SEP 4th Semester B.

Com Research Methodology

3rd Chapter
Data Collection and Processing of Data

Introduction:
Data Collection refers to the systematic process of gathering, measuring, and analyzing
information from various sources to get a complete and accurate picture of an area of interest.
Data collection is a critical step in any research or data-driven decision-making process,
ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the results obtained. By employing various methods of
data collection, researchers and organizations can gather the necessary data to support their
objectives effectively.

What is Data Collection?

Data Collection is the process of collecting information from relevant sources to find a solution
to the given statistical inquiry. Collection of data is the first and foremost step in a statistical
investigation. It is an essential step because it helps us make informed decisions, spot trends,
and measure progress.
Meaning of Data: Data are facts, figures, and other relevant materials past and present serving
as basis for study and analysis. In short, data refers to the facts and statistics collected together
for reference or analysis.

Characteristics of Data:
1. Data is aggregate of facts.
2. Data is affected to a large extent by multiplicity of factors.
3. Data is estimated according to reasonable standard of accuracy.
4. Data is collected in a systematic manner for a predetermined objectives.
5. Data must be related to one another.
6. Data must be numerically expressed.

Terms Related to Data Collection:

1. Data: Data is a tool that helps an investigator in understanding the problem by
providing him with the information required. Data can be classified into two types;
viz., Primary Data and Secondary Data.
2. Investigator: An investigator is a person who conducts the statistical enquiry.
3. Enumerators: In order to collect information for statistical enquiry, an investigator
needs the help of some people. These people are known as enumerators.
4. Respondents: A respondent is a person from whom the statistical information required
for the enquiry is collected.
5. Survey: It is a method of collecting information from individuals. The basic purpose
of a survey is to collect data to describe different characteristics such as usefulness,
quality, price, kindness, etc. It involves asking questions about a product or service
from a large number of people.

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 1
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

Sources Of Data: There are three different sources of collecting data:

1. Primary data: It refers to information gathered firsthand by the researcher for the
specific purpose of the study.
2. Secondary data: It refers to the information gathered from already existing sources.
Secondary data may be published or unpublished data.
3. Tertiary Sources: Tertiary sources are the interpretation of a secondary data. It is
generally represented by index, bibliography, dictionaries, handbooks, websites etc..

Methods of Data Collection:

Data collection method is an integral part of the research design. There are various methods of
data collection, each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. Selection of an
appropriate method of data collection may enhance the value of research and at the same time
wrong choice may lead to questionable research findings.

Factors Influencing method of data collection:

1) Nature, scope and objectives of the research.
2) Availability of resources.
3) Degree of accuracy required.
4) Expertise of the researcher.
5) Time span of the study.
6) Cost involved.

Methods Of Data Collection:

Primary Data Secondary Data Others

1. Observation methods 1. Published Sources 1. Warranty cards

2. Direct personal [Link] 2. Store audits
interviews Sources 3. Pantry audits.
3. Indirect oral 4. Consumer panels.
interviews 5. Mechanical devices
4. Information from 6. Projective
correspondents. techniques
5. Questionnaire 7. Play techniques
methods. 8. Sociometry.
6. Focus Group
7. Schedule sent through
enumerators.

1] Methods of Collecting Primary Data

Primary data means the data that have been collected originally for the first time. In
other words, primary data may be the outcome of an original statistical enquiry, measurement
of facts or a count that is undertaken for the first time. For instance data of population census
is primary.

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 2
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

Primary data may be obtained by applying any of the following methods:

1. Observation Methods:
Observation may be defined as " a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its
proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study."
In observational methods the researcher records what is happening than what has happened
or what is going to happen. Observation enables to collect data without asking questions from
the respondents. The respondents can be observed in the natural work environment or in lab
settings and their activities and behaviors of interest can be recorded.

Observation method may be either structured or unstructured. Structured observation method

involves having a set of items to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded. In
unstructured observation, the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomena that seem
relevant to the research problem.

Types of Observation
1. Type of activity under observation:
Observation includes monitoring both behavioral and non-behavioral activities and conditions.
behavioral observation includes nonverbal analysis(Body movements: interest, boredom, anger
or pleasure, Motor expression: facial movements, blink of eye and exchanged glances)
linguistic analysis(i.e., number of repeated words used by persons in a conversation), extra
linguistic analysis and spatial analysis.

2. Directness of the observation:

Based on the directness of observation, it can be grouped as direct or indirect.
a) Direct observation: It happens when the observer is physically present and monitors
while the event is taking place. This is highly flexible as the observer can decide what
to observe, how much time to spend on observation of an aspect, when to shift focus
etc.
b) Indirect observation: This method does not involve the physical presence of the
observer and the observation will be carried out using mechanical, photographic or
electronic means. For example use of video cameras, cc TV to capture the behavior of
consumers and employees are grouped under indirect observation.

3. Concealment:
This type is based on whether participant is aware of the observers presence. The presence of
observer may cause the participant to behave in a different manner which might affect the very
purpose of observation. In order to rule out this bias in behavior the observers may conceal
themselves from the objects being observed using some mechanical means for example one
way mirror, camera, microphone etc. However, this has to be carefully evaluated on the basis
of ethical grounds.

4. Participation:

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 3
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

The presence of the observer and his involvement in the research setting is called participant
observation. He plays the role of observer as well as the participant. The participant may or
may not know about the same. For example, studies of tribal customs by an anthropologist by
taking part in tribal activities like folk dance etc...

5. Definiteness of Structure:
The observation can be grouped as structured and unstructured observation. Clear definition of
various aspects of observation namely the units to be observed, method of recording, extent
accuracy needed, conditions of observation and selection of suitable data of observation etc..
are characteristics of structured observation. If the observation is conducted without the above
characteristics defined in advance, it is termed as unstructured observation.

6. Extent of Control:
Based on the extent of control observation is classified into controlled observation and
uncontrolled observation.
Controlled observation takes place according to a definite predetermined plan. It involves
experimental procedure and involves the use of precision instruments to record the observation.
On the other side uncontrolled observation is carried out in a natural setting. no attempt is made
to use precision instruments. the main aim of using this method is to get a spontaneous picture
of reality.

Merits of Observation Methods:

1) Common method: The method of observation is common to all the disciplines of
research.
2) Simplicity: The method is very simple to use.
3) Realistic: Since observation is based on actual and firsthand experience, its data re
more realistic than the data of those techniques which are indirect and secondary source
of information.
4) Formulation of hypothesis: Observation is used as the basis of formulating
hypothesis, regarding business research problem in all the business operations.
5) Verification: For verification of hypothesis, again researcher depends upon
observation.
6) Greater reliability of conclusions: The conclusions of observations are more reliable
than non-observation conclusions, because they are based ion first hand perception n
by the eyes and can be verified b any one by visual perception.

Demerits of observation method:

1) Some events cannot be objects of observation: There are some events which are
microscopic, indefinite and may not occupy any definite space or occur at a definite
time and cannot be noticed for observation purposes. Ex: emotions, sentimental factors,
likes and dislikes etc….
2) Illusory observation: We can never be sure of if what we are observing is the same as
it appears to our eyes, eyes are prone to deception.

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 4
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

3) Self-consciousness in the observed: in observation method the atmosphere tends to

become artificial and this leads to a sense of self consciousness among the individuals
who are observed.
4) Subjective explanation: the final results of observation depends upon the
interpretation understanding of the observer the defects of subjectivity in the
explanation creep in description of the observed and deductions from it.
5) Slowness of Investigation: the slowness of observation methods lead to disinterest
among both observer and observed.
6) Expensive methodology: being a long drawn process, this method is expensive.
7) Inadequacy: the full answer cannot be obtained by observation alone; observation
must be supplemented by other methods of study.

2. Direct Personal Interview:

Face to face contact is made with the informants under this method of collecting data. The
interviewer asks them questions pertaining to the survey and collects the desired information.

Merits:
1) Happy to pass information: Most often respondents are happy to pass on the
information required from them when contacted personally and thus response is
encouraging.
2) More accurate: The information collected through this method is normally more
accurate because interviewer can clear doubts of the informants about certain question
and thus obtain correct information.
3) Supplementary information: This method also provides the scope for getting
supplementary information from the informant, because while interviewing it is
possible to ask some supplementary questions which may be greater use later.
4) Language adjustment: The interviewer can adjust the language according to the status
and educational level of the person interviewed.

Demerits:
1) Expensive: this method can prove to be expensive if the number of informants is large
and the area is widely spread.
2) Personal bias: There is greater personal bias and prejudice under this method as
compared to other methods.
3) Trained and experienced: The interviewers have to be thoroughly trained and
experienced otherwise they may not be able get the desired information.
4) Time consuming: This method is more time consuming as compared to others.

Telephone Interview:
Telephone interview is one of the most frequently used methods of collecting qualitative data.
Under this method the interviewer will interview the informants through telephones.

Merits:
1) Less expensive than face to face interview.
2) Easier to schedule than face to face interview.
3) Interviewer can follow a prescribed script and take notes more easily.

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 5
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

4) Respondents may feel free to be more open than in face to face interwove.
5) Less likely to be interrupted.
6) Interviewer can cover large population spread over a wide geographical location.

Demerits:
1) In India still there is a vast population without telephone facility.
2) The random sample identified through telephone directories may be sometimes not
available in the number given or may be malfunctioning.
3) The length or duration for which the telephone interview can be conducted is limited.
4) It is difficult or impossible to use maps, illustration, visual aids, and measurement scale
technique in this method.
5) Interview can be terminated by the respondent as easily as the contact could be made.
6) No chance to read the body language of respondents.

3. Indirect Oral Interviews:

Under this method of data collection, the investigator contacts third parties generally called
'witnesses' who are capable of supplying necessary information. This method is generally
adopted when the information to be obtained is of a complex nature and informants are not like
to respond if approached directly.
Ex: when the researcher is trying to obtain data on drug addiction or the habit of taking liquor,
there is high probability that the addicted person will not provide the desired data and hence
will disturb the whole research process.

4. Information from Correspondents:

Under this method the investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in different places
to collect information. These correspondents collect and transmit the information to the central
office where data are processed.
This method is generally adopted by news paper agencies. Correspondents who are posted at
different places supply information relating to such events as accidents, riots, strikes etc..to the
head office.

5. Questionnaire Methods:
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions, arranged in an
order, aimed at gathering information from respondents.

The questionnaires can be administered in two ways, they are:

1) Personally Administered questionnaire: If the study is related to local area, the
questionnaires can be collected by personally administering the same. the main advantage is
that the researcher can collect all the completed responses within a short period.

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 6
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

2) Mail questionnaire: Under this a list of questions pertaining to the survey which is known
as questionnaire is prepared and sent to the various informants by post or through e-mails. A
request is made to the informants through a covering letter to fill up the questionnaire and send
it back within a specified time.

Merits of Questionnaire method:

1) Economical: in comparison to other methods of data collection the mailed
questionnaire method is the cheapest and quickest method.
2) Less sill of administration: The questionnaire method requires less sill to administer
than an interview, observation ore case study method do data collection.
3) Research in wide area: If the respondents are spread in large geographical areas the
questionnaire method is the only means of research.
4) Time saving: this method saves time. simultaneously hundreds of person are
approached through this method.
5) More reliable in special cases: This is a method of collecting data in an objective
manner through standardized impersonal questions. the respondents give free, frank and
reliable information.
6) Free from external influence: respondents are free from external influences, as
researcher is not present.,
7) Suitable for special type of responses: The information about certain problems can
be best obtained through this method. Ex: marital relations, dreams etc...
8) Less errors: Chances of errors are very low, because the supply of information is given
by the respondent himself.
9) Originality: the informants are directly involved in the supply of information, so the
method is more original.
10) Uniformity: the impersonal nature of questionnaires ensure uniformity from one
measurement situation to another.

Demerits of Questionnaire method:

1) Lack of interest: lack of interest on the part of respondent is very common
disadvantage of this method.
2) Incomplete response: Some respondents give answers which are so brief that the full
meaning is incomprehensible.
3) Useless in-depth research problems: if a problem requires deep and long study, iut
cannot be studied through this method.
4) Inelastic: This method is very rigid since no alteration may be introduced.
5) Prejudices and biases: Since researcher frames the questions his personal views,
prejudices and biases influence the questions instead of becoming objective and
impersonal, he becomes biased and prejudiced.
6) Poor response and lack of reality: all the informants do not give answer or do not fill
the questionnaire.
7) The incompleteness of the form of questionnaire is another demerit.
8) Lack of personal contact especially in mail questionnaire is another disadvantage.

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 7
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

6. Focus Group
The focus group method involves gathering a small group of people to discuss a specific
topic or product, facilitated by a moderator. A group of 6–12 participants engage in a
guided discussion led by a moderator who asks open-ended questions to elicit opinions,
attitudes, and perceptions.
• Advantage: Provides in-depth insights and diverse perspectives through
interactive discussions, revealing the reasoning behind participants' thoughts and
feelings.
• Disadvantage: Results can be influenced by dominant participants or
groupthink, and the findings are not easily generalizable due to the small, non-
representative sample size.
• Suitable Use Case: Exploring customer attitudes towards a new product,
gathering feedback on a marketing campaign, or understanding public opinion on social
issues.

7. Schedules through Enumerators:

Another method of data collection is sending schedules through the enumerators. The
enumerators contact the informant, get replies to the question contained in a schedule and fill
them in their own handwriting in the questionnaire form.

Types of Schedules:
A. Observation Schedule: The schedules that are used for observation are known as
observational schedule. In these schedules observer records the activities and responses
of a worker or a group under specific conditions,.
B. Rating Schedule: In the fields of biz guidance, psychological research and social
research the rating schedules are used to assess the attitude, opinions, preferences, and
other like elements.
C. Document Schedule: The schedule of this type are used to obtain data regarding return
evidence and case histories from autobiography, diary, case histories or final record o
government etc..
D. Interview Schedule: In an interview schedule an interviewer presents the question of
the schedule to interviewee and records their responses on blank spaces in the schedule.

Merits:
1) It can be adopted in those cases where informants are illiterates.
2) There is no scope of non-response as the enumerators go personally to obtain the
information.'
3) The information received is more reliable as the accuracy of statements can be checked
by supplementary questions wherever necessary.

Demerits of schedule method:

1) This method is quite costly as enumerator are generally paid persons.
2) The success of the method depends largely upon the training imparted to the
enumerators.
3) Enumerators requires sill, experience and training to collect the information.

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 8
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

4) When the questions are asked b a number of different interviewers, it is possible that
variations in the personalities of the interviewers will cause variation in the answers
obtained.

2] Methods of Collecting Secondary Data

Secondary data are those data which have already been collected and analyzed by some earlier
agency for its own use, and later the dame data are used by a different agency,

Sources of Secondary data:

The various sources of secondary data is divided into two broad categories:
1. Published Sources:
The government, international and local agencies publish statistical data and chief among them
are :
a) International Publications: There are some international institutions and bodies like
IMF,IBRD,UNO etc.. who publish regular and occasional reports on economic and
statistical matters.
b) Official Publication of Central and State Government: Several departments of the
central and state government regularly publish reports on a number of subjects. Some
of the important publications are: The Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, Census of India,
Statistical Abstracts of States, Agricultural Statistics of India, Indian Trade Journal etc..
c) Semi-official Publications: Semi-government institutions like Municipal
Corporations, District Boards, Panchayats etc..publish reports relating to different
matters of public concern.
d) Publications of Research Institutions: Indian Statistical Institute, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research etc,, publish the findings of their research programs.
e) Publications of various commercial and financial institutions.\
f) Reports of various committees and commissions appointed by the government as the
Raj Committee's report on Agricultural taxation etc..
g) Journals and News papers.

2. Unpublished Sources:
Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished sources like records maintained by
various government and private offices, the theses of the numerous research scholars in the
universities or institutions etc...
Unpublished Sources:
1. Office Records:
Many organizations maintain internal records for administrative purposes such as sales,
purchase, production, payroll, and employee records.
2. Research Reports and Theses:

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 9
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

Includes Ph.D. theses, [Link] dissertations, and project reports submitted to universities.
3. Personal Documents:
Includes diaries, letters, autobiographies, memoirs, and personal notes.
4. Company Records:

Includes cost records, market research reports, customer databases, and financial reports.
5. Government and Institutional Files:
Includes departmental files, committee reports, and internal surveys.
6. Case Records:
Maintained by hospitals, courts, NGOs, and social institutions.

3] Other Methods of Data Collection:

1. Warranty cards: These are post sized cards which are used by dealers of consumer
durables to collect information regarding the product. The information sought is printed
in the form of questions on the warranty cards which is placed inside the package along
with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post the same to
the dealer.
2. Store audits: Store audits are performed by distributors as well as manufacturers
through their salesman at regular interval. The information is used to estimate mkt size,
mkt share, seasonal purchasing patterns etc...
3. Pantry audits: Under this the data is recorded from the examination of consumers
pantry. This is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the consumer
level. The investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of
commodities consumed.
4. Consumer panels: The consumer panels consists a group of consumers who are
interviewed on a regular basis over a period of time. Interview is conducted before the
phenomenon takes place and another interview after the phenomenon has occurred so
as to measure the changes in the attitude and behavior of the consumers.
5. Mechanical devices: Use of mechanical devices enables to record data accurately. Eye
camera, pupilometric camera, motion pictures camera and audiometer are some of the
devices used for data collection.
6. Projective Techniques: Certain ideas and thoughts cannot be easily verbalized as it
remains at the unconscious levels in the minds of respondents. This can be brought to
the surface by trained professionals who apply different probing techniques so as to
bring to the surface the deep rooted ideas and thoughts. Some of the techniques are :

a) Word association test: The test is used to extract information regarding words which
have maximum association. Respondents are asked to quickly associate a word that
comes in mind when question asked like Happiness mean?
b) Sentence completion tests: Under this the respondents is provided with a several half
completed statement regarding a subject. Analysis of replies from the respondent
reveals his attitude towards the subject.

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 10
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

c) Story completion test: Under this the researcher may contrive stories instead of
sentences and ask the repondent to complete the same. The respondents is given just
enough of a story to foucs attention on a given subject and is asked to provide a
conclusion to the story.
d) Verbal projection tests: Under this the respondents is asked to comment on or explain
on what other people do.

7. Play techniques: Under play techniques subjects are asked to act out a situation where
various roles are assigned to them. The researcher may observe such traits as hostility,
dominance, sympathy, prejudice and absence of such traits.
8. Sociometry: It is a technique for describing the social relationship among individual in a
group. It attempts to describe attractions or repulsions between individuals by asking them to
indicate whom they would choose or reject in various situations.

SURVEY
Meaning: Survey is defined as a method of gathering primary data based on communication
with a representative sample of individual. Survey requires asking people, who are respondents,
for information using either verbal or written questions.

In short survey is the research technique in which information is gathered from a sample of
people using a questionnaire.

Types of Survey:
1. Personal interviewing: A personal interview i.e., face to face communication is a two way
conversation initiated by an interviewer to obtain information from a respondents.
2. Mail Survey: The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This method
involves sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete them and return
them by post. This can be used in the case of educated repsondents only.

Merits:
1) Frequently used for social research.
2) Low cost
3) Eliminates potential interviewer bias.

Demerits:
1) May result in biased sample.
2) Low repose rate.
3) It takes time. The researcher has wait at least several weeks for all responses to arrive.
3. Web (or) Internet Survey: An internet or web survey is a self administered questionnaire
posted on a web site. Respondents provide answers to questions displayed on screen by
highlighting a phrase, clicking an icon, or keying in an answer.

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 11
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

Merits:
1) Speed and cost effectiveness.
2) Visual appeal and Interactivity.
3) Respondent participation and cooperation.
4) Accurate real time data capture.
5) Respondents provide more detail to open-ended questions.
6) personalized and flexible questioning.
7) Anonymity(unknown) of respondents results in more honest answers to sensitive
topics.

Demerits:
1) Do not reflect population as a whole.
2) Respondents completion rates lower for longer surveys.
3) Random respondents may reply if your survey appears on web page.
4) All people cannot participate.

Tools for Data Collection:

1. Observation
2. Interview Schedule
3. Observation check-list
4. Rating Scale
5. Sociometry
6. Checklist
7. Interview Guide
8. Pilot Testing Tools

1. OBSERVATION METHOD:
Observation is a method of collecting primary data by carefully watching and recording events,
behaviors, or activities as they occur naturally. The researcher does not depend on respondents’
answers but gathers information through direct observation. This method is useful when actual
behavior is more reliable than verbal responses. It is widely used in social, behavioral, and
organizational research.

Types of Observation
1. Participant Observation
In participant observation, the researcher actively becomes part of the group being studied.
This helps in understanding behavior, attitudes, and emotions from inside the group. It provides
deep and detailed information about social relationships. However, the researcher’s
involvement may lead to bias and loss of objectivity.
2. Non-Participant Observation
In non-participant observation, the researcher observes the group without participating in its
activities. The observer maintains distance to ensure objectivity and neutrality. This method
reduces personal bias and interference. It is commonly used in classroom studies, workplace
observation, and public behavior studies.
3. Structured Observation

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 12
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

Structured observation follows a predetermined plan using checklists or schedules. The

researcher observes only specific behaviors or events decided in advance. This type of
observation is systematic and quantitative in nature. It is suitable for large-scale and
comparative studies.
4. Unstructured Observation
Unstructured observation does not follow a fixed plan or checklist. The researcher freely
observes and records all relevant behavior. It is mainly used in exploratory and qualitative
research. This method allows flexibility but requires high observational skills.

2. INTERVIEWING METHOD:
Interviewing is a method of data collection where the researcher asks questions directly to
respondents through verbal communication. It helps in collecting detailed, accurate, and
personal information. Interviews allow clarification of doubts and probing of responses. This
method is especially useful for complex and sensitive topics.

Types of Interviews
1. Structured Interview
A structured interview uses a fixed set of questions asked in the same order to all respondents.
This ensures uniformity and comparability of responses. It reduces interviewer bias and is easy
to analyze statistically. Structured interviews are suitable for quantitative research.
2. Unstructured Interview
An unstructured interview does not follow fixed questions. The interviewer encourages free
conversation based on respondent answers. This type helps in exploring deep feelings,
opinions, and experiences. It is widely used in qualitative and exploratory research.
3. Semi-Structured Interview
Semi-structured interviews combine fixed questions with flexibility. The interviewer follows
an interview guide but may ask additional questions. This method balances structure and
freedom. It is the most commonly used interview type in research studies.
4. Personal Interview
A personal interview is conducted face-to-face between interviewer and respondent. It allows
observation of body language and emotions. The response rate is high and data is reliable.
However, it is costly and time-consuming.

3. MAILING METHOD
The mailing method involves sending questionnaires to respondents through post, email, or
online platforms. Respondents fill in answers at their convenience and return them. This
method is economical and suitable for large and scattered populations. However, it often suffers
from low response rates.
Types of Mailing Method:
1. Postal Survey
In a postal survey, questionnaires are sent through postal services. Respondents complete and
return them by mail. It is useful where internet access is limited. The method is inexpensive
but slow.

2. Email Survey

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 13
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

Questionnaires are sent to respondents through email. This method is faster than postal surveys
and cost-effective. It allows easy follow-ups and reminders. However, it depends on internet
availability.
3. Online Survey
Online surveys use tools like Google Forms or SurveyMonkey. They allow automatic data
collection and analysis. This method is quick and widely used today. However, it excludes
respondents without digital access.

4. INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
An interview schedule is a structured list of questions prepared by the researcher and filled in
by the interviewer. It is used mainly in personal interviews. This tool ensures uniformity and
accuracy in data collection. It is especially useful when respondents are illiterate.

Types of Interview Schedule:

1. Structured Schedule:
This schedule contains fixed questions asked in a fixed order. It ensures consistency in
responses from all respondents. Data collected is easy to classify and analyze. It is suitable for
large surveys.

2. Unstructured Schedule:
This schedule allows flexibility in questioning. The interviewer may modify questions based
on responses. It helps in collecting in-depth information. It is used in qualitative studies.

5. INTERVIEW GUIDE:
An interview guide is a list of topics or issues to be discussed during an interview. It does not
contain fixed questions. It provides direction to the interviewer while allowing flexibility. It is
commonly used in unstructured and in-depth interviews.

Types of Interview Guide

1. Topic Guide:
A topic guide lists major themes to be covered. It ensures that all important areas are discussed.
It provides freedom to explore responses deeply. It is useful in exploratory research.

2. Question Prompt Guide:

This guide includes hints and probing questions. It helps the interviewer encourage detailed
responses. It improves the depth and quality of data. It is widely used in qualitative research.

6. QUESTIONNAIRE:
A questionnaire is a written document containing a set of questions answered by respondents.
It is widely used in survey research. Questionnaires are economical and easy to administer.
Proper design is essential for accurate data collection.

Types of Questionnaire:
1. Open-Ended Questionnaire:
Respondents answer questions in their own words. It provides detailed and qualitative data. It
allows free expression of opinions. However, it is difficult to analyze.

2. Closed-Ended Questionnaire:

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 14
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

Respondents choose answers from given alternatives. It is easy to code and analyze. It saves
time for respondents. However, it limits detailed responses.

7. RATING SCALE
A rating scale measures attitudes, opinions, or preferences by assigning values. It converts
qualitative data into quantitative form. Rating scales are easy to administer and analyze. They
are widely used in attitude and satisfaction studies.

Types of Rating Scales

1. Likert Scale:
Respondents indicate agreement or disagreement with statements. It measures attitudes
effectively. It is simple and popular in surveys. Results are easy to analyze.

2. Numerical Scale:
Respondents rate items using numbers like 1 to 5. It provides clear measurement of intensity.
It is easy to understand. Used in satisfaction surveys.

8. SOCIOMETR:
Sociometry is a technique used to study social relationships within a group. It identifies patterns
of interaction among members. It helps to find leaders and isolates. It is useful in educational
and organizational research.

Types of Sociometry:
1. Sociometric Test:
Respondents are asked questions about preferences and choices. It helps in identifying social
relationships. Data is collected systematically. Results reveal group structure.

2. Sociogram:
A sociogram is a visual representation of relationships. It shows interaction patterns clearly. It
helps in easy interpretation. Used along with sociometric tests.

9. CHECKLIST:
A checklist is a list of items marked as present or absent. It ensures completeness in
observation. It is simple and systematic. Widely used in inspections and evaluations.
Types of Checklist:
1. Simple Checklist:
Items are marked Yes or No. It is easy to use. Saves time. Used in basic observation.

2. Descriptive Checklist:
Includes brief descriptions of items. Provides more detail. Used in detailed evaluations.
Improves accuracy.

10. PRE-TESTING
Pre-testing involves testing tools on a small sample before final use. It identifies errors and
ambiguities. It improves reliability and validity. It saves time and cost in the main study.

Types of Pre-Testing

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 15
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

1. Formal Pre-Test:
Conducted systematically on a sample. Errors are recorded and corrected. It improves tool
accuracy. Used in major studies.

2. Informal Pre-Test:
Conducted with experts or colleagues. Helps in quick correction. Saves time. Used in small
studies.

11. PILOT STUDY:

A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary study. It tests feasibility of research design. It helps
refine tools and methods. It reduces risks in the main study.

Types of Pilot Study

1. Feasibility Pilot Study:

Tests practicality of research plan. Identifies operational problems. Helps in planning
resources. Improves success of main study.

2. Methodological Pilot Study:

Tests tools, sampling, and procedures. Identifies weaknesses in methodology. Helps improve
accuracy. Ensures smooth main study.

PROCESSING OF DATA

Meaning of Data Processing:

Data processing is the systematic and scientific procedure of converting raw data into
meaningful, organized, and useful information. Raw data collected through questionnaires,
interviews, or observations is usually unorganized, incomplete, and inconsistent. Through
proper processing, data is verified, corrected, classified, summarized, and presented in an
understandable form. Accurate data processing is essential for valid analysis, interpretation,
and decision-making in research.

Processing of data: The processing of data includes the following:

Checking, editing, coding, transcription, tabulation, preparation of tables, graphical
representation

1. Checking of Data

Checking is the first and most important step in data processing. It involves a careful
examination of collected data to ensure that all questions are answered completely and
correctly. The researcher checks for missing responses, irrelevant answers, and obvious
mistakes in recording. Incomplete questionnaires or schedules are identified and either
corrected or rejected. Proper checking prevents defective data from entering later stages of
analysis and improves the overall quality of research results.

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 16
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

2. Editing of Data

Editing refers to the detailed scrutiny of collected data to correct errors, inconsistencies, and
ambiguities. During editing, responses are examined for logical consistency and uniformity.
For example, contradictory answers or unclear responses are corrected wherever possible.
Editing ensures that data is accurate, consistent, and suitable for further analysis. It plays a
crucial role in improving the reliability and validity of research findings.

Types of Editing
(a) Field Editing

Field editing is done immediately after data collection by the investigator. The purpose is to
correct omissions or unclear answers while the respondent can still be contacted. It helps reduce
memory errors and ensures completeness of data. Field editing is especially useful in interview-
based studies.

(b) Central Editing

Central editing is done at the research office after all data has been collected. Editors examine
all questionnaires uniformly and systematically. This ensures standardization of data and
correction of major inconsistencies. Central editing is more detailed and careful than field
editing.

3. Coding of Data

Coding is the process of assigning numerical or symbolic values to different responses in the
data. This step converts qualitative data into quantitative form, making it suitable for
classification and statistical analysis. Proper coding reduces complexity and allows easy
comparison of responses. Well-planned coding saves time and minimizes errors during
tabulation and analysis.

Types of Coding
(a) Pre-Coding

In pre-coding, codes are decided before data collection. Possible responses are anticipated and
numerical codes are assigned in advance. This method is efficient and reduces post-collection
work. It is commonly used in structured questionnaires.

(b) Post-Coding

Post-coding is done after data collection, especially for open-ended questions. Responses are
reviewed, grouped into categories, and then assigned codes. This method provides flexibility
but requires more time and careful judgment.

4. Transcription of Data

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 17
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

Transcription refers to the process of transferring data from original instruments such as
questionnaires or schedules into a systematic format. This may involve entering data into
spreadsheets, worksheets, or statistical software. Accurate transcription is essential because
even small errors can distort analysis and conclusions. Transcription organizes data and
prepares it for classification and tabulation.

5. Classification of Data

Classification involves grouping data into categories or classes based on common

characteristics. It helps simplify large volumes of raw data and makes it easier to understand
patterns and relationships. Classification allows meaningful comparison and forms the basis
for tabulation and analysis. Without proper classification, data remains unorganized and
difficult to interpret.

Types of Classification:
(a) Chronological Classification

Data is arranged according to time, such as years or months. It helps in studying trends over
time. This type is commonly used in economic and business research.

(b) Geographical Classification

Data is classified according to place or region. It helps in regional comparison and area-wise
analysis. Useful in market and population studies.

(c) Qualitative Classification

Data is grouped based on attributes like gender, occupation, or literacy. It does not involve
numerical values directly. Useful in social research.

(d) Quantitative Classification

Data is classified based on numerical values like income, age, or sales volume. It helps in
statistical analysis and frequency distribution.
6. Tabulation of Data

Tabulation is the process of arranging classified data into rows and columns in a systematic
manner. It condenses large amounts of data into a compact and understandable form.
Tabulation facilitates comparison, reveals trends, and highlights relationships among variables.
It is an essential step before graphical representation and statistical analysis.

Types of Tabulation
(a) Simple Tabulation

Simple tabulation presents data based on a single characteristic. It is easy to understand and
suitable for small data sets. It provides a clear summary of one variable.

(b) Complex Tabulation

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 18
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

Complex tabulation involves two or more characteristics simultaneously. It allows detailed

comparison and analysis. This type is commonly used in advanced research studies.

7. Preparation of Tables

Preparation of tables involves designing clear, accurate, and meaningful tables for presenting
data. A good table should be simple, self-explanatory, and properly labeled. Tables include
essential components such as table number, title, headings, footnotes, and source. Proper table
preparation improves readability and helps readers understand data without lengthy
explanations.

8. Graphical Representation of Data

Graphical representation involves presenting data visually using charts, diagrams, and graphs.
Visual presentation makes complex data easy to understand and attractive. Graphs help in quick
comparison, trend analysis, and identification of patterns. They are widely used in research
reports, presentations, and decision-making.

Types of Graphical Representation:

(a) Bar Diagrams: Bar diagrams use rectangular bars to represent data. They are useful for
comparison among categories. Simple, multiple, and component bar diagrams are commonly
used.
Bar Diagram

(b) Pie Charts: Pie charts show data in the form of circular sectors. They represent proportions
and percentages effectively. Useful for showing composition of a whole.
Pie Chart

 Circular chart divided into sectors

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 19
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

 Each sector shows proportion

Example: Budget distribution

(c) Line Graphs:Line graphs show changes over time. They are useful for trend analysis.
Commonly used in economic and business studies.

(d) Histograms: Histograms represent frequency distribution of continuous data. They help in
understanding data distribution. Widely used in statistical analysis.

 Represents frequency distribution

 Bars are continuous (no gaps)

Importance of Data Processing

1. Improves accuracy and reliability of data
2. Reduces errors and inconsistencies
3. Simplifies large volumes of raw data
4. Facilitates analysis and interpretation
5. Helps in drawing valid conclusions

TABULATION:

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 20
SEP 4th Semester B. Com Research Methodology

Meaning
Tabulation is the process of presenting data in rows and columns to make it systematic, clear,
and easy to analyze.

Objectives
 Simplify complex data
 Facilitate comparison
 Save time and space
 Help in statistical analysis

Parts of a Table
1. Table Number – Identification
2. Title – Subject of the table
3. Headnote – Unit of measurement
4. Captions (Column headings)
5. Stubs (Row headings)
6. Body – Main data
7. Footnote – Additional info
8. Source – Data origin
Rules/ Guidelines for PREPARATION OF TABLES:

 Give a clear and concise title

 Arrange data logically (ascending/descending)
 Use uniform units
 Avoid overcrowding
 Provide totals and sub-totals
 Mention source of data
 Keep it simple and readable

Types of Tables
1. Simple Table – One characteristic
2. Double Table – Two characteristics
3. Complex Table – More than two characteristics

Illustration (Double Table)

Age Group Male Female
0–18 30 28
18–60 50 45
60+ 20 25

Associate Professor. Annapoorna M, [Link], MBA, PGDMM, K-SET, Department of Commerce

and Management, Seshadripuram College, Seshadripuram, Bengaluru-20 21