CHAPTER THREE

INDUCTION MACHINES
ELECTROMECHANICAL CONVERSION
Electrical Machines are used extensively for electromechanical energy conversion. In these
machines, conversion of energy results from the following two electromagnetic phenomena.

Electrical Mechanical
system ELECTRICAL system
MACHINES
E, I T, n

Motor
Generator

Figure 3.1 Electromechanical energy conversion

Note that the two systems in Figure 3.1, electrical and mechanical, are different in nature. In
electrical system the primary quantities involved are voltage & current while in mechanical
system, the analogous quantities are torque & speed. The coupling medium between these
different systems is the magnetic field.
The basic electrical machines (induction, dc, and synchronous), which depend on
electromagnetic energy conversion, are extensively used in various power ratings. The operation,
construction and characteristic features of these machines are discussed in detail in this and other
chapters.

INTRODUCTION
The induction machine is the most rugged and the most widely used machine in industry. The
induction machine has a stator and a rotor mounted on bearings and separated from the stator by
an air gap. However, in the induction machine both stator winding and rotor winding carry
alternating current. The alternating current (ac) is supplied to the stator winding machine.
The induction machine can operate both as a motor and as a generator. However, it is seldom
used as a generator supplying electrical power to a load. The performance characteristics as a
generator are not satisfactory for most applications. The induction machine is extensively used as
a motor in many applications.
The poly-phase induction motor is the one which is extensively used for various kinds of
industrial drives. It has the following main advantages and also some disadvantages.
Advantages:
 It has very simple and extremely rugged, almost unbreakable construction (especially squirrel
cage type)
 Its cost is low and it is very reliable

1
 It has sufficiently high efficiency.
 It has a reasonably good power factor
 It requires minimum of maintenance
Disadvantage
 Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.
 Just like a d.c. shunt motor, its speed decreases with increase in load

The induction motor is used in various sizes:

 Large three-phase induction motors (in tens or hundreds of horsepower) are used in
pumps, fans, compressors, textile mills and so forth.
 Small single-phase induction motors (in fractional horsepower rating) are used in many
household appliances, such as blenders, juice mixers, washing machines and
refrigerators.
 The linear version of the induction machine has been developed primarily for use in
transportation systems.
The induction machine is undoubtedly a very useful electrical machine. Three-phase induction
motors are the most important ones and are most widely used in industry. In this unit the
constructional features, operation, stator windings, characteristic futures, and steady- state
performance of the three-phase induction machine are studied in detail.

3.1 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES

Three-phase AC induction motors are commonly used in industrial applications. This type of
motor has three main parts, rotor, stator, and enclosure. The stator and rotor do the work, and the
enclosure protects the stator and rotor.
a) Stator
The stator is composed of laminations of high-grade sheet steel and is built up of sheet steel
lamination of 0.4 to 0.5mm thickness. Laminations are insulated from each other by means of
varnish coating or oxide (Figure 3.2(a)). A three-phase winding is put in slots punched out on the
inner surface of the stator frame. It is made up of a number of stampings which are slotted to
receive the windings. The stator carries a 3-phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase supply. It is
wound for a definite number of poles, the number of poles being determined by the requirements
of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa. The stator windings, when
supplied with 3-phase currents, produce a magnetic flux which is of constant magnitude but
120. f
which revolves (or rotates) at synchronous speed (given by N s  ). This revolving magnetic
P
flux induces an emf in the rotor by mutual induction.

2
 (a) (b)
Figure 3.2 induction machine laminations (a) Stator and (b) rotor
b) Rotor
The rotor also consists of laminated ferromagnetic material, with slots punched out on the outer
surface (Figure 3.2 (b). The frequency of the rotor flux is very low; as a result thicker
laminations can be used without excessive iron losses. Two types of rotor construction is
normally used for three phase induction motor.
Bearings, mounted on the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to turn. Some motors, like the one
shown in the following illustration, use a fan, also mounted on the rotor shaft, to cool the motor
when the shaft is rotating.
I. Squirrel-cage rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are known as squirrel-cage
induction motors.
II. Phase-wound or wound rotor: Motors employing this type of rotor are variously
known as phase-wound motors or wound motors or slip-ring motors.
Squirrel –Cage Rotor
Almost 90 per cent of induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this type ‘rotor' has the
simplest and most rugged construction imaginable and is almost indestructible. The squirrel cage
rotor is so called because its construction is reminiscent of the rotating exercise wheels found in
some pet cages. The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying
the rotor conductors which, it should be noted clearly, are not wires but consist of heavy bars of
copper, aluminum or alloys. One bar is placed in each slot; rather the bars are inserted from the
end when semi-closed slots are used. The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded or bolted to
two heavy and stout short circuiting end-rings.
It should be noted that the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on themselves, hence it is
not possible to add any external resistance in series with the rotor circuit for starting purposes.

3
 Figure 3.3 Cut-away view of squirrel cage IM
[Link] ; 2. Ball bearings; 3. Bearings shield; 4. Terminal box ; 5. Fan (ventilator) ; 6. Ball bearings; 7. Bearings
shield;8. Ventilator shield ; 9. Rotor core; 10. Stator core; 11. Frame; 12. Basement

Aluminum
ring

Shaft
Shaft
Fan
blades
Laminated
iron core
Fan
Aluminum
bars
blades b)

a)

Figure 3.4 a) Real squirrel cage rotor and b) Schematic diagram of cage rotor
Phase –Wound Rotor
This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double-layer, distributed winding consisting of coils
as used in alternators. The rotor is wound for as many poles as the number of stator poles and is
always wound 3-phase even when the stator is wound two-phase.

4
 Figure 3.5 Cut-away view of wound-rotor induction machine
[Link] bearings 2. Bearings shield 3. Enclosure; [Link] core with windings [Link] core
[Link] shield [Link] bearings; [Link] ; [Link] box ; 10. Basement; 11. slip-rings

Rotor-
a) Slip-rings wound

b)

Figure 3.6 a) schematic diagram of wound-rotor b) real diagram of wound-rotor

The three phases are starred internally. The other three winding terminals are brought out and
connected to three insulated slip-rings mounted one the shaft with brushes resting on them.
These three brushes are further externally connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat. This
makes possible the introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting
period for increasing the starting torque of the motor and for changing its speed-torque/ current
characteristic. When running under normal condition, the slip-rings are automatically short-
circuited by means of a metal collar which is pushed along the shaft and connect all the rings
together (Figure 3.7). Next, the brushes are automatically lifted from the slip-rings to reduce the
frictional losses and the wear and tear. Hence, it is seen that under normal running conditions,
the wound rotor is short–circuited on itself just like the squirrel-cage rotor.

5
 3-phase
supply

stator

Slip-rings

rotor

Starting
Rheostat

Figure 3.7 Three-phase wound –rotor induction motor with external starting rheostat.
c) Enclosure
The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing housings). The
stator is mounted inside the frame. The rotor fits inside the stator with a slight air-gap separating
it from the stator. There is no direct physical connection between the rotor and the stator. The
enclosure protects the internal parts of the motor from water and other environmental elements.
Comparison of squirrel cage and wound rotors.
The squirrel cage motor has the following advantages as compared with the wound rotor
machine.
i. No slip rings, brush gear, short circuiting devices, rotor terminals for starting
rheostats are required. The star delta starter is sufficient for staring.
ii. It has slightly higher efficiency.
iii. It is cheaper and rugged in construction
iv. It has better space factor for rotor slots, a shorter overhang and consequently a
smaller copper loss.
The greatest disadvantage of squirrel cage rotor is that it is not possible to insert resistance in the
rotor circuit for the purpose of increasing the starting torque, reducing the starting current and
varying the speed as compared with wound rotor motor.

3.2. PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

When the 3-phase stator winding are fed by a 3-phase supply then a magnetic flux of constant
magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed , is set up. The flux pass through the air gap sweeps
past the rotor surface and so cuts the rotor conductors which, as yet stationery. Due to the
relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary conductors, an emf is induced in the

6
latter according to Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction. The frequency of the induced
e.m.f is the same as the supply frequency. Its magnitude is proportional to the relative speed
between the flux and the conductors and its direction is given by Fleming’s Right-hand rule.
Since the rotor bars or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current is produced direction, as
given by Lenz’s law is such as to oppose the very cause producing it in this case, the cause which
produce the rotor current is relative speed between the rotating flux of the stator and the
stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts running in the
same direction as that of the flux and tries to cutch up with the rotating flux.
Slip
In practice the rotor never succeeds in catching up with the stator field. If it really did so, then
there would be no relative speed between the two hence no rotor emf no rotor current and so no
torque to maintain rotation. That is why the rotor runs at a speed, which is always less than the
speed of the stator field. The difference in speeds depends upon the load on the motor .
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual speed N of the rotor is known as
slip. Though it may be expressed in so many revolutions/ second , yet it is usual to express it as a
percentage of the synchronous speed . Actually, the term 'slip' is descriptive of the way in which
the rotor 'slips back' from synchronism.
Ns  N
S%  X 100
Ns

Sometimes, Ns – N is called the slip speed. Obviously, rotor (or motor) speed is N  N s (1  S)
It may be kept in mind that revolving flux is rotating synchronously relative to the stator ( i.e.
stationary space but at slip-speed relative to the rotor.
Frequency of rotor current
When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the supply
frequency. But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends upon the relative
speed or on slip-speed.
Let at any slip speed, the frequency of the rotor current be fr . Then,
120 f r
Ns  N  .
p
120 f
Also N s 
p
fr Ns  N
  S;
Dividing one by the other, we get, f Ns
 f r  sf
As seen, rotor currents have a frequency of fr = sf and when flowing through the individual
phases of rotor winding give rise to rotor magnetic fields. These individual rotor magnetic fields
produce a combined rotating magnetic field whose speed relative to rotor is
120 f r 120 sf
   sN s
P P

7
 Example 3.1 A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440 r.p. m. For this
motor, calculate the following:
(a) number of poles ; (b) full-load slip and rotor frequency ;(c) speed of stator field with
respect to (i) stator structure and (ii) rotor structure and (d) speed of rotor field with respect to (i)
rotor structure (ii) stator structure and (iii) stator field. For parts (c) and (d), answer should be
given in rpm and rad /sec.
Solution. (a) The use of full-load speed of 1440 rpm as synchronous speed gives
120  f 1
NS 
P
120  50
Or 1440 
P
120  50 1
or P  4 poles
1440 6
Since the number of poles must be even and a whole number, the induction motor must have 4
poles. Note that an induction motor runs at a speed, a little less than synchronous speed.
(b) Synchronous speed,
120  f1 120  50
NS    1500r.p.m.
P 4
N s  N 1500 1440
 Slip, S    0.04
Ns 1500
Rotor frequency, f 2  Sf1  0.04  50  2 Hz
(c) (i) Speed of stator field with respect to stator structure
 N S  1500rpm
2  N S 2   1500
 S    150.08 rad / s
60 60
(ii) Speed of stator field w.r.t. revolving rotor structure
= 1500  1440 = 60 rpm
2   60
  6.283rad / s
60
(d) (i) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. rotor structure
120( rotorfrequency)

poles
120  2
  60 r.p.m.  6.283rad / s
4
(ii) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. stator structure
=(Mechanical speed of rotor) + (Speed of rotor field w.r.t rotor structure)
= 1440 + 60 =1500 rpm = 150.08 rad/s.

8
(iii) Since both the stator and rotor fields are rotating at synchronous speed of 1500 rpm with
respect to stator structure, speed of rotor field with respect to stator field is zero. Thus the stator
and rotor fields are stationary with respect to each other.
Example 3.2 A properly shunted centre-zero galvanometer is connected in the rotor circuit of a
6-pole, 50 Hz wound-rotor induction motor. If the galvanometer makes 90 complete oscillations
in one minute, calculate the rotor speed.
Solution. One complete oscillation of galvanometer corresponds to one cycle of rotor frequency.
90
Rotor frequency, f 2  Sf1   1.5 Hz
60
f 2 1.5
or Slip, S    0.03 s = fz fl =501.5 = 0.03
f1 50
120  50
Rotor speed, N  N S (1  S)  (1  0.03)  970 r.p.m.
6

9
3.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL
The preceding sections have provided an appreciation of the physical behavior of the induction
machine. We now proceed to develop an equivalent circuit model that can be used to study and
predict the performance of the induction machine with reasonable accuracy. In this section a
steady-state per-phase equivalent circuit will be derived.
For convenience, consider a three-phase wound-rotor induction machine a shown in Figure 3.12.
In the case of a squirrel-cage rotor, the rotor circuit can be represented by an equivalent three-
phase rotor winding. If currents flow in both stator and rotor windings, rotating magnetic fields
will be produced in the air gap.

Stator Rotor
Air-gap

Figure 3.12 Three-phase induction machines equivalent circuit model

Because they rotate at the same speed in the air gap, they will produce a resultant air gap field
rotating at the synchronous speed. This resultant air gap field will induce voltages in both stator
windings (at slip frequency f1) and rotor windings (at slip frequency f2). It appears that the
equivalent circuit may assume a form identical to that of a transformer.
3.3.1 Stator Equivalent Circuit
The stator winding can be represented as shown in Figure 3.13(a),

R1 X1

V1 Rc Xm E1

(a)
Where V1 = per-phase terminal voltage
R1 = per-phase stator winding resistance
X1 = per-phase stator leakage reactance
E1 = per-phase induced voltage in the stator winding
Xm = per-phase stator magnetizing reactance
Rc = per-phase stator core loss resistance

10
Note that there is no difference in form between this equivalent circuit and that of the
transformer primary winding. The difference lies only in the magnitude of the parameters. For
example, the excitation current Io is considerably large in the induction machine because of the
air gap. In induction machines it is as high as 30 to 50 percent of the rated current, depending on
the motor size where as it is only 1 to 5 percent in transformers. Moreover, the leakage reactance
X1 is large because of the air gap and also because the stator and rotor windings are distributed
along the periphery of the air gap rather than concentrated on a core, as in the transformer.
3.3.2 Rotor Equivalent Circuit
The rotor equivalent circuit at slip s is shown in Figure 3.13 (b).
SX2 X2

R2
SE2 R2 E2 S

(b) (c)
Where, E2 = per-phase induced voltage in rotor at standstill (i.e. at stator frequency f1)
R2 = per –phase rotor circuit resistance
X2 = per –phase rotor leakage reactance
Note that this circuit is at frequency f2. The rotor current I2 is
sE2
I2  3.1
R2  jsX 2
The power involved in the circuit is
P2  I 2 R2
2
3.2
Which represents the rotor coppers loss per phase
Equation 1.1 can be rewritten as
E2
I2  3.3
( R2 / s )  jX 2
Equation (3.3) suggests the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13 (c). Although the magnitude
and phase angle of I2 are the same in Eqs.(3.1)and (3.3), there is a significant difference between
these two equations and the circuits (Figure 3.13 (b) and (c)) they represent. The current I2 in
Eq.(3.1) is at slip frequency f2, where as I2 in Equation (3.3) is at line frequency f1. In Eq.(3.1)
the rotor leakage reactance SX2 varies with speed but resistance R2 remains fixed, whereas in
Eq.(3.3) the resistance R2/s varies with speed but the leakage reactance X2 remains unaltered.
The per-phase power associated with the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c).
R2 P2
P  I2 
2
3.4
S S

11
Because induction machines are operated at low slips (typical values of slip s are 0.01 to 0.05)
the power associated with Figure 3.13(c) is considerably larger. Note that the equivalent circuit
of Figure 3.13(c) is at the stator frequency, and therefore this is the rotor equivalent circuit as
seen from the stator. The power in Eq.(3.4) therefore represents the power that crosses the air
gap and thus includes the rotor copper loss as well as the mechanical power developed, Equation
(3.4) can be rewritten as .
 R 
P  Pag  I 2 2  R2  2 ( 1  s 
 S  3.5
R
 I 22 2
S
The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.13(d).
X2

R2

E2
R2
1  S 
S

(d)
The speed dependent resistance R2 (1-s)/s represents the mechanical power developed by the
induction machine.
R2
P mech  I 2 2 ( 1  S)
S
 (1  S) Pag
1 S
 .P2
S
and
P2  I 2 2 R 2  SPag
Thus
Pag : P2 :Pmech  1 : S : 1  S

This equation indicates that, of the total power input to the rotor (i.e. power crossing the air gap,
Pag), a fraction s is dissipated in the resistance of the rotor circuit (known as rotor copper loss)
and the fraction 1-s is converted into mechanical power. Therefore, for efficient operation of the
induction machine, it should operate at a low slip so that more of the air gap power is converted
into mechanical power. Part of the mechanical power will be lost to overcome the windage and
friction. The remainder of the mechanical power will be available as out put shaft power.
3.3.3 Complete Equivalent Circuit
The stator equivalent circuit, Figure 3.13(a) and the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure 3.13(c) or
(d) are at the same line frequency f1 and therefore can be joined together. However, E1 and E2
may be different if the turns in the stator wining and the rotor winding are different. If the turns

12
ratio  a  N1

 is considered, the equivalent circuit of the induction machine is that shown in
 N 2 
Figure 3.13(e). Note that the form of the equivalent circuit is identical to that of a two-winding
transformer, as expected.
I2
R1 X1 I 2'  X 2'  a 2 X 2
a
I1 Io
Ic Im

Xm E2  aE2  E1
'
E1 Rc R2' a 2 R2
V1 
S S

Pag

(e)
Figure 3.13 Development of the induction machine equivalent circuit

3.4.4 Various equivalent circuit

The equivalent circuit shown in Figure3.13 (e) is not convenient to use for predicting the
performance of the induction machine. As a result, several simplified versions have been
proposed in various textbooks on electric machines. There is no general agreement on how to
treat the shunt branch (i.e., Rc and Xm), particularly the resistance RC representing the core loss
in the machine. Some of the commonly used versions of the equivalent circuit are discussed here.
3.4.5 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
If the voltage drop across R1 and X1 is small and the terminal voltage V1 does not appreciably
differ from the induced voltage E1, the magnetizing branch (i.e. Rc and Xm), can be moved to the
machine terminals as shown in Figure 3.14 (a).
R1 X1 X’2
I1
Io I’2

V1 Rc Xm R2'
S

Pag

(a)
This approximation of the equivalent circuit will considerably simplify computation, because the
excitation current (Io) and the load component (I'2) of the machine current can be directly
computed from the terminal voltage V1 by dividing it by the corresponding impedance.
Note that if the induction machine is connected to a supply of fixed voltage and frequency the
stator core loss is fixed. At no load, the machine will operate close to synchronous speed.
Therefore, the rotor frequency f2 is very small and hence rotor core loss is very small. At a lower

13
speed f2 increases and so does the rotor core loss. The total core losses thus increase as the speed
falls. On the other hand, at no load, friction and windage losses are maximum and as speed falls
these losses decreases. Therefore, if a machine operates from a constant voltage and constant-
frequency source, the sum of core losses and friction and windage losses remains essentially
constant at all operating speeds. These losses can thus be lumped together and termed the
constant rotational losses of the induction machine. If the core loss is lumped with the windage
and frication loss Rc can be removed from the equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 3.14(b).
R1 X1 X’2
I1
Io I’2

V1 Xm R2'
S

Pag

(b)
Figure 3.14 Approximate equivalent circuit of Induction motor
3.4.6 IEEE Recommended Equivalent Circuit
In the induction machine, because of its air gap, the exciting current Io is high of the order of 30
to 50 percent of the full-load current. The leakage Reactance X1 is also high . The IEEE
recommends that in such situation, the magnetizing reactance Xm not be moved to the machine
terminals (as is done in Figure 3.14b), but be retained at its appropriate place, as shown in Figure
3.15. The resistance RC is however, omitted, and the core loss is lumped with the windage and
friction losses. This equivalent circuit (Figure 3.15) is to be preferred for situation in which the
induced voltage E1 differs appreciably from the terminal voltage V1.
R1 X1 I'2 X'2

I1 Io

R '2
V1 Xm
S

Pag

Figure 3.15 IEEE Recommended Equivalent Circuit

Example 3.3 A 3-phase slip ring induction motor gives a reading of 55V across slip rings on
open circuit when at rest with normal stator voltage applied. The rotor is star-connected and has
impedance of (0.7 + j 5) per phase. Find the rotor current when the machine is (a) at stand still
with the slip rings joined to a star-connected starter with a phase impedance of (4 + j 3) ohms
and (b) running normally with a 5 percent slip.

14
 Solution
(a) At standstill, i.e. S=1
55
Induced emf per phase in rotor winding, E 2   31.8V
3
Resistance per phase in rotor circuit, r2  0.7  4  4.7  4.7 
Reactance per phase in rotor circuit, x2  5  3  8
Impendence per phase in rotor circuit, z2  r22  x22  4.7 2  8 2  9.28
E 31.8
Rotor current per phase, I 2  2   3.425 A
z 2 9.28
r 4.7
Power factor cos  2  2   0.506 ( lagging)
z 2 9.28
(b) Running normally at 5 Percent slip
Induced e.m.f in rotor winding per phase,
E 2 S  SE2  0.05  31.8  1.59V
Reactance per phase in rotor circuit,
x 2 S  Sx2  0.05  5  0.25 
Rotor impedance per phase,
z2 S  r22  x22S  0.7 2  0.252  0.7433

E2 S 1.59
Rotor current per phase, I 2    2.14 A
z 2 S 0.7433
Power factor,
r 0.7
cos  2  2   0.92 ( lagging)
z2 S 0.7433
Example 3.4 A 3, 15 hp, 460V, 4-pole, 60Hz, 1728 rpm induction motor delivers full output
power to a load connected to its shaft. The windage and friction loss of the motor is 750 W.
Determine the
a. Mechanical power developed.
b. Air gap power
c. Rotor copper loss.
Solution
a) Full-load shft power, Pshaft = 15  746 = 11,190 W
Mechanical power developed, Pmech = Pshaft + Pf&w
= 11,190 + 750 = 11,940 W
120  f 120  60
b. Synchronous speed, N s    1800 rpm
P 4

15
 N s  N 1800  1728
Slip, S   0.04
Ns 1800
Pmech 11,940
Air gap power, Pag    12,437.5 W
1  S 1  0.04
P2  SPag  0.04  12,437.5  497.5 W
c. Rotor copper loss,
3.5 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
The equivalent circuits derived in the preceding section can be used to predict the performance
characteristics of the induction machine. The important performance, characteristics in the steady
state are the efficiency, power factor, current, starting torque maximum (or pull-out) torque, and
so forth.
The mechanical torque developed Tmech per phase is given by
R2
Pmech  Tmech .   I2 . (1  S ) 33331
2
mech 3.6
S
Where,
2 N
mech  3.6 a
60
The mechanical speed  mech is related to the synchronous speed by
mech  ( 1  S )syn
Ns 11 3.7
 2 ( 1  s )
60
and
120 f
 syn  x 2 3.8
P .60
From Eqs. (3.6) and (3.7)
2
I R
Tmech . syn  2 2  pag 3.9
S

1
Tmech  .Pag 3.10
 syn

1 R2

2
.I2 3.10a
 syn S

16
 1 R2

2
I2 3.11
 syn S
From Thevenin equivalent circuit and Eq.1.11
2
1 Vth R2
Tmech  . . 3.12
 syn
R
( Rth  2 )2  ( X th  X 2 )2 S
S
Note that if the approximate equivalent circuits (Figure 3.13(b) are used to determine I2 in
Eq.(3.12) Vth, Rth and Xth should be replaced by V1, R1 and X1 respectively. The prediction of
performance based on the approximate equivalent circuit may differ by 5 percent from those
based on the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.15 or Figure 3.16.
For a three-phase machine Eq.3.12 should be multiplied by three to obtain the total torque
developed by the machine.
2
3 Vth R2
T3 , mech  . .
 syn ( Rth 
R2 2
)  ( X th  X 2 ) 2 S
S
The torque-speed characteristic is shown in Figure 3.17. At low values of slip,
R2' R'
( Rth  )  ( X th  X 2' ) and 2  Rth
S S
And thus
1 V 2 th
Tmech  . .S 3.13
 syn R' 2

Tmax

TSt NS
N
0 STmax 0 S
1

Figure 3.17 Torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor

The linear torque-speed relationship is evident in Figure 3.17 near the synchronous speed. Note
that if the approximate equivalent circuits (Figure 3.14) are used in, Eq. (3.13), Vth should
replaced by V1. At larger values of slip,

17
 R2'
Rth   X th  X 2'
S
and
1 Vth R' 2
Tmech  . . 3.14
 syn ( X th  X ' 2 ) 2 S
The torque varies almost inversely with slip near S=1, as seen from Figure 3.16. Equation (3.12)
also indicates that at a particular speed (i.e. a fixed value of s) the torque varies as the square of
the supply voltage Vth (hence V1).
T

0 0%
=1
V 1
%
.7 07
=0
V 1
%
0.5
V 1=

N
NS

Figure 3.18 Torque speed characteristics at different voltages

Figure 3.18 shows the T-N profile at various supply voltages. This aspect will be discussed
further in a later section on speed control of induction machines by changing the stator voltage.
Maximum Torque
dTmech
An expression for maximum torque can be obtained by setting  0 . Differentiating Eq.
dS
(3.12) with respect to slip s and equating the result to zero gives the following condition for
maximum torque.
R2'
ST max

 Rth2  ( X th  X 2' )2 1
2
3.15

This expression can be also be derived from the fact that the condition for maximum torque
corresponds to the condition for maximum air gap power (Eq.3.10). This occurs, by the familiar
impedance-matching principle in circuit theory, when the impedance of R'2/s equals in
magnitude the impedance between it and the supply voltage V1 (Figure 3.16) as shown in
Eq.(3.15). The slip Smax at maximum torque Tmax is

R2'
ST max 
R 
1 3.16
2
th  ( X th  X 2' )2 2

The maximum torque per phase from Eqs. (1.12) and (1.16) is

18
 2
1 Vth
Tmax  . 3.17
2 syn Rth  [ R  ( X th  X ) ]
2 ' 2
1
2
th 2

Equation (3.17) shows that the maximum torque developed by the induction machine is
independent of the rotor circuit resistance. However, from Eq. (3.16) it is evident that the value
of the rotor resistance R2 determines the speed at which this maximum torque will occur. The
torque-speed characteristics for various values of R2 are shown in Figure.3.19.

TSt
TSt R2
increasing
TSt

NS

Figure 3.19 Torque-speed characteristics for varying R2

In a wound–rotor induction motor, external resistance is added to the rotor circuit to make the
maximum torque occur at standstill so that high starting torque can be obtained. As the motor
speeds up, the external resistance is gradually decreased and finally taken out completely. Some
induction motors are, in fact, designed so that maximum torque is available at start, that is, at
zero speed.
If the stator resistance R1 is small (hence Rth is negligibly small), from Eqs. (3.16) and (3.17),

R2'
ST max  3.18
X th  X 2'
2
1 Vth
Tmax   3.19
2 syn X th  X 2'
Equation (3.19) indicates that the maximum torque developed by induction machine is inversely
proportional to the sum of the leakage reactances. From Eq. (3.12), the ratio of the maximum
torque developed to the torque developed at any speed is
2
 R2' 
 X th  X 2' 
2
 R
 th  

 
Tmax S  S
2
 3.20
T   ST max
 Rth  R2   X th  X 2' 2
'

 STma x 
 

19
 If R1 (hence Rth) is negligibly small,
2
 R2' 
  X th  X 2' 
2

 
Tmax S  S
2
 3.21
T  R2'  S T max
   X th  X 2' 2
 ST 
 max 
From Eqs. (3.18) and (3.21)
2
 R' 
2
 R2' 
    2 
Tmax  S   ST 
  max   S
2 3.22
T  R2'  ST max
2 
 ST 
 max 
2

Dividing both the numerator and denominator of Eq (3.22) by  R2 

'

S 
 T 
max

1  S T   S
2
Tmax
    1max

T 2  S   S T max

1  ST  S  S
2 2

  
max

2 S2  ST max

1 S  S 
2 2


Tmax
 
2  S  ST  max

Hence,
Tmax S2  S2
 T max 3.23
T 2 ST S max

Equation (3.23) shows the relationship between torque at any speed and the maximum torque in
terms of their slip values.
Example 3.5 A 6-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz, induction motor runs on full load with a slip of 4
percent. Given the rotor standstill impedance per phase as (0.01 + j 0.05), calculate the
available maximum torque in terms of full load torque. Also determine the speed at which the
maximum torque occurs. .
Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.01
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.05
Full load slip, S=4%=0.04
Ratio of maximum torque to full load torque

20
 2
 R2   0.01 
2
   S 2fl   0.04
2

 X2    0.05  
0.0416
 2.6
R2 0.01 0 .016
2  S fl 2  0.04
X2 0.05

Maximum torque, Tmax  2.6T fl

R2 0.01
(ii) Slip corresponding to maximum torque, ST max    0.2
X 2 0.05
Speed corresponding to maximum torque,
120  50
N  N s ( 1  ST max )  ( 1  0.2 )
6
 800 r . p .m.
Example 3.6 A 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.024 per
phase and standstill reactance of 0.6  per phase. Determine the speed at which the maximum
torque is developed.
Solution
Rotor resistance per phase, R2=0.024
Rotor standstill reactance per phase, X2=0.6
Since the torque under running condition is maximum at that value of the slip which makes rotor
reactance per phase equal to the rotor resistance per phase,
R 0.024
Slip corresponding to maximum torque, ST max  2   0.04
X2 0.6
Speed corresponding to maximum torque,
N  N S 1  ST max 
120  50
 1  0.04
4
 1440rpm
Example 3.7 The maximum torque of a 3-phase induction motor is twice the full load torque
and starting torque is equal to full load torque. Calculate the full load speed and the slip at which
maximum torque occurs.
Solution Maximum torque, Tmax  2T fl
Starting torque, Tst  T fl
Ratio of starting torque to maximum torque,
Tst
 0.5
Tmax
Since from Eq.1.23

21
 Tst 2S
 2 T max
Tmax ST max  1
2ST max
0.5 
ST2 max  1

or ST2 max  4 ST max  1  0

Therefore, slip corresponding to maximum torque,

4  42  4
ST max   2  3  0.268 rejecting higher value
2
Let the full load slip of Sfl. Since the ratio of full load torque to maximum torque (Eq.3.23) is
given by the expression
T fl 2ST max  S fl

Tmax ST2 max  S 2fl

1 2  0.268  S fl
Or 
2 0.2682  S 2fl

Or 02682  S 2fl  4  0.268  0

Or S fl  0.072 rejecting higher value.

Full load speed,
N  N S 1  S fl   N s 1  0.072  0.928N s i.e. 0.928 times synchronous speed
STATOR CURRENT
From IEEE recommended equivalent circuit Figure 3.16, the input impedance is
 R' 
Z1  R1  jX 1  X m //  2  jX 2' 
 S 
 R1  jX 1  X m // Z 2
'

 R' 
jX m  2  jX 2' 
Z1  R1  jX 1   S 
R2'
 j ( X m  X 2' )
S
 Z1 1
The stator current is
V
I 1  1  I o  I 2'
Z1

22
At synchronous speed (i.e., S=0), R2'/s is infinite and so I2' = 0. The stator current I1 is the
exciting current Io. At larger values of slip S2'(=R2'/s +jX2’) is low and therefore I2'(and hence I1)
is large. In fact, the typical starting current (i.e. at S=1) is five to eight times the rated current.
The typical stator current variation with speed is shown in Figure 3.20.
I1
pu
6
5
4
3
2
1

-Ns 0 Ns N

Figure 3.20 Stator current as a function of speed

INPUT POWER FACTOR
The supply power factor is given by
PF  Cosθ1
where 1 is the phase angle of the stator current I1. This phase angle 1 is the same as the
impedance angle of the equivalent circuit of Figure 3.15. The typical power factor variation with
speed is shown in Figure 3.21.
PF

0.8

0.5

0 Ns N

Figure 3.21 Power factor as a function of speed

EFFICIENCY
In order to determine the efficiency of the induction machine as a power converter, the various
losses in the machine are first identified. These losses are illustrated in the power flow diagram
of Figure 3.22 For a 3 machine the power input to the stator is
Pin =3V1 I1 Cos 1
The power loss in the stator windings is

P1  3I12 R 1
Where R1 is the ac resistance (including skin effect) of each phase winding at the operating
temperature and frequency.

23
Power is also lost as hysteresis and eddy current loss in the magnetic material of the stator core.
The remaining power, Pag , crosses the air gap. Part of it is lost in the resistance of the rotor
circuit. P2  3I 22 R 2
Where, R2 is the ac resistance of the rotor winding. If it is a wound-rotor machine, R2 also
includes any external resistance connected to the rotor circuit through slip rings.
Power is also lost in the rotor core. Because the core losses are dependent on the frequency f 2 of
the rotor, these may be negligible at normal operating speeds, where f2 very low.
Stator Rotor Friction &
core loss core loss Windage Loss

Pag
Pmech
Pin  3V1I1Cosθ1
Pout (shaft)

Stator Rotor
copper loss copper loss

Figure 3.22 Power flow diagram of induction motor

The remaining is converted into mechanical form. Part of this is lost as windage and friction
losses, which are dependent on speed. The rest is the mechanical output power P out which is the
useful power output from the machine.
The efficiency of the induction motor is
Pout
 3.24
Pin
The efficiency is highly dependent on slip. If all losses are neglected except those in the
resistance of the rotor circuit,
Pag = Pin
P2 = sPag
Pout = Pmech = Pag (1S)
and the ideal efficiency is
Pout
 ideal   1  S 3.25
Pin
Sometimes (ideal) is also called the internal efficiency as it represents the ratio of the power
output to the air gap power. The ideal efficiency as a function of speed is shown in Figure 3.23.
It indicates that an induction machine must operate near its synchronous speed if high efficiency
is desired. This is why the slip is very low for normal operation of the induction machine. If

24
 other losses are included, the actual efficiency is lower than the ideal efficiency of Eq.(3.25) as
shown in Figure.3.23. The full-load efficiency of a large induction motor may be as high as 95
percent.

η Ideal
efficiency,
1-S

Actual
efficiency
0.5

0 Ns N
.
Figure 3.23 Efficiency as a function of speed

Example 3.8 A 3, 460V, 1740rpm, 60Hz, 4-pole wound-rotor induction motor has the
following parameters per phase:
R1=0.25 R2’=0.2
X1=X2’=0.5 Xm=30
The rotation losses are 1700 w. with the rotor terminals short-circuited, find
a). i) Starting current when started direct on full-voltage
ii) Starting torque
b) i) Full-load slip
ii) Full-load current
iii) Ratio of starting current to full-load current
iv) Full-load power factor
v) Full-load torque
vi) Internal efficiency and the motor efficiency at full-load
c) i) Slip at which maximum torque is developed
ii) Maximum torque developed
d) How much external resistance per phase should be connected in the rotor circuit
so that the maximum torque occurs at start?
Solution
460
a) V1   265.6 V / phase
3
At start S=1. The input impedance is

25
  r' 
jX m  2  jx '2 
s
Z1  r1  x1  '  
r2
s

 j x m  x '2 
j300.2  j0.5
 0.25  j0.5 
0.2  j30.5
 1.0866 
265.6
I st   245.9   66A
1.0866
2 N s 2   1800
syn    188.5 rad / s
60 60
V1 jX m 266.5  j30.0
Vth    261.3V
r1  j xm  x1  0.25  j30.5

jX m ( R1  jX 1 ) j30( 0.25  j0.5 )

Z th    0.5563.9
R1  j( X 1  X m ) 0.25  j30.5
 0.24  j0.49 
 Rth  0.24  ; X th  0.49 
2
3 Vth R2'
Tst   .
 syn ( Rth  R2' ) 2  ( X th  X 2 ) 2 S
3 261.3 2 0.2
   
188.5 ( 0.24  0.2 )  ( 0.49  0.5 )
2 2
1
 185.2 N .m
b) At full-load
N s  N 1800  1740
S   0.0333
Ns 1800

R2' 0.2
  6.01 
s 0.0333
j306.01  j0.5
Z1  0.25  j0.5 
6.01  j30.5
 0.25  j0.5  5.598  j1.596
 6.212319.7 

26
 265.6
I FL   42.754   19.7A
6.212319.7 
I st 245.9
  5.75
I FL 42.754
PF= cos(19.7)=0.94 lagging
3 261.32
TFL   6.01
188.5 (0.24  6.01) 2  (0.49  0.5) 2
 163.11 N.m
Air gap power
Pag  Tsyn  163.11 188.5  30,746.2 W
Rotor copper loss:
P2  sPag  0.0333 30,746.2  1023.9 W

P2  1  sPag  1  0.0333  30,746.2  29,722.3 W

Pout  Pmech  Prot  29,722.3  1700  28,022.3 W

Pin  3V1 I 1 cos  1  3  265.6  42.754  0.94  32,022.4 W

Pout 28,022.3
motor    100  87.5%
Pin 32,022.4
int ernal  ( 1  s )  1  0.0333  0.967  96.7%
c)
From Eq. 3.16
R '2
S T max 
R 2
th  ( X th  X '2 ) 2  1
2

0.2 0.2
   0.1963
0.24 2
 0.49  0.5
2

1
2 1.0187

From Eq.1.17
2
3 Vth
Tmax  .
2 syn R  [ R  ( X  X ' ) 2 ] 12
2
th th th 2

3  261.32 
  
 
2  188.5  0.24  0.242  0.49  0.52 
1
2 

 431.68N.m

27
 Tmax 431.68
  2.65
TFL 163.11

d)
R '2  R 'ext
ST max  1 
R 2
th ( X th  X '2 ) 2  1
2

R '2  R 'ext R '2  R 'ext

 
0.24 0.49  0.5 2
2 2

1
1.0187
R 'ext  1.0187  0.2  0.8187
Note that for parts (a) and (b) it is not necessary to use Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Calculation
can be based on the equivalent circuit of Figure. 3.15 as follows:
Z1  r1  x 1  R e  jX e
 0.25  j0.5  5.598  j1.596
3 2 3
T I1 R e   42.7542  5.598
syn 188.5
 163 N.m

MODES OF OPERATION OF A 3-PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES

The three phase induction machine has the following three modes or operating regions of
operations depending upon the values of slips:
a) Motoring Mode : 1<S>0
Under normal operation, rotor revolves in the direction of rotating field produced by the stator
currents. As such, the slip varies from 1 at standstill to zero at synchronous speed, i.e. 1 < S > 0.
The corresponding speed values are zero (S=1) and synchronous speed (S=0).
b) Generating Mode: S < 0.
For this operating modes, slip is negative, i.e. S<0. An induction motor will operate in this region
only when its stator terminals are connected to constant-frequency voltage source and its rotor is
driven above synchronous speed by prime mover. The connection of stator terminals to voltage
source is essential in order to establish the rotating air gap field at synchronous speed. In case
stator is disconnected from voltage source and rotor is driven above synchronous speed by the
prime mover, no generating action takes place.
c) Braking Mode: S > 1.
For this mode, slip is greater than 1. a slip more than one can be obtained by driving the rotor ,
with a prime mover, opposite to the direction of rotating field. But such a use in practice is rare.
A practical utility of slip more than 1 is obtained by bringing the rotor to a quick stop by braking
action, called plugging. For obtaining S>1, or for obtaining plugging, any two stator terminal

28
leads are interchanged. With this the phase sequence is reversed and, therefore, the direction of
rotating magnetic field becomes suddenly opposite to that of the rotor rotation. The
electromagnetic torque T, now acting opposite to rotor rotation, produces the braking action.
Thus the motor can be quickly brought to rest by plugging, but the stator must be disconnected
from the supply before the rotor can start rotate in the other direction.
All the three regions of operation (braking, S=2.0 to S=1.0; motor regions, S=1.0 to S=0 and
generator region, S=0 to S=-1) are illustrated in Figure 3.26.
BRAKING MOTOR GENERATOR
REGION REGION REGION

Tmax

-NS 0 NS 2NS
Tmax

S=2 S=1 S=0 S=-1

Figure 3.26 torque-slip curve of an induction machine showing its braking, motor and generator regions

29