical structures
they are based on:
a house-holder – one who holds a house;
a bread-winner – one who has to win his bread;
a home-at-sixer – one who comes home at six;
a shopper-on-Saturdays – one who does shopping on Saturdays.
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The comparison reveals the differences between the compounds and the
corresponding syntactical structures both in the amount and the character of the
information they contain. The compounds are characterized by more abstract and
generalized meanings whilst the syntactical structures are more concrete and exact.
Besides, in the process of word-formation new senses, in this case of emotive-
evaluative character, are generated.
It can be easily proved by comparison of the words man and its derivative
manly. The main meaning of the word man is “an adult male human being
(CCELD); the word manly assumes much more meanings and connotations
associated with men’s behavior, character and appearance. This can be illustrated
by the following example:
By manly I mean all that is eager, hearty, fearless, modest, pure (OED).
The suffix -ly added to the root morpheme man changes the conceptual
structure of the derivative ascribing to it a lot of new conceptual senses.
So, it follows that from the cognitive point of view derivatives and compounds
are a) more informative compared to simple words; b) generate new conceptual
senses in the process of word-formation; c) present new information on the basis of
the old one provided by a word-formation model; d) serve as signals of conceptual
information, as a means of the conceptual world picture representation.
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The next group of linguistic units most relevant to knowledge representations
includes phraseological units. It has long been acknowledged that phraseology of
any language reflects people’s culture, history, national mentality and life style
(Маслова, 2007). Therefore phraseological units by their very nature are intended
to convey knowledge structures related to all spheres of life. From this position
phraseological units can be subdivided into specific groups representing religious,
mythological, literary, historical knowledge structures.
Religious knowledge structures:a forbidden fruit, the brand of Cain, the
golden calf, serve God and Mammon, Sodom and Gomorrah, Jude’s kiss,old as
Methuselah, the apple of Sodom, the Last Supper, Solomon’s wisdom, a good
Samaritan.
Each of these phraseological units activates religious knowledge structures and
a set of associations related to the biblical stories. For example, the phraseological
unit a forbidden fruit activates in the mind of the reader the story of Adam and Eve
who ate the fruit of the tree in the Garden of Eden and that was strictly prohibited
by God. As a result, they were punished and forced to leave the Garden of Eden.
Currently, this phraseological unit is used in the meaning of “a pleasure or
enjoyment that is disapproved of or not allowed”. Another phraseological unit the
massacre of innocents refers to the biblical story describing the killing of Jewish
male children at the age of two or less ordered by wicked king Herod, who wanted
to make sure that Jesus wouldn’t become king as it had been predicted by the
priests. Now, this phraseological unit means “the cruel killing of a large number of
innocent people, especially those who cannot defend themselves”.
Mythological knowledge structures:Pandora’s box, Achilles’ heel, a Trojan
horse, Cassandra’s warning, the riddle of the Sphinx, in the arms of Morpheus,
rise like Phoenix from the ashes, between Scylla and Charybdis, Promethean fire,
Penelope’s web, the thread of Ariadne.
All these phraseological units represent certain myths – legends about gods and
heroes, stories and fables about superhuman beings taken by the preliterate society
for a true account. From the cognitive view these units are regarded as cognitive
models awaking in the mind of the reader a certain myth. For instance, the
phraseological unit Pandora’s box refers to the story about the first woman on the
Earth who because of her curiosity opened a box where all miseries, evils and
diseases were kept. As a result all of them flew out to afflict the mankind. The
phraseological unit Achilles’ heel – from the mythological legend about Greek
hero Achilles, who according to the legend was a son of a goddess. She wanted to
protect her son dropping him into the sacred waters of the heaven river. As a result,
his body became invulnerable except his heel by which she held him. During the
battle Achilles was killed by an arrow pointed at his heel, the only vulnerable place
in his body. The modern meaning of this phraseological unit is “a seemingly small
but actually crucial weakness; a place of vulnerability, especially in a person’s
character”.
Literary knowledge structures:the last of the Mohicans, Billy bunter, Jekyll
and Hide, Peter pan, John bull, a dark horse, a gentleman’s gentleman, cakes and
ale, curled darlings, a dog in the manger, mad as march hare, grin like a Cheshire
cat, a tangled web, A Paul Pry, John Barleycorn.
Interpretation of these phraseological units requires good knowledge of
fictional literature. For example, phraseological unit the last of the Mohicans
means the last representative of the society, nation,group and originates from J.F.
Cooper’s famous book under the same title. Another phraseological unit Billy
Bunter – is the main character of children’s stories by Frank Richards about a
British public school. Bunter is a fat, stupid boy who loves eating and always gets
into trouble.
Historical knowledge structures:cut the Gordian knot, Benefit of Clergy, read
the Riot Act, cross the Rubicon, the wars of the Roses, a Dutch bargain, Hobson’s
choice, the jolly Roger, black flag, Jack the Ripper.
The above mentioned phraseological units activate in the human mind
knowledge structures of historical origin. For example, the wars of the Roses – a
name given to a series of civil wars in England during the reign of Henry VI,
Edward IV and Richard III that had been lasting for 100 years. These wars were
marked by a ferocity and brutality practically unknown in the history of England.
Phraseological units cross/pass the Rubicon and die is cast are associated with the
name of Julius Caesar when he crossed the river Rubicon and began the war
against the Roman [Link], these phraseological units are used in the
meaning of “to make a decision or to take an action that cannot be later changed”.
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Having discussed the potential of linguistic units to present knowledge
structures we turn to the problem of the knowledge activation in the text. As our
observations have indicated, stylistic devices play an important role in knowledge
representations in the text. Illustrative in this respect are such stylistic devices as
allusion, symbol, antonomasia. In fact, these stylistic devices are aimed to activate
knowledge structures. The term “activation/activization” is a key term both for
Cognitive Linguistics and Text Interpretation. “Activation” is understood as
stimulation of certain parts of the brain in the process of speech activity under the
influence of verbal signals, aimed to represent certain knowledge structures
(КСКТ, 1996). Proceeding from this notion, we can suppose that some linguistic
units are used with a deliberate aim to activate knowledge structures relevant to the
conceptual information of the text. The process of activating knowledge structures
in the text can be described as follows: under the impact of some verbal signal a
certain frame is activated. The frame, as is known, is a contour scheme,
representing a complex knowledge structure, the elements and entities of which
(slots) are associated with a particular culture embedded situation. It should be
noted in passing that frames are considered to be the basic mode of knowledge
representations (Evans, Green, 2006).
One of the most conspicuous means to activate knowledge structure in the
literary text is allusion. According to [Link], allusion is an “indirect
reference, by word or phrase, to historical, literary, mythological, biblical facts or
to the facts of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. The use of
allusion presupposes the background knowledge of the event, thing or person
alluded to on the part of the reader or listener” (Гальперин, 1977).
In terms of Cognitive Linguistics the allusive process can be presented as a
comparison or contrast of two referent domains, one of which is verbalized on the
surface layer of the text, and the other ‒ is supposed to be in the person’s mind.
When used in the text, allusion establishes intertextual relationships between the
precedent text and the recipient text by activating certain knowledge structures
(background knowledge of the adressee).
As our observations prove one of the most frequently used types of allusion
is an allusive anthroponym (the name of a well-known person). It is characterized
by a complicated conceptual structure that stimulates ideas, associations and
information, thus becoming a symbolical name. For example:
He has a bit of a Jekyll and Hide, our Austin. I think Dorina is afraid of him
(Murdoch “An accidental man”).
Here the literary allusion expressed by proper names Jekyll and Hide are used.
To understand the meaning of this allusion the reader is supposed to be familiar
with a short story “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hide” by R.L.
Stivenson. The hero of the story is of a dual character. Sometimes he appears to be
a good-natured person (Dr. Jekyll), and sometimes he is an embodiment of evil
(Mr. Hide). In this context the proper nouns “Jekyll and Hide” reveal the
characteristic features of the personage and symbolize the concepts of “Goodness
and Evil”.
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In summing up the major points may be outlined:
knowledge and its verbal representations are the key issues of Cognitive
Linguistics;
knowledge is structured in frames, scripts, gestalts, to present certain blocks of
information;
knowledge structures are verbalized by all linguistic means, among which
words, derivatives, compounds, phraseological units are assigned a priority role;
in the process of language use some linguistic units are used with a deliberate
aim to activate knowledge structures most relevant to the conceptual information.