Introduction

Audio-visual production is a final phase when you test your competences of

photography, audio, video, storytelling and project management. In this
module you will implement media projects, which will hopefully motivate you
to learn more and further develop your competences and then to implement
new projects and again and again and again…

To work on a project means that you often work in a team and you need to
communicate your ideas internally and externally. Thereby you will develop
social skills, concurrently with creative and digital skills required to
implement media projects. Every new project is a new endeavour, for which
you need to plan, implement, complete and present results to the target
audience even if you target your family members or neighbours. By working
on media projects, you will build you entrepreneurial competen-cies
applicable in private and professional life, regardless of your areas of
interest.

Pre-production

You just want to grab your camera and start shooting. Now. Something.
Somewhere. It is true that some works of art came out spontaneously and
out of nowhere. But we are not in a gambling business and we want to
improve your chances of success.

Therefore we start with planning which is in audio-visual industry called pre-

production. The pre-production output will include two main elements. The
first one is a story plan and the second one is a project plan. In both plans
you may help yourself by asking 5W questions: who, what, where, when and
why. If you need it you may add the question how. You are not ready for the
production phase until you answered all these questions.

You should work on a theme that you know very well or you are anxious to
learn about. Anyway, you should seek to find a theme where all your team
members share interests and where is likely that all of you will stay focused
until the project is finished and presented. Therefore discuss it, before you
start it. Do your research. Try to find as many as possible reliable sources of
information. Try to see your story from at least two different angles. People
will be more open to talk to you if they see that

you did your homework and know what you are talking about. Try to select
the most important issues and focus on [Link] your plan on a paper and
share it with all people involved. Change it if necessary. It is not a problem if
everything didn’t go according to the plan. The problem is if you are not
ready to adjust your plans to the new circumstances. Therefore think ahead
of possible contingency plans.

Before we start with shooting, think again if all the people and all the
equipment will be available when you planned your production and if lighting
conditions will be just right and if no noise will disturb you and if you are sure
you can control all that, please think once [Link]’t just think. Before you
start your production, go to the locations where you plan your shooting and
check the environment. Especially pay attention to the position of sun in the
morning and in the evening if you shoot in exterior. If you plan to shoot
inside you have to check both artificial lighting setup and the natural light
coming from windows.

Digital Storytelling

We tell and listen to stories every day-we meet friends and tell about
ourselves, the things that have happened or describe how things were done.
Sometimes we want to look into the future and imagine what it might be like.
Stories are told about personal life and used in the classroom for teaching
purposes and to inform society about events, discoveries, inventions, good
practice and much more. In our professional life we also use storytelling
technique. In some cases the process of documentation and sharing our
experience can be rather academic, and therefore has no power to inspire
the reader. Certainly facts and analytical aspect are essential, but to make
good practice memorable, persuasive, and powerful you have to add your
own personal touch or attitude.

There are several steps in the process of creating a digital story. The first
steps are connected with the creation of the idea, gathering and organising
the information. In this process graphic organisers might be helpful as they
help to organize information visually, converting a lot of seemingly disjointed
pieces into a structured, simple-to-read visual representation. When the
story map is prepared the next step is to write the script that will be
recorded. If you want to make your story digital then the author should
“see” the finished story
7

before the technical implementation starts. That means it should be decided

what media - sound, video, still photos, graphics and interactivity is
necessary. This process of organizing media and text in a coherent ways is
called [Link] new form of storytelling has emerged and it allows
individuals to share their stories over the Internet, on discs, podcasts, or
other electronic distribution systems. The beauty of this form of digital
expression is that these stories can be created by people everywhere, on
any subject, and shared elec-tronically all over the world.

Although nowadays people are fascinated by creating digital stories and it

might seem fun and easy job, making a powerful story still re-quires

fundamental intellectual skills.

In order to make a digital story that is extremely effective and emotionally

powerful, you have to acquire a large variety of skills: the skills you need for
a traditional story - oral and written storytelling skills as well as digital and
art skills, communication skills and critical thinking skills.

A written story becomes more fascinating with the use of visual images that
have become a predominant form of communication delivered across a wide
range of media and formats. Visual literacy can be defined as the ability to
construct meaning from visual images. Visual literacy is about interpreting
images of the present and past and producing images that effectively
communicate the message to the audience

The key questions to ask yourself to check the structure and content of the
story:

Is it focused? Is it logical? Is the thinking clear and concise? Is it easy for

the reader to understand?

Introduction to Project Managment

Project Management is something that every person is faced with at some

stage of his or her life. Everyone has to organise a birthday party or a
function of some kind. Project management is more a part of one’s daily life
than we realise or even think of. The basic principles of project management
can be applied in organising Sunday lunch for a family gathering, managing
the school drama competition, organising a national arts festival and Audio-
visual production !

All projects have common characteristics: every project has a scope, budget,
timeframe and schedule. Projects also differ. Understanding how projects
differ and what that difference means to the management of the project is
critical to successfully managing a project. Large, complex projects need
project management tools, systems, and processes that are very different
from the small and less complex project.

Project management is challenging. In some ways, this is a good thing

because students who learn how to manage projects well will find it a
rewarding career, and there will always be a demand for their services.
Project management is challenging because projects consist of many
activities that are interrelated, and the actions taken in one activity affect
several other aspects of the project. Project management is complex
because project managers must understand several knowledge areas and
develop a variety of tools and techniques to successfully manage a project.
This complexity makes it challenging to learn about project mana-gement
because regardless of which

activity you begin to study, you need to know something about the other
activities to which it is related.

Nothing or very little, in arts and culture happens outside the framework of
project management: creativity, activities, doings and happenings. Project
management should therefore be considered as one of the fundamentals of
the successful management of the creative sector; crucial to the longterm
sustainability of arts and culture and ensuring a sound and stable
environment in which artists can be creative. The performing and visual arts,
broadcasting, film-making, writing and design for example encompass a
range of activities which are economic and need to be managed well to
realise effective results.

Audio-visual management

Production
Production is all about creating a content. It is the process of taking pictures,
capturing video, recording audio or combination of all [Link] it is the
time to jump. I hope you have agreed on who is responsible for what in your
team. Production phase is not a good moment to practise democracy and
although it is most often wise to hear the alternative opinion, somebody
needs to be in charge of the production and make final decisions. Otherwise
it might just happen that a cloud goes over the sun and ruin your scene,
while you are discussing the right background for an interview with a
celebrity who is about to leave in few moments if you don’t make up your
mind.

Try to follow the plans and produce the right amount of audio-vi-sual
materials that you need for the project. What does it mean right amount? It
means that too little materials may force you to go back and produce more if
that’s possible at all. It also means that too much materials may force you to
spend a lot of time just to select the best shots, before you can even start
editing. In other words in media projects quantity is no substitute for quality.
Don’t worry. Your judgments and quality of produced materials will im-prove
over time, but only with a lot of [Link] your production based on
the human and technical resources that you have available.

Before you start complaining about the camera or editing software, make
sure you have learnt. Stay focused on your story. First story than good
picture and good sound. After all, the story is why you started your media
project. However, if you can’t see the story and hear the story your audien-
ce won’t be too excited. Stay focused on your story. First story than good
picture and good sound. After all, the story is why you started your media
project. However, if you can’t see the story and hear the story your audien-
ce won’t be too excited.

10

Camera types

We watch the world around us with our eyes. The brain processes the
information received by the eye and stores it into memory. Recording of
moving images requires a camera: a device that has a lens (eye), electric
circuits which process the information (brain) and data storage (memory).
However, unlike the human mind which is very adaptable and has the ability
to learn, a camera is based on electronics and mechanics, it does not have
the ability to learn and requires an operator (cameraman) who will wield it.
Unlike a photographic camera, a movie (video) camera allows us to record
moving images and the passage of events through time. The choice of
camera, dependant on its use and possibilities, is the first step in video
production.

Camera types – Camcorder,DSLR,Sport camera,Smartphone...

11

Camcorder

If you want to record a quality video, movie or a feature video, like a video
spot or a commercial, you will have to use a higher quality camera which will
provide controls more advanced than just the start/stop recording button.

Figure 1 . Camcorders

There are many types of cameras, ranging from amateur to professional

models. The latter are characterized by larger, higher quality recording
sensor and optics, resulting in higher image quality. The cameras have been
designed with easy handling in mind, and they have ports used to connect
additional equipment to the camera, and the camera to the computer.

12

DSLR

Although it is not primarily a video camera, the DSLR (digital single-lens

reflex) cameras have entered the world of video production and achieved
impressive video recording capabilities. The DSLR cameras are very
practical, being a single device which can take photographs and record
video. Compared to standard video cameras, with the DSLR cameras it is
easier to achieve Depth of field (DOF) and they have a wider array of
exchangeable lense objectives. This allows for a “movielike” video results,
often hard to achieve even with the semi-professional equipment.

Figure 2 . DSLR | recording with DSLR camera

13

Smartphone
Although it is not primarily a video camera, the DSLR (digital single-lens
reflex) cameras have entered the world of video production and achieved
impressive video recording capabilities.

Figure 3 - Sm artphone

If you use such a camera to record a scene with insufficient light, the camera
will try to compensate for the lack of light, reducing the quality of the video.
Such cameras have small lenses and sensors, meaning they are unable to
capture a high-quality video, unless in perfect conditions with plenty of
natural or artificial light.

Video Standards

Besides in size, possibilities and shape, cameras also differ in the way they
record and the characteristics of recorded video and audio.

Video Cameras record in one or more video standards. Since the introduction
of video around 1951, till the end of 20th century, two basic video standards
dominated: PAL and NTSC. With the appearance of new high definition (HD)
video formats during the last decade of the 20th century, PAL and NTSC
have become the standard definition (SD) formats.

Four characteristics define a video standard:

dimension of the picture (resolution) aspect ratio frame rate / frames per
second / fps display method - interlaced or progressive

14

Resolution

The quantity of information contained in every image of the video is defined

by the resolution. In digital video, the resolution is the most important factor
determining the quality of the video. In identical recording conditions (light,
composition, camera…) higher resolution results in a higher quality of video.

Figure 4 - R esolutions

There is little difference between the resolution in digital photography and

digital video, and is expressed in number of pixels. The size of an image in a
video is expressed by the number of pixels on the horizontal and vertical axis
of the image, for example 720x576 or 1920x1080. Resolution is defined by
the standard. There are currently two widely accepted video standards
based on the resolution: standard (SD) and high (HD). There are resolutions
higher than HD, as well, with 3K and 4K being the most prevalent.

15

Aspect Ratio

The width and height of an image expressed in pixels determines the

resolution, as well as the aspect ratio. The aspect ratio is determined by the
cut-out of the image or the space the frame depicts. SD video has an aspect
ratio of 4:3, while HD video uses 16:9 aspect ratio. The value for video and
film aspect ratio is often expressed in decimal form, for example 1.33:1 for
4:3, and 1.78:1 for 16:9.

Figure 5 - Picture Aspect Ration

The appearance of widescreen TVs (LCD and plasma technologies) with 16:9
aspect ratio has reduced the need for 4:3 aspect ratio, but a problem is that
some broadcasting companies still broadcast their signal in 4:3 aspect ratio,
which is then deformed (widened) if shown full-screen. Therefore, new TVs
have the possibility to insert black lines to the left and right of the image
(pillarbox).

Frames per Second (Frame Rate FPS)

The motion picture is created by a sequence of static images. By displaying

the images in a sequence an illusion of movement is created. The human
eye starts to perceives movement at speeds larger than 8 images per
second. The eye sees a smooth flow at rates of 24 images per second and
above.

16

The speed of video is measure by the number of images per second. The
recording speed is colloquially called the frame rate and expressed through
frames per second (fps). The following frame rates correspond to the
following video standards:
 60 fps - standard NTSC 720p HD frame rate 50 fps - standard PAL 720p HD
frame rate 30 fps - standard NTSC frame rate 25 fps - standard PAL frame
rate 24 fps - standard 35mm film tape frame rate

Camera Parts and Accessories

A camera is a complex device used for recording image and sound and
transferring the the recorded material to a computer for further editing. In
the previous chapter you have learned that there are different types of
cameras with different characteristics, both amateur and professional. The
more professional the camera, the greater the number of keys, controls and
functions. Amateur models allow simple handling: insert recording media,
switch the camera on, record. The image quality will be correct, but the more
you will use a camera, the more will you need additional image (and sound)
controls.

Figure 6 – Camera Parts

17

Lense

The lens is very important for capturing images and is crucial in setting the
film expression: framing, shot selection, focus, depth of field...

In

professional cameras, the lens allows for control of focus, exposition and
zoom. Amateur cameras have these controls located on the body of the
camera and they are not as accessible during the [Link] lens is very
important for capturing images and is crucial in setting the film expression:
framing, shot selection, focus, depth of field... In professional cameras, the
lens allows for control of focus, exposition and zoom. Amateur cameras have
these controls located on the body of the camera and they are not as
accessible during the recording.

Fig ure 7 – Lenses / DSLR lenses / Clip On Smartphone lenses

18

Battery
Battery needs to be maintained in order to ensure its capacity and longevity.
See usage instructions provided with your camera. Batteries lose capacity
with time. Make sure you know the state of your battery so that you may
replace your batteries on time.

Figure 8 - batteries and battery grip

The capacity of the battery is reduced with lower temperatures. Keep your
batteries in a dry and warm [Link] lose capacity with time. Make
sure you know the state of your battery so that you may replace your
batteries on [Link] capacity of the battery is reduced with lower
temperatures. Keep your batteries in a dry and warm place.

Figure 9 - battery Chargers

Recording Media

19

Cameras write to different media: magnetic tape (videotape), hard disk drive
(HDD), miniDV or memory cards. Each of these media have their advantages
and disadvantages.

Recording / storage media have changed as the technology evolved, but

some have remained in use due to their practical characteristics. For
example, MiniDV tapes are very practical for storage.

Some of the currently present media include:

Memory card MiniDV tape Digital Betacam tape Hard disk MiniDVD

Figure 9 - recording media (cards and tape)

Tripod

A tripod is used to ensure the stability of the image. A video tripod is more
robust that the tripod used for photography and it uses different mechanisms
which allow for smooth, glitch-free horizontal and vertical movement of the
camera.
A video tripod is made up of its legs and its head. Professional tripod has
these two components separated, allowing for use of different combinations
of heads and legs.

The legs of the tripod need to be solid enough to carry the weight of the
camera, and tall enough to raise the camera slightly above the eye-level of
an adult person. The head of the tripod is chosen based on the weight of the
camera.

F igure 10 - tripod mounts ( quick release plates )

20

F igure 11 - working with tripd

Lighting

Additional lightning is created using a lighting body, a tripod and shades

which direct the light. The heat created by a lighting body can be high
enough to cause serious burns. Be careful when handling switched-on
lighting. After you switch off the lighting, give it time to cool before you pack
it, in order to avoid injuries or damage to other equipment.

F igure 12 - light on set (Key, Fill,Back)

21

F igure 13 - l Key / Fill LED Light panel F igure 14 –

Small Back Light

Audio

Microphone and earphones are necessary for sound recording. Most cameras
have built-in microphones, as well as the possibility to connect external
microphones.

When choosing a microphone, make sure you check that your camera has
appropriate ports, or you will not be able to connect and use your
microphone.

F igure 15 - wireless microphone set Figure 16 - camera

sound panel (XLR connectors) The most common microphone connection on
a camera is the 3.5mm stereo mini jack. The other type of connection is the
XLR which is used for connecting professional audio equipment. The XLR

22

(also known as Canon) has an additional advantage as it can supply

condensing microphones with power. Since many amateur cameras do not
have the XLR port, certain microphones can be powered via a battery, using
an XLR-mini jack to connect to the camera. When an external microphone is
connected to a camera, the built-in microphone is automatically switched off.

Figure 17 - camera sound panel (XLR connectors)

Figure 18 – using smartphone as audio
recording device

Camera Exposure

Just as the lens in a human eye regulates the amount of light that reaches
the optical nerve, the lens of the objective regulates the amount of light
reaching the chip which records images. Due to its similarity with the human
eye, this mechanism is called the iris. This function is often called exposure,
however it does not stand for the duration of exposing an image to the light
as in photography, but only the amount of light passed through.

Figure 19 – exposure bar on DSLR camera

23

Figure 20 – good exposure

Figure 21 – underexposed shot

Figure 22 - o verexposed shot

24

Aperture

The aperture is measured in f-stops, the same as with photography cameras.

Most often, the aperture is adjusted according to the face of the subject. This
might mean that the remainder of the frame is overexposed (too bright,
“burnt”) or underexposed (too dark).
Filmmakers often combine different levels of brightness in order to create a
dramatic effect (for example, filming the subject as a dark silhouette against
a bright background), while television shows recorded in a studio (news, talk-
shows, entertainment…) in general have uniform lighting.

Figure 23 - lens with manual aperture (Blades)

Figure 24 - difference between f numbers (f - stops)

25

Shutter Speed

The shutter speed on a video camera has the same function as with a
photography camera: it controls the amount of light reaching the sensor and
affects the recording of movement. It is measured in fragments of a second:
1/50 means that the shutter is opened for a fiftieth of a second (which is also
the standard setting for recording in PAL standard). Technically speaking, the
shutter on the video camera functions differently than that of the
photography camera, but to the same effect. Instead of a using a mechanical
switch, the speed on the camera is regulated through the time in which the
sensor of the camera is switched on.

White Balance

Adjusting the white balance basically means making sure that a white or any
grey shadowed part of the picture is really white or grey, not with any red,
blue or green tones. It the colour of white or grey parts corresponds to
original colours, we are sure that all other colours are correct.

Figure 25 - white balance effect in kelvins

26

Most modern cameras have an AWB (automatic white balance) setting. In the
most cases can be let switched on, especially out doors when light is strong.
Ever if your photos have wrong colour balance, it can be easily corrected in
the computer.

Figure 26 - white balance table

Shots Composition

Assembly of a film shot is done by applying the same rules as in

photography. Special attention needs to be given to the layout of the
elements in a shot. The composition of the shot can be aided by applying the
the golden cut rule and its variant, the rule of thirds.

Figure 26 - video recording with smartphone

27

The rule of thirds

Split the shot into three equal horizontal and vertical parts. The four points of
intersection produced refer to the positions to which the human eye pays
most attention. Objects situated in the gold cut produce a harmonic relation
with their surroundings, while the shot itself becomes more dynamic and
interesting.

Figure 27 - using rule of thirds with grid Figure 28 -

video recording with DSLR (subject in thirds)

Framed composition

Framing is a method in which we try to capture the object of the photograph

within a homogenous content, as diverse from the object as possible, in
order to completely isolate the object from the rest of the photograph.

Figure 29 – Framed composition

28

Figure 30 – Framed composition / rule of thirds

Horizon

If the horizon splits your shot in the middle, you will get a static,
uninteresting composition. The shots should not be divided into equal halves
(horizontally or vertically) unless you are capturing a symmetric object or
scene.
Figure 31 – following horizon line

29 Camera movement

Panorama

Regardless of the camera movement, a single shot should include the

beginning and the end shot as static shots. Rotation of a camera around its
axis is colloquially called a panorama. A panorama creates a feeling of a
wider field of view. Before shooting a panorama, run a test shot in order to
set the right speed of movement and create a good composition including a
start and end of movement.

Figure 32 - Rotation of a camera around its axis - left to right and right to left

30

Tilt

Tilt is a vertical panorama in which the camera moves perpendicular to its

axis. It is used to depict the height of the object.

Figure 32 – Tilt camera movement

Driving

Professional driving equipment is expensive. Improvise using the elements

you may have at hand: skateboard, shopping cart, or any other assembly
with wheels will help you in driving the camera and/or cameraman.

Make sure that the surface on which you are moving is flat and without holes
or barriers which could cause vibrations or fall.

Figure 32 – Driving camera movement

31

Crane

A crane allows movement of the camera within all three spatial dimensions.
It resembles a see-saw you might find in a children’s playground. It is made
of a tripod and a ‘hand’ which is mounted on the central pole. One end of the
‘hand’ features a station for mounting the camera, while the other has a
counterweight. The crane can rotate 360 degrees both horizontally and
vertically. Lately, instead of cranes, cameraman are reverting to flying
drones.

Figure 33 – crane also known as jimi jib

Position of the camera

The filming angle can correct a composition and make a dull shot interesting.

Figure 34 – D ifferent camera angles

32

High Angle

This angle is used for depicting a space or a situation, relations between

people and/or objects in space. A person shot from a high angle seems
smaller, inferior, weak and subordinated.

Figure 34 – High Angle shot

Eye-level

This is the point of reference that we experience most often as we observe

the world around us - at eye level of an average height person standing.

Figure 34 – Eye - level shot

33

Low Angle

Low angle is a shot from a camera angle positioned low on the vertical axis,
anywhere below the eye line, looking up.

Low angles shots give a sense of powerlessness and makes you feel useful in
the scene and this type of camera angle would be useful for short actors.

Figure 35 – Low Angle shot

Camera Shots
Long shot

This is the widest shot in which one can see the entire space in which the
action takes place. It is used to depict landscapes, panoramas or massive
scenes. This shot is not determined by a human figure, but by space.

34

Figure 36 – Long shot

Full shot

This is a shot in which one can see the entire, or almost the entire human
figure, with ample space and visibility. It is one of the most often used shots,
especially in documentary film, as it resembles most closely the human eye’s
width of the field of view.

Figure 37 – Full shot

35

Medium shot

This shot captures a person from the waist up, where the person is covering
most of the shot. In wider formats (1,85:1 and wider) the medium shot can fit
more persons. In this shot, the attention of the viewer is focused on the
subjects of the action.

Figure 37 – Medium shot

Close-up

The attention of the viewer is concentrated on the face or an important

details of a scene. The closer the shot, the more attention is given to the
internal, emotional life of the character.

Figure 38 – Close - up shot

36

Extreme close-up
This shot depicts only a part of a person or object (eye, hand with a ring,
dials of a clock). The extreme close-up can also be a shot of an entire object
which is a part of a larger composition, for example a cup of coffee on a
restaurant table.

Figure 38 – Extreme Close - up shot

Post-production

When the shooting and recording is over you start a post-produc-tion phase
of your project. In the post-production you will make corrections of
brightness and contrast, exposure and colour, size and resolution, you will
trim and cut, equalize and amplify, add this, remove that and finally
assemble the story. It is the phase that ends when your work of art is
exported in a format ready for distribution on different media platforms.

What is the best editing software for you? The answer to that question is
fairly simple.

The one that satisfy your needs. For sim-ple projects it will be sufficient to
use freeware applications.

For professional projects you will have to learn professional tools all the way
through the production workflow.

37

It means both hardware and software should be in the same lea-gue. If you
are somewhere between amateurs and pros you will have to check your
budget and be realistic about how often you are going to use the equipment.
It makes no sense to spend a fortune and then have one more item to dust
on your desk. Don’t get overexcited by special effects before you can handle
basics of image, sound and video editing. I’m sure you remember, but let me
remind you once again. Story, story, story…

Editing

Many audiovisual creations get their features once they reach editing. This is
especially true of documentary movies in which it is difficult to plan all the
shots and situations, but also of hybrid forms such as recunstructed (acted-
out) documentaries. The editing is the fourth stage in movie making, the one
in which the final look, rhytm and structure of the film are defined. The
editor is one of the authors of the film, a person that shaped the fiml into
what the viewer will finally see (once the edited film is enriched with audio-
visual effects and music). The editor is in a way the last author and the first
viewer of the film, the first person watching the recorded materials,
sometimes without having participated in the actual filming.

Organization of materials

Dependat on the media on which you made your recordings, yout material is
stored on digital cassetes, hard drives built into the camera or flash memory
cards. One thing common to all these media and writing methods is that you
cannot name the individual created files during the recording.

38

Figure
39 – default video clip names The
best way to import your materials is by using an editing program. In case
you are not recording with a camera that has a built in hard disk drive or
flash memory, a good practice is to copy all the materials to a local hard
drive at the end of each day of shooting, organized into maps with dates of
the recording. Making of a backup copy is advised.

Video material

The material which was recorded to other media (hard disk drives, memory
cards, smartphone memory…) needs to be transferred to the hard disk drive
of the computer which will be used for editing, most often with a USB cable,
directly from a camera to the computer, or directly if the computer has a
memory card or optical device reader.

Music

The sound can also be edited by cuting or blending. By selecting the start
and end points of a shot, you are also selecting the start and end points
forthe sound track. However, when you are using a separate sound source
(music, recorded audio effects, atmosphere, commentary…) you will have to
edit it, just like you would edit a video. When working with sound, instead of
an image, your editor will display a sound wave (or two sound waves if the
recording is in stereo), which can for editing purposes be zoomed-in to a
level of four hundreths of a second.
Non-linear editing

Project settings

The format of the fim has to correspond to the format of the recorded
materials. This should reflect the decision you have made in the preparatory
stage and which you should have implemented with consistency up to this
point. In ideal scenario, at this stage you should have all your project
materials in the same format.

39

Figure 40 – Starting a new project in Sony V egas software

Importing of the materials

All the clips, regardless of the way you are going to import them to your
computer, can be renamed afterwards in the editing software, in the browser
window. You should avoid changing the names and locations of clips on the
hard drive in order to avoid breaking the links between the editing software’s
database and the actual materials stored on your computer.

Within the editing program you can group clips into maps (bin), which allows
for easier orientation among all the project materials.

40

Figure 41 – Importing media in Sony V egas software

Rough cut

Just like writing a scenario or shooting a video, the process of editing also
goes through several stages of refining the video until the final version is
reached. The importing of materials as a process, besides helping us
organize the materials, also represents the first viewing of the recorded
material, including the assessment of it quality and style. The better the
editor knows the material he is working with, the easier his editing task.

41
The recorded material will dictate the style of the editing to a certain point,
so it is definitely better to get acquainted with the material before making
the final decision on the style of editing.

Figure 42 – Editing intarface in Sony V egas software

During the rough cut, one can note the relations between the various
elements of the film, and through the process the film takes the form of a
golden cut, progressing from the lesser to the greater: a shot in relation to a
scene, a scene in relation to a sequence, a sequence in relation to the film.

Final cut

After making the rough cut, it is advisable to make a short break (a week or
two), to step away from the materials and let your mind clear, in order to be
able to make the final cut with a fresh perspective.

The practice shows that after the rough cut the movies are some 50% longer
than after the final cut. Most often this reflects the decisions made based on
the artist's perception, but sometimes it results from adapting to the
conditions set by the producer or the client (the duration of the movie or the
duration of the song for which you are making a video spot), the
expectations of the audience (the average duration of a feature movie, or
the average concentration the audience has for web

42

content)or the limitations of the media (full story or a news bulletin, the time
allocated by the TV channel).

Figure 43 – Editing intarface in Sony V egas software

The basic transitions in editing are the cut and the cross-dissolve. A cut
indicates a change in the space / environment, while a cross-dissolve marks
the passing of time.

Cut, timeline

The cut is the most common way of merging two shots and the closest to the
human eye due to its similarity with a blink of an eye. Therefore a cut
represents an unbroken flow of time, unlike a cross-dissolve which connotes
flow of time between the shots.
43

Cross-dissolve

44

In order to perform a good cross-dissolve, you need to pay attention not only
to the moment in which the cross-dissolve begins (the ending point of the
first and the starting point of the second shot), but also to the material you
are merging. A cross-dissolve uses the material preceding the beginning of
the second shot, inserting it in the end of the first shot; while using the
material following the end point of the first shot, inserting it in the beginning
of the second shot.

Figure 44 – Using Cross - dissolve in Sony V egas software

45

Therefore, you cannot cross-dissolve shots which have been used from
beginning to end, but have to use the shots imported with “tails” (five
seconds at the beginning and end of each shot).

Sound editing

Sound editing is also called horizontal sound editing. It is a process of

problem-solving: how to connect an ending tone with a new one. Sound
editing does not need to follow the logic of image editing: at an instance
where you have a cut between two shots, the tone can also have a cut, but
also a cross-dissolve, or can continue from the previous shot.

46

Fig ure 45 – Sound editing in Sony Vegas software

Image editing

A film needs to be visually balanced in order to achieve a sense of

wholeness. Shots that visually stand-out should be avoided. During image
editing you can color the scenes or emphasite certain elements of a shot
through use of color, contrast and brightness. All interventions made with
the images (and sound) are called effects. Different effects include
transitions, filters and generators.

Figure 46 – Editing image brightness and contrast in Sony Vegas software

Colour correction

During the recording of the video, you may run into errors in white-balance
settings resulting in certain shots being overexposed. Such errors can be
corrected in post-production, to a certain point, using the the color correction
filter.

The effects change every single pixels of every single image of a shot that
you are correcting. They are very resource-intensive for computer processors
(using both the main processor and the graphic processor, if you have both).
Sometimes the results of applying the effects will not be visible in real time,
so you will have to wait for your computer to do the rendering, which can last
from several minutes to several hours.

47

Figure 46 – Editing image colour in Sony Vegas software

Additional effects (FX, telops, etc.)

Application of certain effects can slightly contribute to a movie (for example,

colour correction, brightness leveling, image stabilization, etc.), while others
create very visible results (color correction, erasing or highlighting a colour,
image rotation, etc.). There is no universal rule on when to apply effects, just
as there is no universally correct shot, or universally adequate editing style.
Every film has its own shot, its own editing and its effects which are just right
for that film, for that shot, for that story.

Figure 46 – Adding text layer in Sony Vegas software

48

Exporting

You have reached the end of editing - the images have been processed, the
tone levelled, you have added all the graphic elements, and made a title
sequence listing all those who participated and helped in the making of the
film. Now the film needs to be exported so that you will be able to prepare it
for publishing across different media in the next step. Dependant on the
length of the film and the quantity of raw material, the exporting can last
from several minutes to several hours. Export the finished film to a map in
which you have all the materials with a clear filename. Most often, a suffix
”final” is added after the title of the film.

Figure 47 – Rendering and exporting in Sony Vegas software

Distribution

Converting the final version of your film to a format ready for viewing and
the distribution of the film are the last steps in movie making. Screening of
the film is a public projection in a theatre, at a festival, or on television.
Publishing of the film means making it available to the audience for
consumption, be that on DVD, BluRay, internet video channels, television,
etc.

49

Distribution platforms

You can use social networks to quickly distribute your film to a wide audience
(viral video). Internet video services allow you to reach a large audience. The
film can be open and available to anyone, or locked - targeting specific
viewers. Also, the film can be available for free, can be rented (with a limited
number of views in a limited time) or sold (for unlimited number of views in
unlimited time). The practical side of this distribution is the fact that it does
not require physical copies, since the distribution takes place over the
internet. Optical disks (DVD and BluRay) are common distribution formats of
audiovisual content for home use and can be rented or sold. They are
practical because they are cheap to make and easy to transport.

Archiving

Once you have exported your film to all the formats you will need for
publishing, there is one last step you need to do - archive the project map to
a safe place. That way you will always be able to open the project in the
editing software and make any changes if necessary, continue working on it,
transfer the project to another computer or export a new master.
Although at this stage you are done with film editing, that does not mean
that you will no longer need the recorded materials. If you are working on a
new film (story, TV news, etc. ) and find yourself in need of a specific shot,
you might be able to use some of the materials that you have recorded in
previous projects. If the material you already have is suitable in terms of the
time-space context of your new project, it will be easier to use an existent
shot than to organize the equipment and shooting from scratch.

Compression

The sequence of images that make a video often have identical, unchanged
parts of a shot, lasting a couple of seconds. Imagine a static recording of a
person waving to a camera. The recording will

50

show a moving person within static space. That part of the image is repeated
in every frame. A codec will make sure that only the information on the
change taking place between two keyframes is recorded. The areas of the
image that are static are recorded only once between the two keyframes.
This reduces the amount of information that needs to be written. The flow of
information which is written down every second is called the bitrate. The
result is an encoded (compressed) video placed in a container, ready for
decoding (decompression) on the playback device.

H.264 / MPEG-4 AVC – is used in cameras which store the recording to a hard
disk drive or a memory card.

DV and HDV – is a standard developed for recording of digital video to a

magnetic tape and miniDV tapes. DV is limited to SD video standards, while
HDV was developed for recording of HD video to miniDV tapes.

H.262 / MPEG 2 Part 2 – is used for recording to a Digital Betacam camera (a

standard in TV production).

Codecs for optical media

H.262 / MPEG 2 Part 2 – is a standard compression for DVD media. It is

limited to the SD standard, and also exists a container format.

H.264 / MPEG-4 AVC – is the same codec used for recording. It provides a
stable and high quality image with a low bitrate and high compressions in
various resolutions, making it a great choice for BluRay reproduction.
Microsoft VC-1 – is used for encoding video content for BluRay and Microsoft
Silverlight technology.

Publishing a video on the internet requires a compromise between image

quality and low bitrate which ensures smooth flow of data through the
internet (broadband and mobile).

H.264 / MPEG-4 AVC – provides a good quality video at very low bit rates,
regardless of resolution, and is fast becoming the standard for video
streaming on both desktop and mobile devices.

FLV/F4V – until the H.264 codec appeared, Flash video was a very common
codec for a long time, used for internet video streaming. Almost all the
Adobe applications have the possibility to encode videos to FLV format. FLV
can not be reproduced on Apple (iOS) devices.

51

WMV (Windows Media Video) and MPEG-1 - older codecs from the early days
of internet video streaming. Their quality, compared to the newer codecs, is
much lower.

Project map

Be organized. You should always be able to easily access your project

material, regardless of when it was recorded or edited.

Backup copies

Make backup copies. The currently available technology allows for storage of
large amounts of data to various media. Due to its capacity and ease of use
in video reproduction, the most common media used are hard disk drives,
optical media (CD, DVD and Blu Ray) and online data storage systems
(servers and cloud services).

The purpose of a backup is to secure data from any kind of hazard that could
lead to its loss: technical malfunction, virus, short circuits, theft, fire, flooding
or human error.

The backup is divided into the primary and secondary.

The primary backup most often refers to copying the materials from the
camera to the workin hard disk drive of the computer used for editing.
Secondary backup is usually done by copying the recorded and edited
material to a second hard disk drive, which can be internal or external. In
case of malfunction of the working disk drive, or loss of material, the
secondary backup will allow you to keep working on your project. In order to
use all the advantages of the secondary backup, you need to keep it up to
date with the modifications created on the primary storage device
(incremental backup).