MODULE 5

Introduction-Common disaster types in India. Common disaster legislations in India on

disaster management. National disaster management policy, Institutional arrangements
for disaster management in India.

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and targets - The Sendai Framework
for Disaster Risk Reduction -priorities for action, guiding principles.

COMMON DISASTER TYPES IN INDIA

In India, 59 per cent of the land mass is susceptible to seismic hazard; 5 per cent of the total
geographical area is prone to floods; 8 per cent of the total landmass is prone to cyclones; 70
per cent of the total cultivable area is vulnerable to drought. Apart from this the hilly regions
are vulnerable to avalanches/ landslides/hailstorms/cloudbursts. Apart from the natural
hazards, there are other manmade hazards which are frequent and cause huge damage to life
and property.
Natural disasters in India

Natural catastrophe in India, many of them related to the climate of India, cause massive losses
of life and property. Droughts, flash floods, cyclones, avalanches, landslides brought by
torrential rains, and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. A natural disaster might be caused
by earthquakes, flooding, volcanic eruption, landslides, hurricanes etc. In order to be classified
as a disaster, it will need to have a profound environmental effect and/or human loss and
frequently incurs a financial loss. Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which
usually track from north to south; they cause extensive property damage in North India and
deposit large amounts of dust and dirt from arid regions. Hail is also common in parts of India,
causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat and many more crops.

Different types of disasters affecting India is provided –

[Link] Cyclone and Wind

Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high atmospheric pressure

resulting in swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by powerful winds blowing in
anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the
Southern Hemisphere. They occur mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the world.
Cyclones are called by various names in different parts of the world.

General Characteristics:

Cyclones in India are moderate in nature. Some of the general characteristics of a cyclone are:

1. Strong winds
2. Exceptional rain
3. Storm surge

Cyclones are generally accompanied by strong winds which cause a lot of destruction. In some
cases it is accompanied by heavy downpour and also the rise in the sea which intrudes inland
there by causing floods.

Indian Cyclones

Cyclones vary in frequency in various parts of the world. The 7516.6 kilometers long Indian
coastline is the earth’s most cyclone battered stretch of the world. Around 8 percent of the total
land area in India is prone to cyclones. About two-third of the cyclones that occur in the Indian
coastline occur in the Bay of Bengal. The states which are generally affected in the east coast
are West-Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh; Tamil Nadu and on the west coast Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. About 10 per cent of the World's tropical cyclones
affect the Indian coast. On an average, five to six tropical cyclones form every year, of which
two or three could be severe. Cyclones occur frequently on both the west coast in the Arabian
Sea and the east coast in the Bay of Bengal. More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than in
the Arabian Sea and the ratio is approximately 4:1.
In India, tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June and October-November. The
cyclones of severe intensity and frequency in the northern part of the Indian Ocean are bi-
modal in character, with their primary peak in November and secondary peak in May. The
disaster potential is particularly high at the time of landfall in the northern part of Indian Ocean
(Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) due to the accompanying destructive wind, storm surges
and torrential rainfall. Of these, storm surges are the greatest killers of a cyclone, by which sea
water inundates low lying areas of coastal regions and causes heavy floods, erodes beaches and
embankments, destroys vegetation and reduces soil fertility.

[Link].1 Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclone, generally known as ‘cyclone’, is the term used globally to cover tropical
weather systems in which winds equal or exceed ‘gale force’ (minimum of 34 knot, i.e., 62
kmph). These are intense low pressure areas of the earth-atmosphere coupled system and are
extreme weather events of the tropics.

Though tropical cyclones differ by name across regions, they are classified according to their
wind speed. The classification, however, varies from region to region.

[Link].2 Storm Surge

Storm surge, a coastal phenomenon, is the inherent destructive aspect of cyclones the World
over. Storm surge is an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the
predicted astronomical tides. It should not be confused with storm tide. The rise in water level
can cause extreme flooding in coastal areas particularly when storm surge coincides with
normal high tide, resulting in storm tides reaching up to 6 metres or more in some [Link]
degree of destructive potential depends on the storm surge amplitude associated with the
cyclone. Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges.

Warning:

Low pressure and the development can be detected hours or days before it causes damage. The
satellites track the movement of these cyclones based on which the people are evacuated from
areas lively to be affected. It is difficult to predict the accuracy. Accurate landfall predictions
can give only a few hours’ notice to threatened population.

India has one of the best cyclone warning systems in the world. The India Meteorological
Department (IMD) is the nodal department for wind detection, tracking and forecasting
cyclones. Cyclone tracking is done through INSAT satellite.

Cyclone warning is disseminated by several means such as satellite based disaster warning
systems, radio, television, telephone, fax, high priority telegram, public announcements and
bulletins in press. These warnings are disseminated to the general public, the fishing
community especially those in the sea, port authorities, commercial aviation and the
government machinery.

Typical Adverse effect:

First, in a sudden, brief onslaught, high winds cause major damage to infrastructure and
housing, in particular fragile constructions. They are generally followed by heavy rains and
floods and, in flat coastal areas by storm surge riding on tidal waves and inundating the land
over long distances of even upto 15 kilometer inland.

Physical damage – structures will be damaged or destroyed by the wind force, flooding and
storm surge. Light pitched roofs of most structures especially the ones fitted on to industrial
buildings will suffer severe damage.

Casualties and public heath – caused by flooding and flying elements, contamination of water
supplies may lead to viral outbreaks, diarrhea, and malaria.

Water supplies – Ground and pipe water supply may get contaminated by flood waters.

Crops and food supplies – high winds and rains ruin the standing crop and food stock lying in
low lying areas. Plantation type crops such as banana and coconut are extremely vulnerable.
Salt from the sea water may get deposited on the agricultural land and increase the salinity.
The loss of the crop may lead to acute food shortage.

Communication – severe disruption in the communication links as the wind may bring down
the electricity and communication towers, telephone poles, telephone lines, antennas and
satellite disk and broadcasting services. Transport lines (road and rail) may be curtailed, Lack
of proper communication affects effective distribution of relief materials.

Possible Risk Reduction Measures:

Coastal belt plantation - green belt plantation along the coastal line in a scientific interweaving
pattern can reduce the effect of the hazard. Providing a cover through green belt sustains less
damage. Forests act as a wide buffer zone against strong winds and flash floods. Without the
forest the cyclone travel freely inland. The lack of protective forest cover allows water to
inundate large areas and cause destruction. With the loss of the forest cover each consecutive
cyclone can penetrate further inland.

Hazard mapping – Meteorological records of the wind speed and the directions give the
probability of the winds in the region. Cyclones can be predicted several days in advance. The
onset is extensive and often very destructive. Past records and paths can give the pattern of
occurrence for particular wind speeds. A hazard map will illustrate the areas vulnerable to
cyclone in any given year. It will be useful to estimate the severity of the cyclone and various
damage intensities in the region. The map is prepared with data inputs of past climatological
records, history of wind speed, frequency of flooding etc.

Land use control designed so that least critical activities are placed in vulnerable areas.
Location of settlements in the flood plains is at utmost risk. Siting of key facilities must be
marked in the land use. Policies should be in place to regulate land use and building codes
should be enforced.
Engineered structures – structures need to be built to withstand wind forces. Good site selection
is also important. Majority of the buildings in coastal areas are built with locally available
materials and have no engineering inputs.

Flood management – Torrential rains, strong wind and storm range leads to flooding in the
cyclone affected areas. There are possibilities of landslides too. Flood mitigation measures
could be incorporated

Improving vegetation cover – The roots of the plants and trees keep the soil intact and prevent
erosion and slow runoff to prevent or lessen flooding. The use of tree planted in rows will act
as a windbreak.

Coastal shelterbelt plantations can be developed to break severe wind speeds. It minimizes
devastating effects. The Orissa calamity has also highlighted the need for urgent measures like
shelterbelt plantation along cyclone-prone coastal areas. Species chosen for this purpose should
not only be able to withstand the impact of strong cyclonic winds, but also check soil erosion.

[Link] Flood

Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads to inundation
of land, which is not usually submerged. Floods may happen gradually and also may take hours
or even happen suddenly without any warning due to breach in the embankment, spill over,
heavy rains etc.

There are different types of floods namely: flash flood, riverine flood, urban flood, etc. Flash
floods can be defined as floods which occur within six hours of the beginning of heavy rainfall,
and are usually associated with cloud bursts, storms and cyclones requiring rapid localized
warnings and immediate response to reduce damage. Wireless network and telephone
connections are used to monitor flood conditions. In case of flash floods, warnings for timely
evacuation may not always be possible.

Causes:

There are several causes of floods and differ from region to region. The causes may vary from
a rural area to an urban area. Some of the major causes are:

a. Heavy rainfall
b. Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water carrying capacity of the rivers/stream.
c. Blockage in the drains lead to flooding of the area.
d. Landslides blocking the flow of the stream.
e. Construction of dams and reservoirs
f. In areas prone to cyclone, strong winds accompanied by heavy down pour along with
storm surge leads to flooding.

Typical Adverse Effects:

The most important consequence of floods is the loss of life and property. Structures like
houses, bridges; roads etc. get damaged by the gushing water, landslides triggered on account
of water getting saturated, boats and fishing nets get damaged. There is huge loss to life and
livestock caused by drowning. Lack of proper drinking water facilities, contamination of water
(well, ground water, piped water supply) leads to outbreak of epidemics, diarrhoea, viral
infection, malaria and many other infectious diseases.

Flooding also leads to a large area of agricultural land getting inundated as a result there is a
huge crop loss. This results in shortage of food, and animal fodder. Floods may also affect the
soil characteristics. The land may be rendered infertile due to erosion of top layer or may turn
saline if sea water floods the area.

Floods occur in almost all the river basins of the country. The Vulnerability Atlas of India
shows pictorially the areas liable to floods. Around 12 per cent (40 million hectare) of land in
India is prone to floods.

Most of the flood affected areas lie in the Ganga basin, Brahmaputra basin the northwestern
river basin, peninsular river and the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, orissa and
Kerela. Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa are some of the states who have been severely
prone to floods. Our country receives an annual rainfall of 1200 mm, 85% of which is
concentrated in 3-4 months i.e June to September. Due to the intense and periodic rain, most
of the rivers of the country are fed with huge quantity of water, much beyond their carrying
capacity.

Flood control is a key element of national policies for water resource management. The
occurrence of floods and droughts is closely linked to the summer monsoon activity. Floods
occur in almost all river basins of the country. Heavy rainfall, inadequate capacity of rivers to
carry the high flood discharge, inadequate drainage to carry away the rainwater quickly to
streams/rivers are the main causes of floods. Ice jams or landslides blocking streams; and
cyclones also cause floods. Out of 40 million hectare of the flood prone area in the country, on
an average, floods affect an area of around 7.5 million hectare per year. Floods in the Indo-
Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains are an annual feature. On an average, a few hundred lives are
lost, millions of people are rendered homeless, lakhs of hectares of crops are damaged, and
thousands of animals are affected (killed and injured).

Warning:

Flood forecasting and warning has been highly developed in the past two decades. With the
advancement of technology such as satellite and remote-sensing equipments flood waves can
be tracked as the water level rises. Except for flash floods there is usually a reasonable warning
period. Heavy precipitation will give sufficient warning of the coming river flood. High tides
with high winds may indicate flooding in the coastal areas. Evacuation is possible with suitable
monitoring and warning. Warning is issued by the Central Water Commission (CWC),
Irrigation & Flood Control Department, and Water Resources Department. CWC maintains
close liaison with the administrative and state engineering agencies, local civil authorities to
communicate advance warning for appropriate mitigation and preparedness measures.

Possible Risk Reduction Measures:

Mapping of the flood prone areas is a primary step involved in reducing the risk of the region.
Historical records give the indication of the flood inundation areas and the period of occurrence
and the extent of the coverage. Warning can be issued looking into the earlier marked heights
of the water levels in case of potential threat. In the coastal areas the tide levels and the land
characteristics will determine the submergence areas. Flood hazard mapping will give the
proper indication of water flow during floods.

Land use control will reduce danger of life and property when waters inundate the floodplains
and the coastal areas. The number of casualties is related to the population in the area at risk.
In areas where people already have built their settlements, measures should be taken to relocate
to better sites so as to reduce vulnerability. No major development should be permitted in the
areas which are subjected to high flooding. Important facilities like hospitals, schools should
be built in safe areas. In urban areas, water holding areas can be created like ponds, lakes or
low-lying areas.

Construction of engineered structures in the flood plains and strengthening of structures to

withstand flood forces and seepage. The buildings should be constructed on an elevated area.
If necessary build on stilts or platform.

Flood Control aims to reduce flood damage. This can be done by decreasing the amount of
runoff with the help of reforestation (to increase absorption could be a mitigation strategy in
certain areas), protection of vegetation, clearing of debris from streams and other water holding
areas, conservation of ponds and lakes etc.

Flood Diversion include levees, embankments, dams and channel improvement. Dams can
store water and can release water at a manageable rate. But failure of dams in earthquakes and
operation of releasing the water can cause floods in the lower areas.

Flood Proofing reduces the risk of damage. Measures include use of sand bags to keep flood
water away, blocking or sealing of doors and windows of houses etc. Houses may be elevated
by building on raised land. Buildings should be constructed away from water bodies.

Flood Management In India, systematic planning for flood management commenced with the
Five Year Plans, particularly with the launching of National Programme of Flood Management
in 1954. During the last 48 years, different methods of flood protection structural as well as
non-structural have been adopted in different states depending upon the nature of the problem
and local conditions. Structural measures include storage reservoirs, flood embankments,
drainage channels, anti-erosion works, channel improvement works, detention basins etc. and
non-structural measures include flood forecasting, flood plain zoning, flood proofing, disaster
preparedness etc. The flood management measures undertaken so far have provided reasonable
degree of protection to an area of 15.81 million hectares throughout the country.
[Link] Urban Floods

The problem of urban flooding is a result of both natural factors and land-use changes brought
about by urban development. Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as
urbanisation leads to developed catchments which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times
and flood volumes by up to 6 times. Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster
flow times, sometimes in a matter of minutes. Urban flooding is caused by the combination of
meteorological, hydrological, and human factors. Due to land-use changes, flooding in urban
areas can happen very rapidly with large flow. The challenges of Urban Floods Disaster
Management (UFDM) tend to be considerably different from that of flooding in other areas. In
2010, the NDMA published separate guidelines for UFDM. Problems associated with urban
floods range from relatively localised incidents to major incidents, resulting in inundation of
some or large parts urban areas for several hours to many days. The impact can vary from being
limited to widespread. It may result in temporary relocation of people, dispersal of animals,
damage to civic amenities, deterioration of water quality and risk of epidemics.

[Link] Earthquake

Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may occur at any time of the
year, day or night, with sudden impact and little warning. They can destroy buildings and
infrastructure in seconds, killing or injuring the inhabitants. Earthquakes not only destroy the
entire habitation but may de-stabilize the government, economy and social structure of the
country.

What is an earthquake?

It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The impact of an earthquake is sudden and there is
hardly any warning, making it impossible to predict.

Cause of Earthquake:

The movements of Tectonic plates are associated with earthquakes. The areas of stress at plate
boundaries which release accumulated energy by slipping or rupturing are known as 'faults'.
The theory of 'elasticity' says that the crust is continuously stressed by the movement of the
tectonic plates; it eventually reaches a point of maximum supportable strain. A rupture then
occurs along the fault and the rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses until the strain is
relieved. The fault rupture generates vibration called seismic (from the Greek 'seismos'
meaning shock or earthquake) waves, which radiates from the focus in all directions.

General characteristics

Earthquake vibrations occur in a variety of frequencies and velocities. The actual rupture
process may last for a few seconds to as long as one minute for a major earthquake. The ground
shaking is caused by ‘body waves’ and ‘surface wave’.
Body waves (P and S waves) penetrate the body of the earth, vibrating fast. ‘P’ waves travel
about 6 kilometers per hour and ‘S’ waves travel with a speed of 4 kilometers per hour.

Surface waves vibrate the ground horizontally and vertically. These long period waves cause
swaying of tall buildings and slight waves motion in bodies of water even at great distances
from the epicenter.

Earthquakes can be of three types based on the focal depth

• Deep:- 300 to 700 kms from the earth surface

• Medium:- 60 to 300 kms
• Shallow: less than 60 kms

The deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because by the time the waves reach the
surface the impact reduces. Shallow focus earthquakes are more common and are extremely
damaging because of their proximity to the surface.

Measuring Earthquakes

Earthquakes can be described by the use of two distinctively different scales of measurement
demonstrating magnitude and intensity. Earthquake magnitude or amount of energy released is
determined by the use of a seismograph’ which is an instrument that continuously records
ground vibration. The scale was developed by a seismologist named Charles Richter. An
earthquake with a magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale releases 30 times the energy than one
with 6.5 magnitudes. An earthquake of magnitude 3 is the smallest normally felt by humans.
The largest earthquake that has been recorded with this system is 9.25 (Alaska, 1969 and Chile,
1960).

The second type of scale, the earthquake intensity scale measures the effects of an earthquake
where it occurs. The most widely used scale of this type was developed in 1902 by Mercalli an
Italian seismologist. The scale was extended and modified to suit the modern times. It is called
the Modified Mercalli Scale, which expresses the intensity of earthquake effect on people,
structure and the earth’s surface in values from I to XII. With an intensity of VI and below
most of the people can feel the shake and there are cracks on the walls,

Predictability:

Although some scientists claim ability to predict earthquakes, the methods are controversial.
Accurate and exact predictions of such sudden incidents are still not possible.

Typical adverse effects

Physical damage:

Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures and infrastructure, especially

bridges, elevated roads, railways, water towers, pipelines, electrical generating facilities.
Aftershocks of an earthquake can cause much greater damage to already weakened structures.
Secondary effects include fires, dam failure and landslides which may block water ways and
also cause flooding. Damage may occur to facilities using or manufacturing dangerous
materials resulting in possible chemical spills. There may also be a breakdown of
communication facilities. The effect of an earthquake is diverse. There are large number of
casualties because of the poor engineering design of the buildings and close proximity of the
people. About 95 percent of the people who are killed or who are affected by the earthquake is
because of the building collapse. There is also a huge loss to the public health system, transport
and communication and water supply in the affected areas.

Nearly 59 percent of India’s territory is vulnerable to earthquakes. The last three major
earthquakes shook Gujarat in January 2001, Jammu and Kashmir in October 2005 and Sikkim
in 2011. Many smaller- quakes have been occurring in various parts of India. Seven states in
North East (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and
Meghalaya), the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of three states in the North/North-West
(Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Bihar, and Gujarat are in Seismic Zone V. Wide-spread
human and material losses, collapse of infrastructure and services may be the major
consequences of the earthquake. Hundreds of thousands may be displaced, often in remote
mountainous areas in the North and North-East.

Possible risk reduction measures:

Community preparedness: Community preparedness is vital for mitigating earthquake impact.

The most effective way to save you even in a slightest shaking is 'DROP, COVER and HOLD'.

Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and guidelines for safe
construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before the buildings are constructed the building
plans have to be checked by the Municipality, according to the laid down bylaws. Many
existing lifeline buildings such as hospitals, schools and fire stations may not be built with
earthquake safety measures. Their earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by retrofitting
techniques.

Public education is educating the public on causes and characteristics of an earthquake and
preparedness measures. It can be created through sensitization and training programme for
community, architects, engineers, builders, masons, teachers, government functionaries
teachers and students.

Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and constructed as per the building by
laws to withstand ground shaking. Architectural and engineering inputs need to be put together
to improve building design and construction practices. The soil type needs to be analyzed
before construction. Building structures on soft soil should be avoided. Buildings on soft soil
are more likely to get damaged even if the magnitude of the earthquake is not strong.
[Link] Tsunami

Tsunamis (Japanese for “harbour wave”), also known as a seismic sea wave, are a series of
very large waves with extremely long wavelength, in the deep ocean, the length from crest to
crest may be 100 km and more. It is usually generated by sudden displacements in the sea floor
caused by earthquake, landslides, or volcanic activity9. Most tsunamis, including the most
destructive ones are generated by large and shallow earthquakes which usually occur near
geological plate boundaries, or fault-lines, where geological plates collide. When the seafloor
abruptly deforms the sudden vertical displacements over large areas disturb the ocean's surface,
displace water, and generate tsunami waves. Since the wave height in deep ocean will be only
a few decimetres or less (i.e., a few inches), tsunamis are not usually felt aboard ships. Nor are
they visible from the air in the open ocean. The waves could travel away from the triggering
source with speeds exceeding 800 km/h over very long distances. They could be extremely
dangerous and damaging when they reach the coast, because when the tsunami enters shallow
water in coastal areas, the wave velocity will decrease accompanied by increase in wave height.
In shallow waters, a large tsunami crest height may rise rapidly by several metres even in excess
of 30 m causing enormous destruction in a very short time.

Causes of a Tsunami

The geological movements that cause tsunamis are produced in three major ways. The most
common of these are fault movements on the sea floor, accompanied by an earth-quake. They
release huge amount of energy and have the capacity to cross oceans. The degree of movement
depends on how fast the earthquake occurs and how much water is displaced.

The second most common cause of the tsunami is a landslide either occurring under water or
originating above the sea and then plunging into the water. The largest tsunami ever produced
by a landslide was in Lituya Bay, Alaska 1958. The massive rock slide produced a wave that
reached a high water mark of 50 - 150 meters above the shoreline.

The third major cause of tsunami is volcanic activity. The flank of a volcano located near the
shore or under water may be uplifted or depressed similar to the action of a fault, or, the volcano
may actually explode. In 1883, the violent explosion of the famous volcano, Krakotoa in
Indonesia, produced tsunami measuring 40 meters which crushed upon Java and Sumatra. Over
36,000 people lost their lives in this tyrant waves.

General Characteristics:

Tsunami differs from ordinary ocean waves, which are produced by wind blowing over water.
The tsunamis travel much faster than ordinary waves. Compared to normal wave speed of 100
kilometers per hour, tsunami in the deep water of the ocean may travel the speed of a jet
airplane - 800 kilometers per hour! And yet, in spite of their speed, tsunami increases the water
height only 30-45cm and often passes unnoticed by ships at sea.

Contrary to the popular belief, the tsunami is not a single giant wave. It is possible for a tsunami
to consist of ten or more waves which is then termed as 'tsunami wave train'. The waves follow
each other 5 to 90 minutes apart. Tsunami normally causes flooding as a huge wall of water
enters the main land.

Predictability:

There are two distinct types of tsunami warning:

a) International tsunami warning systems and

b) Regional warning systems.

In India, the Survey of India maintains a tide gauge network along the coast of India. The
gauges are located in major [Link] day-to-day maintenance of the gauge is carried with the
assistance from authorities of the ports.

Apart from the tide gauge, tsunami can be detected with the help of radars. The 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami, recorded data from four radars and recorded the height of tsunami waves two
hours after the earthquake. It should be noted that the satellites observations of the Indian Ocean
tsunami would not have been of any use in delivering warnings, as the data took five hours to
process and it was pure chance that the satellites were overhead at that time. However, in future
it is possible that the space-based observation might play a direct role in tsunami warning.

Typical adverse effects:

Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes from the source cause the majority of
damage. The force of the water can raze everything in its path. It is normally the flooding affect
of the tsunami that causes major destruction to the human settlements, roads and infrastructure
thereby disrupting the normal functioning of the society.

Withdrawal of the tsunami causes major damage. As the waves withdraw towards the ocean
they sweep out the foundations of the buildings, the beaches get destroyed and the houses
carried out to sea. Damage to ports and airports may prevent importation of needed food and
medical supplies.

Apart from the physical damage, there is a huge impact on the public health system. Deaths
mainly occur because of drowning as water inundates homes. Many people get washed away
or crushed by the giant waves and some are crushed by the debris, causes. There are very few
evidences which show that tsunami flooding has caused large scale health problem.

Availability of drinking water has always been a major problem in areas affected by a disaster.
Sewage pipes may be damaged causing major sewage disposal problems. Open wells and other
ground water may be contaminated by salt water and debris and sewage. Flooding in the
locality may lead to crop loss, loss of livelihood like boats and nets, environmental degradation
etc.

As seen on Indian Ocean shores in December 2004, tsunami can cause massive death and
destruction. They are particularly dangerous close to their sources, where the first waves in the
tsunami train can arrive within a few to tens of minutes of the triggering event. The earthquake
and resulting tsunami in Indian Ocean on 24 December 2004 had devastating effects on India.
Many people died and millions were displaced. The hardest hit areas were on Southern coast
and the Andaman and Nicobar Island. Tsunamis have the potential of causing significant
casualties, widespread property damage, massive infrastructure loss and long-term negative
economic impacts. People caught in the path of a tsunami often have little chance of survival.
People die from drowning or debris crushing them.

Possible risk reduction measures:

While it is of course not possible to prevent a tsunami, in certain tsunami prone countries some
measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. Japan has implemented an
extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5m (13.5 ft) high in front of
populated coastal areas. Other localities have built flood gates and channels to redirect the
water from incoming tsunamis. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunamis
are often higher than the barriers.

Some other systematic measures to protect coastlines against tsunamis include:

Site Planning and Land Management- Within the broader framework of a comprehensive plan,
site planning determines the location, configuration, and density of development on particular
sites and is, therefore, an important tool in reducing tsunami risk.

- The designation and zoning of tsunami hazard areas for such open-space uses as
agriculture, parks and recreation, or natural hazard areas is recommended as the first
land use planning strategy. This strategy is designed to keep development at a minimum
in hazard areas.
- In areas where it is not feasible to restrict land to open-space uses, other land use
planning measures can be used. These include strategically controlling the type of
development and uses allowed in hazard areas, and avoiding high-value and high
occupancy uses to the greatest degree possible.

Engineering structures – Most of the habitation of the fishing community is seen in the coastal
areas. The houses constructed by them are mainly of light weight materials without any
engineering inputs. Therefore there is an urgent need to educate the community about the good
construction practices that they should adopt such as:

 Site selection – Avoid building or living in buildings within several hundred feet of the
coastline as these areas are more likely to experience damage from tsunamis.
 Construct the structure on a higher ground level with respect to mean sea level.
 Elevate coastal homes: Most tsunami waves are less than 3 meters in height. Elevating
house will help reduce damage to property from most tsunamis.
 Construction of water breakers to reduce the velocity of waves.
 Use of water and corrosion resistant materials for construction.
 Construction of community halls at higher locations, which can act as shelters at the time
of a disaster.
Flood management - Flooding will result from a tsunami. Tsunami waves will flood the coastal
areas. Flood mitigation measures could be incorporated.

[Link] Landslides and Snow Avalanches

Landslides

The term’ landslide’ includes all varieties of mass movements of hill slopes and can be defined
as the downward and outward movement of slope forming materials composed of rocks, soils,
artificial fills or surfaces of separation by falling, sliding and flowing, either slowly or quickly
from one place to another. Although the landslides are primarily associated with mountainous
terrains, these can also occur in areas where an activity such as surface excavations for
highways, buildings and open pit mines takes place. They often take place in conjunction with
earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At times, prolonged rainfall causing landslide may block
the flow of river for quite some time. The formation of river blocks can cause havoc to the
settlements downstream on its bursting.

Causes of Landslide

There are several causes of landslide. Some of the major causes are as follows:

1. Geological Weak material: Weakness in the composition and structure of rock or soil may
also cause landslides.

2. Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to cutting down of vegetation, construction of roads might
increase the vulnerability of the terrain to slide down.

3. Intense rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall for periods as short as several hours or
have a more moderate intensity lasting several days have triggered abundant landslides. Heavy
melting of snow in the hilly terrains also results in landslide.

4. Human Excavation of slope and its toe, loading of slope/toe, draw down in reservoir, mining,
deforestation, irrigation, vibration/blast, Water leakage from services.

5. Earthquake shaking has triggered landslides in many different topographic and geologic
settings. Rock falls, soil slides and rockslides from steep slopes involving relatively thin or
shallow dis-aggregated soils or rock, or both have been the most abundant types of landslides
triggered by historical earthquakes.

6. Volcanic eruption Deposition of loose volcanic ash on hillsides commonly is followed by

accelerated erosion and frequent mud or debris flows triggered by intense rainfall.

Adverse Effects:

The most common elements at risk are the settlements built on the steep slopes, built at the toe
and those built at the mouth of the streams emerging from the mountain valley. All those
buildings constructed without appropriate foundation for a given soil and in sloppy areas are
also at risk. Roads, communication lines are vulnerable.

Distributional Pattern:

Landslides constitute a major natural hazard in our country, which accounts for considerable
loss of life and damage to communication routes, human settlements, agricultural fields and
forest lands. The Indian subcontinent, with diverse physiographic, seismic, tectonic and
climatological conditions is subjected to varying degree of landslide hazards; the Himalayas
including Northeastern mountains ranges being the worst affected, followed by a section of
Western Ghats and the Vindhyas. Removal of vegetation and toe erosion have also triggered
slides. Torrential rainfall on the deforested slopes is the main factor in the Peninsular India
namely in Western Ghat and Nilgiris. Human intervention by way of slope modification has
added to this effect.

Landslides occur in the hilly regions of India such as the Himalaya, North-East India, the
Nilgiris, Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats. It is estimated that 30 percent of the World’s
landslides occur in the Himalayan ranges. The Himalayan range, which constitutes the
youngest and most dominating mountain system in the World, is not a single long landmass
but comprises a series of seven curvilinear parallel folds running along a grand arc for a total
of 3,400 kilometres. Landslides are also common in Western Ghat. In the Nilgiris, in 1978
alone, unprecedented rains in the region triggered about one hundred landslides which caused
severe damage to communication lines, tea gardens and other cultivated crops. Scientific
observations in north Sikkim and Garhwal regions in the Himalayas clearly reveal that there is
an average of two landslides per sq. km. The mean rate of land loss is to the tune of 120 meter
per km per year and annual soil loss is about 2500 tons per sq. km. Landslides have been a
major and widely spread natural disaster that often affect life and property, leading to major
concern.

Possible risk reduction measures:

Hazard mapping locates areas prone to slope failures. This will help to avoid building
settlements in such areas. These maps will also serve as a tool for mitigation planning. Land
use practices such as:

 Areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in upper slopes are to be afforested with
suitable species. Existing patches of natural vegetation (forest and natural grass land)
in good condition, should be preserved
 Any developmental activity initiated in the area should be taken up only after a detailed
study of the region has been carried out.
 In construction of roads, irrigation canals etc. proper care is to be taken to avoid
blockage of natural drainage
 Total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone should be made mandatory.
 Relocate settlements and infrastructure that fall in the possible path of the landslide
 No construction of buildings in areas beyond a certain degree of slope
Retaining Walls can be built to stop land from slipping (these walls are commonly seen along
roads in hill stations). These are constructed to prevent smaller sized and secondary landslides
that often occur along the toe portion of the larger landslides.

Surface Drainage Control Works The surface drainage control works are implemented to
control the movement of landslides accompanied by infiltration of rain water and spring flows

Engineered structures with strong foundations can withstand or take the ground movement
forces. Underground installations (pipes, cables, etc.) should be made flexible to move in order
to withstand forces caused by the landslide

Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and most effective way of arresting landslides. This
helps to bind the top layer of the soil with layers below, while preventing excessive run-off and
soil erosion.

Insurance will assist individuals whose homes are likely to be damaged by landslides or by any
other natural hazards.

Snow Avalanches

Avalanches are block of snow or ice descending from the mountain tops at a river like speedy
flow. They are extremely damaging and cause huge loss to life and property. In Himalaya,
avalanches are common in Drass, Pir Panijal, Lahaul-Spiti and Badrinath areas. As per Snow
and Avalanche Study Establishment (SASE), of Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO), on an average, around 30 people are killed every year, due to this
disaster in various zones of the Himalayan range.

Beside killing people, avalanches also damage the roads, properties, and settlements falling in
its way. Traffic blockage, structural damages of roads, and retaining wall damages occur most
frequently due to avalanches. Snow avalanches occur in several stretches of the Himalayan
range with the following areas being more vulnerable:

• Western Himalaya – the snowy regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand, especially Tehri Garhwal and Chamoli districts
• Jammu and Kashmir – Higher reaches of Kashmir and Gurez valleys, Kargil and
Ladakh and along some of the major roads
• Himachal Pradesh – Chamba, Kullu-Spiti and Kinnaur

[Link] Drought

Drought is either absence or deficiency of rainfall from its normal pattern in a region for an
extended period of time leading to general suffering in the society. It is interplay between
demand that people place on natural supply of water and natural event that provides the water
in a given geographical region. The state of Kerala which receives more than 3000 mm of
rainfall every year is declared drought affected as it is insufficient to have two good crops. The
more the imbalance in supply the higher is the drought.
  Any unusual dry period which results in a shortage of useful water.
 Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate. Climate is expected to show some
aberrations and drought is just a part of it.
 Drought can occur by improper distribution of rain in time and space, and not just by
its amount.
 Drought is negative balance between precipitation and water use (through evaporation,
transpiration by plants, domestic and industrial uses etc) in a geographical region.
 The effects of drought accumulate slowly over a considerable period of time.

Causes of Drought

Though drought is basically caused by deficit rainfall, which is a meteorological phenomenon,

it manifests into different spheres because of various vulnerability factors associated with them
(see the box). Some of these factors are human induced. Though drought is a natural disaster,
its effects are made worst in developing countries by over population, over grazing,
deforestation, soil erosion, excessive use of ground and surface water for growing crops, loss
of biodiversity.

General Characteristics:

Drought proceeds in sequential manner. Its impacts are spread across different domains as
listed below.

 Meteorological drought

Meteorological drought is simple absence/deficit of rainfall from the normal. It is the least
severe form of drought and is often identified by sunny days and hot weather.

 Hydrological drought

Hydrological drought often leads to reduction of natural stream flows or ground water levels,
plus stored water supplies. The main impact is on water resource systems.

 Agricultural drought

This form of drought occurs when moisture level in soil is insufficient to maintain average crop
yields. Initial consequences are in the reduced seasonal output of crops and other related
production. An extreme agricultural drought can lead to a famine, which is a prolonged
shortage of food in a restricted region causing widespread disease and death from starvation.

 Socio-economic drought

Socio-economic drought correlates the supply and demand of goods and services with the three
above-mentioned types of drought. When the supply of some goods or services such as water
and electricity are weather dependant then drought may cause shortages in supply of these
economic goods.
Measuring Drought:

Elements at Risk: In general, all those elements that are primarily dependent on water are most
affected. It affects the rainfed crops and then slowly creeps into the irrigated crops. People who
are dependent on agriculture and areas where the other livelihood opportunities are least
developed are greatly affected. The herdsman, landless labourer, subsistence farmers, women,
children and farm animals are the most vulnerable groups.

Typical adverse effects

Drought, different from any other natural disaster, does not cause any structural damages. As
the meteorological drought turns into hydrological drought, the impacts start appearing first in
agriculture which is most dependant on the soil moisture. Irrigated areas are affected much
later than the rainfed areas. However, regions surrounding perennial rivers tend to continue
normal life even when drought conditions are prevailing around. The impacts slowly spread
into social fabric as the availability of drinking water diminishes, reduction in energy
production, ground water depletion, food shortage, health reduction and loss of life, increased
poverty, reduced quality of life and social unrest leading to migration.

Indian Scenario

 Around 68 per cent of India’s total area is drought prone to drought.

 315 out of a total of 725 Talukas in 99 districts are drought prone.
 50 million people are annually affected by drought.
 In 2001 more than eight states suffered the impact of severe drought.
 In 2003 most parts of Rajasthan experienced the fourth consecutive year of drought.

Possible Risk Reduction Measures:

There are various mitigation strategies to cope up with drought.

1. Public Awareness and education: If the community is aware of the do’s and don’ts, then half
of the problem is solved. This includes awareness on the availability of safe drinking water,
water conservation techniques, agricultural drought management strategies like crop
contingency plans, construction of rain water harvesting structure. Awareness can be generated
by the print, electronic and folk media.

2. Drought Monitoring: It is continuous observation of the rainfall situation, availability of

water in the reservoirs, lakes, rivers etc and comparing with the existing water needs in various
sectors of the society.

3. Water supply augmentation and conservation through rainwater harvesting in houses and
farmers’ fields increases the content of water available. Water harvesting by either allowing
the runoff water from all the fields to a common point (e.g. Farm ponds, see the picture) or
allowing it to infiltrate into the soil where it has fallen (in situ) (e.g. contour bunds, contour
cultivation, raised bed planting etc) helps increase water availability for sustained agricultural
production.
4. Expansion of irrigation facilities reduces the drought vulnerability. Land use based on its
capability helps in optimum use of land and water and can avoid the undue demand created
due to their misuse.

5. Livelihood planning identifies those livelihoods which are least affected by the drought.
Some of such livelihoods include increased off-farm employment opportunities, collection of
non-timber forest produce from the community forests, raising goats, carpentry etc. to common
point.

6. Drought planning: the basic goal of drought planning is to improve the effectiveness of
preparedness and response efforts by enhancing monitoring, mitigation and response measures.

7. Planning would help in effective coordination among state and national agencies in dealing
with the drought. Components of drought plan include establishing drought taskforce which is
a team of specialists who can advise the government in taking decision to deal with drought
situation, establishing coordination mechanism among various agencies which deal with the
droughts, providing crop insurance schemes to the farmers to cope with the drought related
crop losses, and public awareness generation.

Droughts affect vast areas of the country, transcending State boundaries. A third of the country
is drought prone. Recurrent drought results in widespread adverse impact on people’s
livelihoods and young children’s nutrition status. It affects parts of Rajasthan (chronically),
Gujarat, Maharashtra, MP, UP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh. Drought is not
uncommon in certain districts. Droughts cause severe distress in the affected areas.

Drought is a phenomenon that is widely considered as a ‘creeping disaster’ whose onset, end,
and severity are difficult to determine. Unlike the suddenly occurring disasters, a drought may
develop very slowly over several months affecting very large geographical area without
causing little or no structural damage. The impacts depend on natural conditions, socio-
economic situation, and the kind of land and water resources as well as the use patterns in the
affected region.

Mostly, the occurrence of droughts is a result of natural climate variability in all the drought-
prone regions and it usually exhibits a certain pattern of occurrence. While droughts are quite
frequent in arid and semi-arid regions, it can occur even in humid regions blessed with abundant
rainfall with lower frequency. The capacity to cope depends largely on the technical,
institutional, political, and social mechanisms to manage the water resources anticipating the
severity of the drought. Effective mitigation measures must prevent a drought turning into a
famine due to water and food shortages.

Drought results from long period of dry weather and insufficient precipitation, which causes
acute dry conditions. The National Commission on Agriculture in India defines three types of
droughts:

• Meteorological drought, defined as a situation when there is significant decrease from

normal precipitation over an area (i.e. more than 10 %)
 • Agricultural drought, signifying the situation when soil moisture and rainfall are
inadequate to support healthy crop growth
• Hydrological drought resulting from prolonged meteorological drought manifested in
depletion of surface and sub-surface water resources, which could occur even when the
rainfall is normal, if there has been a substantial reduction in surface water holding
capacity

Most classifications emphasize physical aspects of drought, particularly in the context of

agriculture (including livestock rearing), although its impacts will be felt in the non-farm
sector. The impact, response, and interventions would vary depending on at what point of time
in a crop calendar there is acute water or soil moisture deficit. Generally, three situations are
recognised:

• Early season: delayed rainfall (delayed onset of monsoon), prolonged dry spells after
onset
• Mid-season: inadequate soil moisture between two rain events, and
• Late season: early cessation of rains or insufficient rains

The IMD recognizes five drought situations:

• ‘Drought Week’ when the weekly rainfall is less than half of the normal
• ‘Agricultural Drought’ when four drought weeks occur consecutively during mid-June
to September
• ‘Seasonal Drought’ when seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than the standard
deviation from the normal
• ‘Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 20 percent of normal or more, and
• ‘Severe Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is deficient by 25 to 40 percent of normal
or more

In the absence of an unambiguous criterion, the NDMA Guideline on ‘Management of

Drought’ notes that there is a need to develop a multi-criteria index to classify droughts based
on several factors such as the following:

• Meteorological (rainfall, temperature, etc.)

• Soil conditions (depth, type, available water content, etc.)
• Surface water use (proportion of irrigated area, surface water supplies, etc.)
• Ground water (availability, utilization, etc.)
• Crop (cropping pattern changes, land use, crop conditions, anomalies in crop condition,
etc.)
• Socio-economic (proportion of weaker sections, poverty, size class of farm holdings,
etc.)

Increasing severity of drought can lead to a major livelihood crisis with crop losses and
widespread unemployment. While drought-proofing measures can significantly improve the
coping capacity and dampen the impact of drought, if drought conditions worsen, many
agencies of the state and centre will have to work in concert to prevent acute rural distress.
Since progression of drought is slow, agencies can respond by closely monitoring the situation
using various technical capabilities available.

[Link] Cold Wave and Frost

Cold wave and frost is a seasonal and localized hazard that occurs in parts of the country, which
experience severe winter. Prolonged frost conditions and cold wave can damage certain frost
sensitive plants causing crops loss. The susceptibility to frost varies widely across crops. The
extent of damage caused by cold wave depends on temperature, length of exposure, humidity
levels, and the speed at which freezing temperature is reached. It is difficult to predict a definite
temperature level up to which crops can tolerate cold wave/frost because many other factors
also affect it. Cold wave can cause death and injury to human beings, livestock and wildlife.
Higher caloric intake is needed for all animals, including humans to withstand exposure to cold
and poor nutritional status can prove deadly in extreme cold conditions. If a cold wave is
accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be unable to get the requisite
food. They may die of hypothermia from prolonged exposure or starvation.

2.2.3 Human-induced Disasters

[Link] Chemical (Industrial) Disaster

With rapid economic development, there has been spread of chemical industries – small,
medium and large – across the country. However, there is a relatively higher presence along
the west coast, largely due to the proximity to raw materials and ports. Gujarat alone is
estimated to contribute around 53 percent to the total production in the country, followed by
Maharashtra, which contributes nine percent. The other major producing states include Uttar
Pradesh (UP), Tamil Nadu (TN), Madhya Pradesh (MP), and Punjab. On the other hand, in the
case of heavy chemicals segment, especially inorganic chemicals, fuel availability is a
determining factor, and hence there is a concentration of these companies around power plants.
Due to the regional concentration of chemical companies in certain pockets, the chemical
hazard has increased many folds. The growth of chemical industries has led to an increase in
the risk of occurrence of incidents associated with hazardous chemicals (HAZCHEM). These
events occur due to mishaps or failures in industry and affect the industrial functions, property
and productivity. While the common causes for chemical accidents are deficiencies in safety
management systems or human errors, or natural calamities or sabotage may also trigger such
accidents. Chemical/ industrial accidents are significant and have long term impact on the
community and environment. It leads to injuries, pain, suffering, loss of lives, damage to
property and environment. Hence, a robust plan and mitigation measure needs to be adapted to
overcome the hazard.

[Link] Nuclear and Radiological Emergency (NRE)

A nuclear disaster is caused due to an extraordinary release of radioactive material or radiation

either in the operation of nuclear reactors or other nuclear events like explosion of a
Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) or Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) or explosion of a
nuclear weapon. It is accompanied with a sudden release of harmful radiations or radioactive
materials or both together into the environment. Nuclear weapons, a major accident in a nuclear
power plant or an accidental exposure of radiation, due to accident with the radioactive material
during transportation, faulty practices, and mechanical failure in a radiation facility can lead to
nuclear or radiological emergency. Even though such situations may not arise easily, everyone
needs to be prepared to face such emergencies. All organizations dealing with nuclear and
radiological material have an inherent culture of safety, follow best safety practices in the
sector, and they apply high standards to ensure minimum risk. However, nuclear emergencies
can still arise due to factors beyond the control of the operating agencies from human error,
system failure, sabotage, extreme natural events like earthquake, cyclone, flood, tsunami or a
combination of these. Such failures, even though of very low probability, may lead to on-site
or off-site emergencies. To counter this, proper emergency preparedness plans must be in place
so that there is minimum loss of life, livelihood, property, and impact on the environment.

A Nuclear and/or Radiological Emergency (NRE) is an incident resulting in, or having a

potential to result in, exposure to and/or contamination of the workers or the public, in excess
of the respective permissible limits (see NDMA’s guidelines for NRE11). These emergencies
are classified into five broad groups as follows:

• An accident taking place in any nuclear facility of the nuclear fuel cycle including the
nuclear reactor, or in a facility using radioactive sources, leading to a large-scale release
of radioactivity in the environment
• A ‘criticality’ accident in a nuclear fuel cycle facility where an uncontrolled nuclear
chain reaction takes place inadvertently leading to bursts of neutrons and gamma
radiation (as had happened at Tokaimura, Japan)
• An accident during the transportation of radioactive material
• The malevolent use of RDD or IND by terrorists
• A large-scale nuclear disaster resulting from a nuclear weapon attack, which would lead
to mass casualties and destruction of large areas and properties. Unlike a nuclear
emergency, the impact of a nuclear disaster is beyond the coping capability of local
authorities and calls for handling at the national level

In this context, it may be mentioned that the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
classifies the above emergency scenarios under two broad categories – a) nuclear and b)
radiological:

• A nuclear emergency refers to an emergency situation in which there is, or is presumed

to be, a hazard due to the release of energy along with radiation from a nuclear chain
reaction (or from the decay of the products of a chain reaction). This covers accidents
in nuclear reactors, ‘criticality’ situations in fuel cycle facilities, nuclear explosions,
etc.
• All other emergency situations which have the potential hazard of radiation exposure
due to decay of radioisotopes, are classified as radiological emergencies. Examples of
such emergencies are the accidents that took place at Goiania in Brazil, San Salvador,
Istanbul in Turkey, Panama, etc.
 • The overall objective is to prevent NRE, there is also need to adequately prepare for
such emergencies. A NRE must be managed through very well planned and established
mechanisms – structural and non-structural – in a manner that will minimize risks to
health, life and the environment.

Eight nuclear/ radiological emergency scenarios envisaged in the disaster planning are
listed below (see NDMA’s guidelines on NRE12 for a brief description of each):

• Accidents in Nuclear Power Plants and other facilities in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
• ‘Criticality’ Accidents
• Accidents during Transportation of Radioactive Materials
• Accidents at facilities using Radioactive Sources
• Disintegration of Satellites during Re-Entry
• Nuclear/Radiological Terrorism and Sabotage at Nuclear Facilities
• State-Sponsored Nuclear Terrorism
• Explosion of Nuclear Weapons

2.2.4 Fire Risk

Fires can start due to human activities or from natural causes. Forest fires can start from either
natural causes or human activity or from a combination of both. The most common fires are
the residential and non-residential structural fires caused usually by human activities. Most
industrial and chemical fires are triggered by human activity. They are sometimes caused by
human errors, faulty designs, or mechanical failures. Fire can also be the secondary effect of a
disaster like earthquake. Secondary fires after a disaster like earthquakes constitute a
substantial and heavy risk.

Damage to natural gas systems during an earthquake can lead to major fires and explosions.
Damages to electrical systems during a disaster can ignite major fires. The growth of fire-
services in the country has been on an ad-hoc basis and needs to be professionalized. Varying
risk scenarios need different types of equipment. The risk varies with geographical location
such as hilly area, coastal-area, desert–area, and with different types of residential (medium/
low-rise/ high-rise) buildings, industrial, commercial area or a combination of these. There is
considerable need for skill upgrade of the staff and modernization of the entire fire service
system. The NDMA guideline on fire services notes that the Standing Fire and Advisory
Council (SFAC) has stressed the urgent need to strengthen the Fire and Emergency Services
(FES) and overcome major shortcomings in the response and its capabilities (SFAC 2016).
National disaster management policy, Institutional arrangements for disaster management in
India.

DM involves a continuous and integrated process of planning , organising, coordinating and

implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for:

• Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster.

• Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences.
• Capacity building including research and knowledge management.
• Preparedness to deal with any disaster.
• Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster.
• Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster.
• Evacuation, rescue and relief.
• Rehabilitation and reconstruction.

A typical DM continuum comprises six elements; the pre-disaster phase includes prevention,
mitigation and preparedness, while the post-disaster phase includes response, rehabilitation,
reconstruction and recovery. A legal and institutional framework binds all theseelements
together (Diagram I).
Approach

A holistic and integrated approach will be evolved towards disaster management with emphasis
on building strategic partnerships at various levels. The themes underpinning the policy are:

• Community based DM, including last mile integration of the policy, plans and
execution.
• Capacity development in all spheres.
• Consolidation of past initiatives and best practices.
• Cooperation with agencies at National and International levels.
• Multi-sectoral synergy.

Objectives

The objectives of the National Policy on Disaster Management are:

• Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and resilience at all levels through

knowledge, innovation and education.
• Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology, traditional wisdom and
environmental sustainability.
• Mainstreaming disaster management into the developmental planning process.
• Establishing institutional and techno legal frameworks to create an enabling regulatory
environment and a compliance regime.
• Ensuring efficient mechanism f o r identification, assessment and monitoring of disaster
risks.
• Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems backed by responsive
and fail-safe communication with information technology support.
• Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring approach towards the needs of the
vulnerable sections of the society.
• Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster resilient structures and
habitat for ensuring safer living.
• Promoting a productive and proactive partnership with the media for disaster
management.

Institutional and Legal Arrangements

DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT, 2005.

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 provides for the effective management of disasters. The
Act marks a paradigm shift in the nature of disaster management in India with focus shifting
towards disaster mitigation, prevention and preparedness. This Act said to be the mother Act
dealing with disasters, both natural and man-made establishes the National Disaster
Management Authority at the Central Level and replicates the model at the State and district
level.

Section 11 of the DM Act 2005 mandates that there shall be a National Disaster Management
Plan (NDMP) for the whole of India. The proposed NDMP complies with the National Policy
on Disaster Management (NPDM) of 2009 and conforms to the provisions of the DM Act
making it mandatory for the Government of India and various central ministries to have
adequate DM plans. While the national plan will pertain to the disaster management for the
whole of the country, the hazardspecific nodal ministries and departments notified by the
Government of India will prepare detailed DM plans specific to the disaster assigned. As per
Section 37 of the DM Act, every ministry and department of the Government of India,
including the hazard-specific nodal ministries, shall prepare comprehensive DM plans detailing
how each of them will contribute to the national efforts in the domains of disaster prevention,
preparedness, response, and recovery.

Scope

As per the DM Act 2005, the National Plan shall include:

a. Measures to be taken for prevention of disasters or the mitigation of their effects

b. Measures to be taken for the integration of mitigation measures in the development
plans
c. Measures to be taken for preparedness and capacity building to effectively respond to
any threatening disaster situations or disaster
d. Roles and responsibilities of different Ministries or Departments of the Government
of India in respect of measures of the three aspects mentioned above

The legislation on disaster management has been related to entry 23 (social security and social
insurance) in the Concurrent list of the Constitution and the States would also be able to make
their own legislation on the subject. A number of constitutional provisions provide for State‘s
obligation to provide relief and rehabilitation. Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees
every person right to life and personal liberty. It casts a positive obligation on the State to take
all possible steps for prevention, preparedness and mitigation of disasters. Article 21 has been
liberally interpreted by the Supreme Court to expand the scope of life and can be said to be the
repository of all important human rights. Besides, this Article 38 directs State to promote the
welfare of the people. Article 51 directs State to honour the international treaty obligations.
India is a party to a number of international treaties on environment which contain specific
provision on disaster management.

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 also provides for constitution of a number of institutions
at national, state and district levels.

Forest (conservation) act, 1980

The Act provides for the conservation of forests and for matters connected therewith or
ancillary or incidental thereto. The Act extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu
and Kashmir.
The air (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981

In June, 1972, at the United Nations Conference on the human environment held in Stockholm
wherein India also participated, decisions were taken to take appropriate steps for the
preservation of natural resources of the earth, which among other things, include the
preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution. Keeping in view the decisions
taken at the said Conference the Government decided to implement those decisions in so far as
they related to the preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution. Accordingly
the AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) Bill was introduced in the
Parliament. This Bill has been passed by both the Houses of Parliament received the assent of
the President on 29th March, 1981. It came into force on the 16th day of May, 1981 as THE
AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981.

Environment (protection) act, 1986

The Act was enacted to provide for the protection and improvement of, environment human
environment, prevention of hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants and
property. It extends to the whole of India.

The enviroment (protection) rules, 1986

These rules set out the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from
the industries for the discharge of effluents, for emission of smoke, vapour and the standards
of ambient air quality.

The factories act, 1948 as amended by the factories (amendment) act, 1987.

The Factories Act is the principal legislation, which governs the health, safety, and welfare of
workers in factories. The Act extends to the whole of India. Mines and Railways workers are
not included as they are covered by separate Acts.

The disaster management (national disaster response force) rules, 2008

In exercise of the powers conferred by Section 75 (1) and Section 75 (2) (f) of the Disaster
Management Act, 2005 the Central Government has made THE DISASTER MANAGEMENT
(NATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE FORCE) RULES, 2008.

The personnel deputed from the Central Para Military Forces (herein after referred to as CPMF)
by the Central Government in the Ministry of Home Affairs shall be deemed to have been
deputed in the National Disaster Response Force here in after referred to as NDRF under these
rules. The Central Government may, in consultation with national authority, appoint such
number of personnel from the CPMF to the NDRF for management of Disaster having skills
and technical qualification as prescribed by the Central Government. In case of shortage of
qualified personnel, the Central government may appoint such personnel on contract basis or
on deputation from other organization. The tenure of the personnel is for five years and not
more than 25%of force may be replaced in one year.
 National Disaster Management Policy 2009

Disasters disrupt progress and destroy the hard-earned fruits of painstaking developmental efforts, often
pushing nations, in quest for progress, back by several decades. Thus, efficient management of disasters,
rather than mere response to their occurrence, has in recent times, received increased attention both
within India and abroad. This is as much a result of the recognition of the increasing frequency and
intensity of disasters, as it is an acknowledgement that good governance in a caring and civilised society,
needs to deal effectively with the devastating impact of disasters.

Disaster Risks in India

India is vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large number of natural as well as man-made disasters. 58.6
per cent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity; over 40 million
hectares (12 per cent of land) is prone to floods and river erosion; of the 7,516 km long coastline, close
to 5,700 km is prone to cyclones and tsunamis; 68 per cent of the cultivable area is vulnerable to drought
and hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches. Vulnerability to disasters/emergencies of
Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) origin also exists. Heightened vulnerabilities
to disaster risks can be related to expanding population, urbanization and industrialisation, development
within high-risk zones, environmental degradation and climate change (Maps 1–4).

In the context of human vulnerability to disasters, the economically and socially weaker segments of
the population are the ones that are most seriously affected. Within the vulnerable groups, elderly
persons, women, children— especially women rendered destitute, children orphaned on account of
disasters and differently abled persons are exposed to higher risks.

NDMP

The Government of India has enacted a comprehensive Disaster Management Act in 2005 and has
adopted the National Policy on Disaster Management in 2009. Both these milestones signaled a
paradigm shift from relief-centric approach to a comprehensive, proactive approach focused on disaster
risk reduction encompassing all aspects of disaster management spectrum.

While legal frameworks are necessary to provide a new direction to disaster management, this needs to
be supplemented by incorporating sound disaster risk reduction measures into our developmental
decisions, policies and programmes In other words, a systematic process of mainstreaming of DRR is
required in our developmental agenda. Preparing a disaster management plan for India, taking into
account global experiences, and incorporating the new global perspectives on disaster management,
proved more challenging than we had initially envisaged.

The aim of the NDMP is to make India disaster resilient. It will help to maximize the ability of the
country to cope with disasters at all levels by Integrating disaster risk reduction into development and
by increasing the preparedness to respond to all kinds of disasters.

The policy takes into account the global trends in disaster management. The implementation of the plan
requires sincere cooperation of the centre and state governments, coordination among various ministries
and departments, as well as the active participation of the civil society, community based organisations,
communities, and the private sector.
Paradigm Shift in Disaster Management (DM)

On 23 December 2005, the Government of India (GoI) took a defining step by enacting the Disaster
Management Act, 2005, (hereinafter referred to as the Act) which envisaged the creation of the National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister, State Disaster Management
Authorities (SDMAs) headed by the Chief Ministers, and District Disaster Management Authorities
(DDMAs) headed by the District Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner as the case
may be, to spearhead and adopt a holistic and integrated approach to DM. There will be a paradigm
shift, from the erstwhile relief-centric response to a proactive prevention, mitigation and preparedness-
driven approach for conserving developmental gains and to minimize loss of life, livelihood and
property.

Vision of NDMP

To build a safe and disaster resilient India by developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster oriented
and technology driven strategy through a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response.

Approach

A holistic and integrated approach will be evolved towards disaster management with emphasis on
building strategic partnerships at various levels. The themes underpinning the policy are:

• Community based DM, including last mile integration of the policy, plans and execution.
• Capacity development in all spheres.
• Consolidation of past initiatives and best practices.
• Cooperation with agencies at National and International levels.
• Multi-sectoral synergy.

Objectives

The objectives of the National Policy on Disaster Management are:

• Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and resilience at all levels through knowledge,
innovation and education.
• Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology, traditional wisdom and environmental
sustainability.
• Mainstreaming disaster management into the developmental planning process.
• Establishing institutional and techno legal frameworks to create an enabling regulatory
environment and a compliance regime.
• Ensuring efficient mechanism for identification, assessment and monitoring of disaster risks.
• Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems backed by responsive and
fail-safe communication with information technology support.
• Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring approach towards the needs of the
vulnerable sections of the society.
• Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster resilient structures and habitat
for ensuring safer living.
• Promoting a productive and proactive partnership with the media for disaster management.
Institutional and Legal Arrangements

Disaster Management Act, 2005

The Act lays down institutional, legal, financial and coordination mechanisms at the National, State,
District and Local levels. These institutions are not parallel structures and will work in close harmony.
The new institutional framework is expected to usher in a paradigm shift in DM from relief-centric
approach to a proactive regime that lays greater emphasis on preparedness, prevention and mitigation.

Institutional Framework under the Act

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

The NDMA, as the apex body for disaster management, is headed by the Prime Minister and has the
responsibility for laying down policies, plans and guidelines for DM and coordinating their enforcement
and implementation for ensuring timely and effective response to disasters. The guidelines will assist
the Central Ministries, Departments and States to formulate their respective DM plans. It will approve
the National Disaster Management Plans and DM plans of the Central Ministries/Departments. It will
take such other measures, as it may consider necessary, for the prevention of disasters, or mitigation, or
preparedness and capacity building, for dealing with a threatening disaster situation or disaster. Central
Ministries/Departments and State Governments will extend necessary cooperation and assistance to
NDMA for carrying out its mandate. It will oversee the provision and application of funds for mitigation
and preparedness measures. NDMA has the power to authorise the Departments or authorities
concerned, to make emergency procurement of provisions or materials for rescue and relief in a
threatening disaster situation or disaster. The general superintendence, direction and control of the
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is vested in and will be exercised by the NDMA. The
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) works within the framework of broad policies and
guidelines laid down by the NDMA.

The NDMA is mandated to deal with all types of disasters; natural or man-made. Whereas, such other
emergencies including those requiring close involvement of the security forces and/or intelligence
agencies such as terrorism (counter-insurgency), law and order situations, serial bomb blasts, hijacking,
air accidents, CBRN weapon systems, mine disasters, port and harbor emergencies, forest fires, oilfield
fires and oil spills will continue to be handled by the extant mechanism i.e., National Crisis Management
Committee (NCMC).

NDMA may, however, formulate guidelines and facilitate training and preparedness activities in respect
of CBRN emergencies. Cross-cutting themes like medical preparedness, psycho-social care and trauma,
community based disaster preparedness, information and communication technology, training,
preparedness, awareness generation etc., for natural and man-made disasters will also engage the
attention of NDMA in partnership with the stakeholders concerned. Resources available with the
disaster management authorities at all levels, which are capable of discharging emergency support
functions, will be made available to the nodal Ministries/ Agencies dealing with the emergencies at
times of impending disaster(s).

National Executive Committee (NEC)

The NEC comprises the Union Home Secretary as Chairperson, and the Secretaries to the GoI in the
Ministries/Departments of Agriculture, Atomic Energy, Defence, Drinking Water Supply, Environment
and Forests, Finance (Expenditure), Health, Power, Rural Development, Science & Technology, Space,
Telecommunications, Urban Development, Water Resources and the Chief of the Integrated Defence
Staff of the Chiefs of Staff Committee as members. Secretaries in the Ministry of External Affairs,
Earth Sciences, Human Resource Development, Mines, Shipping, Road Transport & Highways, and
the Secretary, NDMA will be special invitees to the meetings of the NEC.

The NEC is the executive committee of the NDMA, and is mandated to assist the NDMA in the
discharge of its functions and also ensure compliance of the directions issued by the Central
Government. The NEC is to coordinate the response in the event of any threatening disaster situation
or disaster. The NEC will prepare the National Plan for Disaster Management based on the National
Policy on Disaster Management. The NEC will monitor the implementation of guidelines issued by
NDMA. It will also perform such other functions as may be prescribed by the Central Government in
consultation with the NDMA.

State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)

At the State level, the SDMA, headed by the Chief Minister, will lay down policies and plans for DM
in the State. It will, inter alia approve the State Plan in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the
NDMA, coordinate the implementation of the State Plan, recommend provision of funds for mitigation
and preparedness measures and review the developmental plans of the different Departments of the
State to ensure the integration of prevention, preparedness and mitigation measures.

The State Government shall constitute a State Executive Committee (SEC) to assist the SDMA in the
performance of its functions. The SEC will be headed by the Chief Secretary to the State Government
and coordinate and monitor the implementation of the National Policy, the National Plan and the State
Plan. The SEC will also provide information to the NDMA relating to different aspects of DM.

District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)

The DDMA will be headed by the District Collector, Deputy Commissioner or District Magistrate as
the case may be, with the elected representative of the local authority as the Co- Chairperson. The
DDMA will act as the planning, coordinating and implementing body for DM at the District level and
take all necessary measures for the purposes of DM in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the
NDMA and SDMA. It will, inter alia prepare the District DM plan for the District and monitor the
implementation of the National Policy, the State Policy, the National Plan, the State Plan and the District
Plan. The DDMA will also ensure that the guidelines for prevention, mitigation, preparedness and
response measures laid down by the NDMA and the SDMA are followed by all the Departments of the
State Government at the District level and the local authorities in the District.

Local Authorities

For the purpose of this Policy, local authorities would include Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI),
Municipalities, District and Cantonment Boards, and Town Planning Authorities which control and
manage civic services. These bodies will ensure capacity building of their officers and employees for
managing disasters, carry out relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in the affected areas and
will prepare DM Plans in consonance with the guidelines of the NDMA, SDMAs and DDMAs. Specific
institutional framework for dealing with disaster management issues in mega cities will be put in place.

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

The NIDM, in partnership with other research institutions has capacity development as one of its major
responsibilities, along with training, research, documentation and development of a National level
information base. It will network with other knowledge-based institutions and function within the broad
policies and guidelines laid down by the NDMA. It will organise training of trainers, DM officials and
other stakeholders. The NIDM will strive to emerge as a ‘Centre of Excellence’ in the field of Disaster
Management.

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)

For the purpose of specialised response to a threatening disaster situation or disasters/ emergencies both
natural and man-made such as those of CBRN origin, the Act has mandated the constitution of a
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF). The general superintendence, direction and control of this
force shall be vested in and exercised by the NDMA and the command and supervision of the Force
shall vest in an officer to be appointed by the Central Government as the Director General of Civil
Defence and National Disaster Response Force. Presently, the NDRF comprises eight battalions and
further expansion may be considered in due course. These battalions will be positioned at different
locations as may be required. NDRF units will maintain close liaison with the designated State
Governments and will be available to them in the event of any serious threatening disaster situation.
While the handling of natural disasters rests with all the NDRF battalions, four battalions will also be
equipped and trained to respond to situations arising out of CBRN emergencies. Training centres will
be set up by respective paramilitary forces to train personnel from NDRF battalions of respective Forces
and will also meet the training requirements of State/UT Disaster Response Forces. The NDRF units
will also impart basic training to all the stakeholders identified by the State Governments in their
respective locations. Further, a National Academy will be set up to provide training for trainers in
disaster management and to meet related National and International commitments.

Mitigation Reserves

Experience in major disasters in the last decade has clearly established the need for prepositioning of
some essential reserves at crucial locations, including some for the high altitude areas. These reserves
are intended to augment the resources at the State level. Mitigation reserves will be placed at the
disposal of the NDRF for enhancing their emergency response capabilities for assisting the State
Governments during a disaster or disaster-like situation.

Existing Institutional Arrangements

Cabinet Committee on Management of Natural Calamities (CCMNC) and the Cabinet Committee on
Security (CCS)

3.3.1 CCMNC had been constituted to oversee all aspects relating to the management of natural
calamities including assessment of the situation and identification of measures and programmes
considered necessary to reduce its impact, monitor and suggest long-term measures for prevention of
such calamities, formulate and recommend programmes for public awareness for building up society’s
resilience to them. The CCS deals with issues related to defence of the country, law and order and
internal security, policy matters concerning foreign affairs that have internal or external security
implications, and economic and political issues impinging on National security.

High Level Committee (HLC)

In the case of calamities of severe nature, Inter-Ministerial Central Teams are deputed to the affected
States for assessment of damage caused by the calamity and the amount of relief assistance required.
The Inter-Ministerial Group (IMG), headed by the Union Home Secretary, scrutinises the assessment
made by the Central Teams and recommends the quantum of assistance to be provided to the States
from the National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF). However, assessment of damages by IMG in
respect of drought, hailstorm and pest attack will continue to be headed by the Secretary, Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperation. The HLC comprising the Finance Minister as Chairman and the Home
Minister, Agriculture Minister, and Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission as members
approves the Central assistance to be provided to the affected States based on the recommendations of
the IMG. The constitution and composition of HLC may vary from time to time. The Vice Chairman,
NDMA will be a special invitee to the HLC.

Central Government

In accordance with the provisions of the Act, the Central Government will take all such measures, as it
deems necessary or expedient, for the purpose of DM and will coordinate actions of all agencies. The
Central Ministries and Departments will take into consideration the recommendations of the State
Government Departments while deciding upon the various pre-disaster requirements and for deciding
upon the measures for prevention and mitigation of disaster. It will ensure that the Central Ministries
and Departments integrate measures for the prevention and mitigation of disasters into their
developmental plans and projects, make appropriate allocation of funds for pre-disaster requirements
and take necessary measures for preparedness and to effectively respond to any disaster situation or
disaster. It will have the power to issue directions to NEC, State Governments/SDMAs, SECs or any of
their officers or employees, to facilitate or assist in DM, and these bodies and officials shall be bound
to comply with such directions. The Central Government will extend cooperation and assistance to the
State Governments as required by them or otherwise deemed appropriate by it. It will take measures for
the deployment of the Armed Forces for disaster management. The Central Government will also
facilitate coordination with the UN Agencies, International Organisations and Governments of Foreign
Countries in the field of disaster management. The Ministry of External Affairs in coordination with
the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) will facilitate external coordination/cooperation.

Role of Central Ministries and Departments

As disaster management is a multidisciplinary process, all Central Ministries and Departments will have
a key role in the field of disaster management. The nodal Ministries and Departments of the GoI (i.e.,
the Ministries of Agriculture, Atomic Energy, Civil Aviation, Earth Sciences, Environment & Forests,
Home Affairs, Health, Mines, Railways, Space, Water Resources etc.) will continue to address specific
disasters as assigned to them.

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)

The NCMC, comprising high level officials of the GoI headed by the Cabinet Secretary, will continue
to deal with major crises which have serious or National ramifications. It will be supported by the Crisis
Management Groups (CMG) of the Central nodal Ministries and assisted by NEC as may be necessary.
The Secretary, NDMA may be a member of this Committee.

State Governments

The primary responsibility for disaster management rests with the States. The institutional mechanism
put in place at the Centre, State and District levels will help the States manage disasters in an effective
manner.
The Act mandates the State Governments inter alia to take measures for preparation of Disaster
Management Plans, integration of measures for prevention of disasters or mitigation into development
plans, allocation of funds, establishment of early warning systems, and to assist the Central Government
and other agencies in various aspects of Disaster Management.

District Administration

At the District level, DDMAs will act as the District planning, coordinating and implementing body for
disaster management and will take all measures for the purposes of disaster management in the District
in accordance with the guidelines laid down by NDMA and SDMA. Management of Disasters
Impacting more than one State

At times, the impact of disasters occurring in one State may spread over to the areas of other States.
Similarly, preventive measures in respect of certain disasters, such as floods, etc., may be required to
be taken in one State, though the impact of their occurrence may affect another. The administrative
hierarchy of the country is organised into National, State and District level administrations. This
presents some difficulties in respect of disasters impacting more than one State. Management of such
situations calls for a coordinated approach, which can respond to a range of issues quite different from
those that normally present themselves, before, during and after the event. NDMA will encourage
identification of such situations and promote the establishment of mechanisms on the lines of Mutual
Aid Agreement for coordinated strategies for dealing with them by the States, Central Ministries and
Departments and other agencies concerned.

Other Important Institutional Arrangements

Armed Forces

Conceptually, the Armed Forces are called upon to assist the civil administration only when the situation
is beyond their coping capability. In practice, however, the Armed Forces form an important part of the
Government’s response capacity and are immediate responders in all serious disaster situations. On
account of their vast potential to meet any adverse challenge, speed of operational response and the
resources and capabilities at their disposal, the Armed Forces have historically played a major role in
emergency support functions. These include communication, search and rescue operations, health and
medical facilities, and transportation, especially in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. Airlift, heli-
lift and movement of assistance to neighbouring countries primarily fall within the expertise and domain
of the Armed Forces. The Armed Forces will participate in imparting training to trainers and DM
managers, especially in CBRN aspects, heli-insertion, high-altitude rescue, watermanship and training
of paramedics. At the National level, the Chief of the Integrated Defence Staff to the Chairman Chiefs
of Staff Committee has already been included in the NEC. Similarly, at the State and District levels, the
local representatives of the Armed Forces may be included in their executive committees to ensure
closer coordination and cohesion.

Central Paramilitary Forces

The Central Paramilitary Forces (CPMFs), which are also the Armed Forces of the Union, play a key
role at the time of immediate response to disasters. Besides contributing to the NDRF, they will develop
adequate disaster management capabilities within their own forces and respond to disasters which may
occur in the areas where they are posted. The local representatives of the CPMFs may be co-
opted/invited in the executive committee at the State level.
State Police Forces and Fire Services

The State Police Forces and the Fire Services are crucial immediate responders to disasters. The Police
Forces will be trained and the Fire Services upgraded to acquire multi-hazard rescue capability.

Civil Defence and Home Guards

The mandate of the Civil Defence and the Home Guards will be redefined to assign an effective role in
the field of disaster management. They will be deployed for community preparedness and public
awareness. A culture of voluntary reporting to duty stations in the event of any disaster will be
promoted.

State Disaster Response Force (SDRF)

States will be encouraged to create response capabilities from within their existing resources. To start
with, each State may aim at equipping and training one battalion equivalent force. They will also include
women members for looking after the needs of women and children. NDRF battalions and their training
institutions will assist the States/UTs in this effort. The States/UTs will also be encouraged to include
DM training in their respective Police Training Colleges and basic and in-service courses, for gazetted
and non-gazetted officers.

Role of National Cadet Corps (NCC), National Service Scheme (NSS) and Nehru Yuva Kendra
Sangathan (NYKS)

Potential of these youth based organisations will be optimised to support all community based initiatives
and DM training would be included in their programmes.

International Cooperation

Disasters do not recognise geographical boundaries. Major disasters may often simultaneously affect
several countries. It will be the National endeavour to develop close cooperation and coordination at
the International level in all spheres of DM.

SENDAI FRAMEWORK FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION 2015–2030

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 was adopted at the Third UN
World Conference in Sendai, Japan, on March 18, 2015.

The Sendai Framework is the successor instrument to the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA)
2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters.

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 outlines seven clear targets and
four priorities for action to prevent new and reduce existing disaster risks.

It aims to achieve the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and
health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons,
businesses, communities and countries over the next 15 years.
The Sendai Framework is built on elements which ensure continuity with the work done by
States and other stakeholders under the HFA and introduces a number of innovations as called
for during the consultations and negotiations. Many commentators have identified the most
significant shifts as a strong emphasis on disaster risk management as opposed to disaster
management, the definition of seven global targets, the reduction of disaster risk as an expected
outcome, a goal focused on preventing new risk, reducing existing risk and strengthening
resilience, as well as a set of guiding principles, including primary responsibility of states to
prevent and reduce disaster risk, all-of-society and all-of-State institutions engagement. In
addition, the scope of disaster risk reduction has been broadened significantly to focus on
both natural and man-made hazards and related environmental, technological and
biological hazards and risks. Health resilience is strongly promoted throughout.

The Sendai Framework also articulates the following:

 the need for improved understanding of disaster risk in all its dimensions of exposure,
vulnerability and hazard characteristics;
 the strengthening of disaster risk governance, including national platforms;
 accountability for disaster risk management;
 preparedness to “Build Back Better”;
 recognition of stakeholders and their roles;
 mobilization of risk-sensitive investment to avoid the creation of new risk;
 resilience of health infrastructure, cultural heritage and work-places;
 strengthening of international cooperation and global partnership, and
 risk-informed donor policies and programs, including financial support and loans from
international financial institutions.

EXPECTED OUTCOME AND GOAL

Building on the Hyogo Framework for Action, the present Framework aims to achieve the
following OUTCOME over the next 15 years:

“The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and
health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets
of persons, businesses, communities and countries.”
The realization of this outcome requires the strong commitment and involvement of political
leadership in every country at all levels in the implementation and follow-up of the present
Framework and in the creation of the necessary conducive and enabling environment.

To attain the expected outcome, the following GOAL must be pursued:

“Prevent new and reduce existing disaster risk through the implementation of
integrated and inclusive economic, structural, legal, social, health, cultural,
educational, environmental, technological, political and institutional measures
that prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, increase
preparedness for response and recovery, and thus strengthen resilience.”
The pursuance of this goal requires the enhancement of the implementation capacity and
capability of developing countries, including the mobilization of support through international
cooperation for the provision of means of implementation in accordance with their national
priorities.

TARGETS

To support the assessment of global progress in achieving the outcome and goal of the present
Framework, seven global targets have been agreed. These targets will be measured at the global
level and will be complemented by work to develop appropriate indicators. National targets
and indicators will contribute to the achievement of the outcome and goal of the present
Framework. The seven global targets are:

(a) Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower the average
per 100,000 global mortality rate in the decade 2020–2030 compared to the period
2005–2015;
(b) Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower
the average global figure per 100,000 in the decade 2020–2030 compared to the period
2005–2015;10
(c) Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product
(GDP) by 2030;
(d) Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic
services, among them health and educational facilities, including through developing
their resilience by 2030;
(e) Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk
reduction strategies by 2020;
(f) Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through
adequate and sustainable support to complement their national actions for
implementation of the present Framework by 2030;
(g) Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning
systems and disaster risk information and assessments to people by 2030.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES
The implementation of the present Framework will be guided by the following principles, while
taking into account national circumstances, and consistent with domestic laws as well as
international obligations and commitments:

1. Each State has the primary responsibility to prevent and reduce disaster risk through
international, regional, sub regional, trans-boundary and bilateral cooperation.
The reduction of disaster risk is a common concern for all States and the extent to which
developing countries are able to effectively enhance and implement national disaster
risk reduction policies and measures in the context of their respective circumstances
 and capabilities can be further enhanced through the provision of sustainable
international cooperation;
2. Disaster risk reduction requires that responsibilities be shared by central Governments
and relevant national authorities, sectors and stakeholders, as appropriate to their
national circumstances and systems of governance;
3. Managing the risk of disasters is aimed at protecting persons and their property, health,
livelihoods and productive assets, as well as cultural and environmental assets, while
promoting and protecting all human rights, including the right to development;
4. Disaster risk reduction requires an all-of-society engagement and partnership. It also
requires empowerment and inclusive, accessible and non-discriminatory participation,
paying special attention to people disproportionately affected by disasters, especially the
poorest.
A gender, age, disability and cultural perspective should be integrated in all policies
and practices, and women and youth leadership should be promoted. In this context,
special attention should be paid to the improvement of organized voluntary work of
citizens;
5. Disaster risk reduction and management depends on coordination mechanisms within
and across sectors and with relevant stakeholders at all levels, and it requires the full
engagement of all State institutions of an executive and legislative nature at national and
local levels and a clear articulation of responsibilities across public and private
stakeholders, including business and academia, to ensure mutual outreach, partnership,
complementarity in roles and accountability and follow-up;
6. While the enabling, guiding and coordinating role of national and federal State
Governments remain essential, it is necessary to empower local authorities and local
communities to reduce disaster risk, including through resources, incentives and decision-
making responsibilities, as appropriate;
7. Disaster risk reduction requires a multi-hazard approach and inclusive risk-informed
decision-making based on the open exchange and dissemination of disaggregated data,
including by sex, age and disability, as well as on easily accessible, up-to-date,
comprehensible, science-based, non-sensitive risk information, complemented by
traditional knowledge;
8. The development, strengthening and implementation of relevant policies, plans, practices
and mechanisms need to aim at coherence, as appropriate, across sustainable
development and growth, food security, health and safety, climate change and variability,
environmental management and disaster risk reduction agendas. Disaster risk reduction
is essential to achieve sustainable development;
9. While the drivers of disaster risk may be local, national, regional or global in scope,
disaster risks have local and specific characteristics that must be understood for the
determination of measures to reduce disaster risk;
10. Addressing underlying disaster risk factors through disaster risk informed public and
private investments is more cost-effective than primary reliance on post-disaster response
and recovery, and contributes to sustainable development;
11. In the post-disaster recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, it is critical to
prevent the creation of and to reduce disaster risk by “Building Back Better” and
increasing public education and awareness of disaster risk;
12. An effective and meaningful global partnership and the further strengthening of
international cooperation, including the fulfilment of respective commitments of official
development assistance by developed countries, are essential for effective disaster risk
management;
13. Developing countries, in particular the least developed countries, small island developing
States, landlocked developing countries and African countries, as well as middle-income
and other countries facing specific disaster risk challenges, need adequate, sustainable and
timely provision of support, including through finance, technology transfer and capacity-
building from developed countries and partners tailored to their needs and priorities, as
identified by them.

PRIORITIES FOR ACTION

PRIORITY 1: UNDERSTANDING DISASTER RISK.

PRIORITY 2: STRENGTHENING DISASTER RISK GOVERNANCE TO MANAGE

DISASTER RISK.

PRIORITY 3: INVESTING IN DISASTER RISK REDUCTION FOR RESILIENCE.

PRIORITY 4: ENHANCING DISASTER PREPAREDNESS FOR EFFECTIVE

RESPONSE AND TO “BUILD BACK BETTER” IN RECOVERY, REHABILITATION
AND RECONSTRUCTION.

In their approach to disaster risk reduction, States, regional and international organizations and
other relevant stakeholders should take into consideration the key activities listed under each
of these four priorities and should implement them, as appropriate, taking into consideration
respective capacities and capabilities, in line with national laws and

Priority 1: Understanding disaster risk

Policies and practices for disaster risk management should be based on an understanding of
disaster risk in all its dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets,
hazard characteristics and the environment. Such knowledge can be leveraged for the purpose
of pre-disaster risk assessment, for prevention and mitigation and for the development and
implementation of appropriate preparedness and effective response to disasters.

National and local levels

To achieve this, it is important:

(a) To promote the collection, analysis, management and use of relevant data and practical
information and ensure its dissemination, taking into account the needs of different
categories of users, as appropriate;
(b) To encourage the use of and strengthening of baselines and periodically assess disaster
risks, vulnerability, capacity, exposure, hazard characteristics and their possible
sequential effects at the relevant social and spatial scale on ecosystems, in line with
national circumstances;
(c) To develop, periodically update and disseminate, as appropriate, location-based disaster
risk information, including risk maps, to decision makers, the general public and
communities at risk of exposure to disaster in an appropriate format by using, as
applicable, geospatial information technology;
(d) To systematically evaluate, record, share and publicly account for disaster losses and
different impacts,
(e) To make non-sensitive hazard-exposure, vulnerability, risk, disaster and loss-disaggregated
information freely available and accessible, as appropriate;
(f) To promote real-time access to reliable data, make use of space and in situ information,
including geographic information systems (GIS), and use information and communications
technology innovations to enhance measurement tools and the collection, analysis and
dissemination of data;
(g) To build the knowledge of different stakeholders through sharing experiences, lessons
learned, good practices and training and education on disaster risk reduction, including the
use of existing training and education mechanisms and peer learning;

Global and regional levels

To achieve this, it is important:

(a) To enhance the development and dissemination of science-based methodologies and tools
to record and share disaster losses and relevant disaggregated data and statistics, as well as to
strengthen disaster risk modelling, assessment, mapping, monitoring and multi-hazard early
warning systems;

(b) To promote the conduct of comprehensive surveys on multi-hazard disaster risks and the
development of regional disaster risk assessments and maps, including climate change
scenarios;

(c) To promote and enhance, through international cooperation, including technology transfer,
access to and the sharing and use of non-sensitive data and information, as appropriate,
communications and geospatial and space-based technologies and related services;

(d) To promote common efforts in partnership with the scientific and technological community,
academia and the private sector to establish, disseminate and share good practices
internationally;

(e) To support the development of local, national, regional and global user-friendly systems
and services for the exchange of information on good practices, cost-effective and easy-to-use
disaster risk reduction technologies and lessons learned on policies, plans and measures for
disaster risk reduction;
 (h) To encourage the availability of copyrighted and patented materials, including through
negotiated concessions, as appropriate;

(i) To enhance access to and support for innovation and technology, as well as in long-term,
multi-hazard and solution-driven research and development in the field of disaster risk
management.

Disaster risk management should be based on an understanding of disaster risk in all its
dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics
and the environment. Such knowledge can be used for risk assessment, prevention,
mitigation, preparedness and response.

Priority 2: Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk

Disaster risk governance at the national, regional and global levels is of great importance
for an effective and efficient management of disaster risk. Clear vision, plans, competence,
guidance and coordination within and across sectors, as well as participation of relevant
stakeholders, are needed. Strengthening disaster risk governance for prevention, mitigation,
preparedness, response, recovery and rehabilitation is therefore necessary and fosters
collaboration and partnership across mechanisms and institutions for the implementation of
instruments relevant to disaster risk reduction and sustainable development.

National and local levels

To achieve this, it is important:

(a) To mainstream and integrate disaster risk reduction within and across all sectors and
review and promote the coherence and further development
(b) To adopt and implement national and local disaster risk reduction strategies and plans,
across different timescales, with targets, indicators and time frames,
(c) To carry out an assessment of the technical, financial and administrative disaster risk
management capacity to deal with the identified risks at the local and national levels;
(d) To develop and strengthen, as appropriate, mechanisms to follow up, periodically assess
and publicly report on progress on national and local plans; and promote public scrutiny.
(e) To assign, as appropriate, clear roles and tasks to community representatives within
disaster risk management institutions and processes and decision-making through relevant
legal frameworks,
(f) To empower local authorities, as appropriate, through regulatory and financial means to
work and coordinate with civil society, communities and indigenous peoples and migrants
in disaster risk management at the local level;

Global and regional levels

To achieve this, it is important:

(a) To guide action at the regional level through agreed regional and subregional strategies
and mechanisms for cooperation for disaster risk reduction,
(b) To foster collaboration across global and regional mechanisms and institutions for the
implementation and coherence of instruments and tools relevant to disaster risk reduction,
(c) To actively engage in the Global or regional or sub regional Platform for Disaster Risk
Reduction, in order to forge partnerships, periodically assess progress on implementation
and share practice and knowledge on disaster risk-informed policies, programmes and
investments,
(d) To promote trans boundary cooperation to enable policy and planning for the
implementation of ecosystem-based approaches
(e) To promote mutual learning and exchange of good practices and information
(f) To promote the strengthening of, as appropriate, international voluntary mechanisms for
monitoring and assessment of disaster

Disaster risk governance at the national, regional and global levels is very important for
prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, and rehabilitation. It fosters
collaboration and partnership.

Priority 3: Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience

Public and private investment in disaster risk prevention and reduction through structural
and non-structural measures are essential to enhance the economic, social, health and
cultural resilience of persons, communities, countries and their assets, as well as the
environment. These can be drivers of innovation, growth and job creation. Such measures are
cost-effective and instrumental to save lives, prevent and reduce losses and ensure effective
recovery and rehabilitation.

National and local levels

To achieve this, it is important:

(a) To allocate the necessary resources, including finance and logistics, as appropriate, at all
levels of administration for the development and the implementation of disaster risk
reduction strategies, policies, plans, laws and regulations in all relevant sectors;
(b) To promote mechanisms for disaster risk transfer and insurance, risk sharing and retention
and financial protection, as appropriate, for both public and private investment in order to
reduce the financial impact of disasters on Governments and societies, in urban and rural
areas;
(c) To strengthen, as appropriate, disaster-resilient public and private investments,
(d) To protect or support the protection of cultural and collecting institutions and other sites
of historical, cultural heritage and religious interest;
(e) To promote the disaster risk resilience of workplaces through structural and non-structural
measures;
(f) To promote the mainstreaming of disaster risk assessments into land-use policy
development and implementation,
(g) To encourage the revision of existing or the development of new building codes and
standards and rehabilitation and reconstruction practices at the national or local levels
with a view to fostering disaster-resistant structures;
(h) To enhance the resilience of national health systems,
(i) To strengthen the design and implementation of inclusive policies and social safety-net
mechanisms,
(j) To promote, as appropriate, the integration of disaster risk reduction considerations and
measures in financial and fiscal instruments;

Global and regional levels

To achieve this, it is important:

(a) To promote coherence across systems, sectors and organizations related to sustainable
development and to disaster risk reduction in their policies, plans, programmes and
processes;
(b) To promote the development and strengthening of disaster risk transfer and sharing
mechanisms and instruments in close cooperation with partners in the international
community, business, international financial institutions and other relevant stakeholders;
(c) To promote cooperation between academic, scientific and research entities and networks
and the private sector to develop new products and services to help to reduce disaster risk,
(d) To encourage the coordination between global and regional financial institutions with a
view to assessing and anticipating the potential economic and social impacts of disasters;
(e) To enhance cooperation between health authorities and other relevant stakeholders
(f) To strengthen and promote collaboration and capacity-building for the protection of
productive assets, including livestock, working animals, tools and seeds;
(g) To strengthen and broaden international efforts aimed at eradicating hunger and poverty
through disaster risk reduction;

Public and private investment in disaster risk prevention and reduction through structural
and non-structural measures are essential to enhance the economic, social, health and
cultural resilience of persons, communities, countries and their assets, as well as the
environment.

Priority 4: Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back
Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction

The steady growth of disaster risk, including the increase of people and assets exposure,
combined with the lessons learned from past disasters, indicates the need to further
strengthen disaster preparedness for response, take action in anticipation of events, integrate
disaster risk reduction in response preparedness and ensure that capacities are in place for
effective response and recovery at all levels. Empowering women and persons with disabilities
to publicly lead and promote gender equitable and universally accessible response, recovery,
rehabilitation and reconstruction approaches is key. Disasters have demonstrated that the
recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, which needs to be prepared ahead of a
disaster, is a critical opportunity to “Build Back Better”, including through integrating disaster
risk reduction into development measures, making nations and communities resilient to
disasters.

National and local levels

To achieve this, it is important:

(a) To prepare or review and periodically update disaster preparedness and contingency
policies, plans and programmes with the involvement of the relevant institutions,
(b) To invest in, develop, maintain and strengthen people-centred multihazard, multisectoral
forecasting and early warning systems, disaster risk and emergency communications
mechanisms, social technologies and hazard-monitoring telecommunications systems;
(c) To promote the resilience of new and existing critical infrastructure,
(d) To establish community centres for the promotion of public awareness and the stockpiling
of necessary materials to implement rescue and relief activities;
(e) To adopt public policies and actions that support the role of public service workers
(f) To train the existing workforce and voluntary workers in disaster response and strengthen
technical and logistical capacities to ensure better response in emergencies;
(g) To strengthen the capacity of local authorities to evacuate persons living in disaster-prone
areas;
(h) To enhance recovery schemes to provide psychosocial support and mental health services
for all people in need;

Global and regional levels

To achieve this, it is important:

(a) To develop and strengthen, as appropriate, coordinated regional approaches and

operational mechanisms to prepare for and ensure rapid and effective disaster
response in situations that exceed national coping capacities;
(b) To promote the further development and dissemination of instruments, such as
standards, codes, operational guides and other guidance instruments, to support
coordinated action in disaster preparedness and response and facilitate information
sharing on lessons learned and best practices for policy practice and post-disaster
reconstruction programmes;
(c) To promote the further development of and investment in effective, nationally
compatible, regional multi-hazard early warning mechanisms,
(d) To enhance international mechanisms, such as the International Recovery Platform,
for the sharing of experience and learning among countries and all relevant
stakeholders;
(e) To support, as appropriate, the efforts of relevant United Nations entities to strengthen
and implement global mechanisms on hydrometeorological issues
(f) To support regional cooperation to deal with disaster preparedness, including through
common exercises and drills;
 (g) To promote regional protocols to facilitate the sharing of response capacities and \
resources during and after disasters;
(h) To train the existing workforce and volunteers in disaster response.

The growth of disaster risk means there is a need to strengthen disaster preparedness for
response, take action in anticipation of events, and ensure capacities are in place for effective
response and recovery at all levels. The recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase is
a critical opportunity to build back better, including through integrating disaster risk
reduction into development measures.