Climate & Weather — Test Study Guide

Mr. Isaacson | Test: Mon 4/27 (Period 3) & Tue 4/28 (Periods 5 & 9)
ESRT pages to know: 2, 3, 12, 13, 14, 15

1. Factors That Control Climate

The 6 Big Factors (know all of these!)
• Latitude — Latitude
◦ Closer to the equator = warmer (more direct sunlight)
◦ Higher latitude = colder, more angled sunlight
• Elevation — Elevation
◦ Higher altitude = colder (~3.5°F drop per 1,000 ft gained)
• Large Bodies of Water — Large Bodies of Water
◦ Water heats and cools slowly → moderates temps nearby
◦ Coastal areas: cooler summers, warmer winters than inland
• Ocean Currents — Ocean Currents
◦ Caused by: global winds pushing surface water + differences in temp & salinity
◦ Warm currents → warm air above → warm nearby land
◦ Cold currents → cool air above → cool nearby land
• Mountains — Mountains (Orographic Lift & Rain Shadow)
◦ Air rises up windward side → cools → clouds & rain
◦ Air descends leeward side → warms & dries = RAIN SHADOW (desert-like)
• Global Winds — Global/Planetary Winds
◦ Distribute heat and moisture around Earth
◦ Also spread volcanic ash & smoke (causing temporary cooling)

Volcanic Eruptions & Climate

Ash and smoke block sunlight → ground and atmosphere cool temporarily. Ash spreads globally via global winds.

El Niño Effect
Periodic warming of Pacific Ocean near equator → disrupts normal weather worldwide (can cause droughts,
floods, unusual temps).

Lake Effect Snow (northern NYS)

Cold dry air moves over warm Great Lakes → picks up moisture → dumps heavy snow on the downwind
(leeward) shore.

2. Weather Systems & Maps

Cloud Formation
• General: warm moist air rises → cools to dew point → water vapor condenses on dust → cloud forms
• Cold front: cold air shoves under warm air rapidly → steep uplift → tall cumulonimbus, thunderstorms
• Warm front: warm air glides slowly over cold → gentle slope → stratus clouds, steady rain

Wind Around Pressure Systems

• Low Pressure (L) — Low Pressure (L) / Cyclone:
◦ Winds blow INWARD and COUNTERCLOCKWISE (Northern Hemisphere)
◦ Air rises → clouds and storms
 • High Pressure (H) — High Pressure (H) / Anticyclone:
◦ Winds blow OUTWARD and CLOCKWISE (Northern Hemisphere)
◦ Air sinks → clear skies
★ Memory trick: Low = counterclockwise (like going 'down a drain')

Synoptic Weather Map — Fronts

• Cold front: blue line with TRIANGLES pointing direction of movement → thunderstorms, temp drop
• Warm front: red line with SEMICIRCLES → steady rain, temp rise
• Occluded front: purple, alternating triangles & semicircles
• Stationary front: alternating red/blue symbols → little movement
• Mid-latitude cyclone: low pressure system with cold & warm fronts attached

Isotherms & Isobars

• Isotherms: lines connecting points of EQUAL TEMPERATURE
• Isobars: lines connecting points of EQUAL AIR PRESSURE
★ Closely spaced isobars = strong winds (big pressure difference)

Station Model — What Each Position Means

• Top left: Temperature
• Bottom left: Dew point
• Right of circle: Barometric pressure
• Line from circle: Wind direction (points where wind comes FROM)
• Barbs on line: Wind speed
• Fill of circle: Cloud cover (empty = clear, filled = overcast)
• Symbol left of circle: Current weather (rain, snow, fog, etc.)

Climate Graphs
Usually: temperature shown as a LINE (left axis), precipitation shown as BARS (right axis). Read both axes
carefully.

Direct vs. Inverse Relationships

• Direct: both variables increase together. Ex: higher humidity → greater chance of rain
• Inverse: one goes up, other goes down. Ex: higher elevation → lower temperature

Ground Speed Calculation

Speed = distance traveled ÷ time it took to travel
(This is how fast the storm moves across a map — NOT the wind speed inside it)

3. Hurricanes
Formation & Basics
• Center pressure: LOW (L)
• Where they form: tropical oceans, roughly 5°–20° latitude (near equator but not AT it)
• What they need to form: warm ocean water (≥26°C / ~79°F), moisture, weak upper-level winds
• Fuel: warm ocean water evaporates → latent heat energy powers the storm
• Wind spin: COUNTERCLOCKWISE in Northern Hemisphere (Coriolis effect)
 • Categories: Saffir-Simpson scale 1–5, based on WIND SPEED

Structure
• Eye: calm, clear, WARM center — lowest pressure, light winds, no rain
• Eye wall: ring of violent thunderstorms around the eye — STRONGEST winds & heaviest rain
★ The eye feels calm but the eye wall just outside is the most dangerous part

Movement & Death

• Travel across ocean: steered by global winds (trade winds & westerlies)
• Direction changes: Coriolis effect curves the path; steering winds shift
• Hurricanes DIE when they: (1) move over cold water OR (2) move over land
◦ Both cut off the warm water energy source

Dangers & Safety

• Storm surge: ocean water pushed ashore by winds → dangerous coastal flooding
• Other dangers: extreme winds, heavy rain, inland flooding, tornadoes
• Precautions: evacuate if ordered, board windows, stock supplies, follow emergency alerts

4. Tornadoes
Formation & Basics
• Center pressure: LOW (L)
• Where: mostly central USA — 'Tornado Alley' (TX, OK, KS, NE)
• Conditions needed: cold dry air meets warm moist air → supercell thunderstorm → rotating updraft
(mesocyclone) → tornado
• Direction of travel: usually SW to NE, steered by upper-level westerly winds
• Fujita Scale (EF0–EF5): classified by DAMAGE CAUSED (not directly measured wind speed)

Dangers & Safety

• Dangers: extreme winds, flying debris, structural destruction, vehicles overturned
• Precautions: go to basement or interior room on lowest floor, stay away from windows
• Get OUT of vehicles and mobile homes — they offer almost no protection

5. Hurricanes vs. Tornadoes — Quick Compare

Feature Hurricane Tornado
Center pressure Low (L) Low (L)
Size Hundreds of miles wide Hundreds of yards wide
Lasts Days to weeks Minutes to hours
Where forms Tropical oceans (5°–20° lat) Central USA (Tornado Alley)
Needs to form Warm ocean water + moisture Cold dry + warm moist air colliding
Wind direction Counterclockwise (NH) Counterclockwise (NH)
Scale Saffir-Simpson 1–5 (wind speed) Fujita EF0–EF5 (damage)
Dies from Cold water or land Losing storm energy / dissipates
6. Last-Minute Reminders
• Read ESRT pages 2, 3, 12, 13, 14, 15 before the test
• Know how to DRAW isotherms (equal temp) and isobars (equal pressure) on a map
• Know how to READ and FILL IN a station model
• Know how to PLOT hurricane/tornado positions on a tracking map
• Be ready for any topic from the previous take-home Weather Test
• Practice interpreting climate graphs — temp line on left axis, precip bars on right

Good luck — you've got this!