AP HUGS

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

ESSENTIAL GEOGRAPHY SKILLS

● Branches of Geography

○ -Geography: study of spatial characteristics of various elements of the

physical environment

○ Human Geography: the study of the spatial characteristics of humans and

human activities

● Models in Geography

○ Spatial Models: look like stylized maps, and they illustrate theories about

spatial

○ Nonspatial models: illustrate theories and concepts using words, graphs or

tables

○ Time-distance decay: the closer things are to each other the more

connected they are

● Spatial Relationships:

○ Spatial Patterns: refer to the general arrangement of things being studied

○ Networks: a set of interconnected entities (sometimes called nodes)

● Data Analysis

○ Quantitative data: any information that can be measured and recorded

using numbers

■ Geospatial data: quantitative and spatial (Ex: zip code, city)

● Source Analysis

○ Qualitative sources: interviews. Photographs, remote satellite images

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 ○ Scales of analysis: viewing topics at the local, regional, country or global

scale

INTRODUCTION TO MAPS

● Reference Maps:

○ Political maps: shows and labels human-created boundaries and

designations, such as countries, states, cities, and capitals

○ Physical maps: show and label natural features, such as mountains, rivers,

and deserts

○ Road maps: show and label highways, streets and alleys

○ Plat maps: show and label property lines and details of land ownership

● Thematic maps

○ Thematic maps: show spatial aspects of information or of a phenomenon

(weather, population)

○ Choropleth maps: use various colors/shades of one color to show

location/distribution of spatial data

○ Dot distribution: used to show the specific location and distribution of

something across of a map

○ Graduated symbol map: use symbols of different sizes to indicate different

amounts of something

○ Isoline maps: use lines that connect points of equal value to depict

variations in the data across

■ Topographic maps

○ Cartogram: sizes of countries are shown according to some specific statistic

● Scale:

○ Scale: the ratio between the size of things in the real world and the size of

those same things on the map

○ Cartographic scale: refers to the way the map communicates the ratio of its

size to the size of what it represents

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 ○ Small scale maps: show a larger amount of area with less detail

○ Large scale maps: show a smaller amount of area with a greater amount of

detail

● Spatial Patterns

○ Absolute location: the precise spot where something is according to a

system

○ Latitude: the distance north or south of the equator

○ Longitude: the distance east or west of the prime meridian

○ International date line: roughly follows the prime meridian

○ Relative location: description of where something is in relation to other

things

○ Direction: where things are in relation to another

● Distance

○ Absolute Distance: measured in units of measurement

○ Relative Distance: indicates the degree of nearness based on time, money,

or mode of travel

○ Elevation: distance of features above sea level

● Pattern Distribution

○ Clustered/Agglomerated: phenomena arranged in a group or concentrated

area

○ Linear: arranged in a straight line

○ Dispersed: spread out over a large area, such as the distribution of large

malls in a city

○ Circular: equally spaced from a central point (forming a circle)

○ Geometric: in a regular arrangement (blocks/squares)

○ Random: appear to have no order

● Projections

○ Mercator: good for navigation, direction is shown accurately; land masses

appear large near the poles

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 ○ Peter-galls: shapes are inaccurate; land mass sizes are accurate; spatial

distribution related to area

○ Conic: general use in mid latitude countries; size and shape are both close to

reality; direction is not constant; longitude lines converge at only one pole

○ Robinson: general use; no major distortion; area, shape, size and direction

are all slightly distorted

GEOGRAPHIC DATA

● Landscape analysis: defining and describing landscapes

● Observation

○ Field Observation: used to refer to the act of physically visiting a location

place, or region and recording, firsthand, information there

○ Spatial data: all of the information that can be tied to specific locations

○ Remote sensing: gathers information from satellites that orbit the earth or

other craft above the atmosphere

○ Aerial photography: professional images captured from planes within the

atmosphere

● Geospatial Data

○ Fieldwork: observing and recording information on location, or in the field

POWER OF GEOGRAPHIC DATA

● Geovisualizations: 2D or 3D interactive maps

● Global Positioning System: use the locations of multiple satellites to determine

and record a receiver’s exact location

● Geographic Information System: can store, analyze and display information from

multiple digital maps or geospatial data sets

SPATIAL CONCEPTS

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 ● Spatial Approach: considers the arrangement of the phenomena being studied

across the surface of the earth

● Space: area between 2 or more phenomena or things

● Locations: identifies where specific phenomena are located either on a grid system

or relative to another location

● Place: refers to the specific human physical characteristics of a location

● Region: groups of places in the same area that shares a characteristic form

● Site: characteristics at the immediate location

● Situation: location of a place relative to its surroundings and its connectivity to

other places

● Toponyms: provide insights into the physical geography

● Distance/Time

○ Time-space compression: shrinking “time-distance” or relative distance

because of improved methods of communication or transportation

○ Spatial interaction: the contact, movement and flow of things between

locations

○ Flow: the patterns and movement of ideas, people, products, and other

phenomena

○ Friction of distance: indicates when things are farther apart they tend to be

less connected

○ Distance decay: when things are closer together they are more connected

● Patterns/Distribution

○ Patterns: refers to the general arrangement of things being studied, and

geographers must be able to describe the patterns accurately and with

precision

○ Distribution: the way a phenomenon is spread out or arranged over an area

to describe patterns

○ Spatial association: matching patterns of distribution

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HUMAN-ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTION

● Human-environmental interaction: relationship between human and the natural

world

● Geographic concepts

○ Natural resources: includes items that occur in the natural environment the

people use

○ Renewable natural resources: theoretically unlimited and will not be

depleted based on use by people

○ Non-renewable natural resources: limited and can be exhausted by human

uses

○ Sustainability: using resources now in way that allow their use in the future

○ Land use: study of how land is utilized, modified, and organized by people

○ Built environment: the physical artifacts that humans have created and that

form part of the landscape

○ Cultural landscape: anything built by humans and in the realm of land use

● Theories of Human-Environmental Interaction

○ Cultural ecology: study of how humans adapt to the environment

○ Environmental determinism: landforms and climate shape human behavior

and societal development

○ Possibilism: a view that acknowledges limits on the effects of the natural

environment and focuses more on the role that human culture plays

SCALES OF ANALYSIS

● Geographic scale/relative scale: refers to the area of the world being studied

● Aggregation: geographers organize data into different scales such as by census

tract, city, county, or country

● False conclusions: not supported by the data or logical reasoning

REGIONAL ANALYSIS

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 ● Regions: have boundaries, unifying characteristics, cover space, and are creat]ed by

people

● Types of Regions:

○ Formal/Uniform/Homogenous:

■ United by one or more traits

■ Political, physical, cultural, economic

○ Functional/Nodal:

■ Defined by an activity, usually political, social, or economic

■ Ex: pizza shop, airport

○ Perceptual/Vernacular:

■ Defined by the informal sense of place that people ascribe to them

● Subregions: regions divided into smaller areas

● Regions are generalizations and can lead people to overlook variations and

differences

Map Scale

● Map Scale: feature’s size on a map compared to its actual size on Earth

● Ratio or Fractional Scale: 1:24,000; 1/24,000

● Written Scale: 1 inch = 1 mile

● Graphic Scale: consists of a bar line

Projection and Distortion

● Projection: transferring locations on Earth’s surface to a flat map

● Shape of an area can be distorted

● Geographic grid:

○ Meridians: N/S (longitude); assigned E or W

○ Parallels: (latitude); assigned N or S

Map Distortions

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 ● Robinson

○ More accurate near the polls

○ Used to show proportions of land to water

○ Distorts cardinal directions and distance

● Mercator

○ Easier to plot direction

○ More distortion further from the equator

○ Areas near the pole are stretched

● Gall-Peters

○ Land area accuracy

○ Shows southern hemisphere larger then North

○ Areas near the pole are stretched

Remoting Sensing

● GPS in the US has 3 elements

○ Satellites

○ Tracking stations

○ Receiver that can locate at least 4 satellites, figure out its distance from each

and use the information to calculate its precise location

● GIS is a computer system that captures, stores, analyzes and displays geographic

data

○ Vector data consists of points (such as cities) and lines (such as highways)

○ Raster data consists of area, such as particular landforms

○ Each layer is representative of one data set; mashup

Location

● Where it is on earth

● Place: what is it like

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 ○ Site: physical character of a place (climate, water sources, topography, soil,

vegetation, latitude, and elevation)

○ Situation: location of a place relative to other places

Region

● Region: area on Earth defined by 1 or more distinct characteristic

● Formal Region/Uniform Region/Homogenous region: area in which everyone shares

1 or more distinct characteristic

Unit 2: Population and Migration

ECUMENE

● Ecumene: Places of permanent human settlement

● 2/3s of world’s inhabitant are clustered in four regions: East Asia, South Asia, South

East Asia, Europe

● Factors that determine where people live:

○ Physical Factors: bodies of water, geographical landmarks, food, climate, low

lying areas, midlatitudes

○ Human Factors: job opportunities, proximity to relatives

● Places considered too hard for occupancy; have diminished over time

TYPES OF DENSITY

● Arithmetic

○ Total number of people in an area

■ Divide population/land area

● Physiological

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 ○ Number of people supported by a unit area of arable land

○ Divide population by arable land area

● Agricultural

○ Ratio of the number of farmers to amount of arable land

○ Divide population of farmers/arable land to area

○ Developed countries have less agricultural density

CONSEQUENCES OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

● Political

○ How to support growing populations?

○ How to support a large young/old population?

● Economic

○ If a country has a high percentage of people under working age, it should

invest in things like childcare, schooling, education, job growth

○ Dependency Ratio: ratio of dependent population to the working force

population

■ Dependent population

■ Working force

○ Youth dependency ratio: ratio of youth dependent population to the

working force population

○ If it has a graying population: Higher investment in medical technology and

social Security

■ Graying population: Large percentage of people over the age of 64

● Social:

○ Pro-natalist: countries encouraging people to have more children

■ Ex: japan, denmark

○ Countries work to improve women’s health and education (NIR rates

decreasing)

● Environment

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 ○ Overpopulation depletes natural resources

○ Carrying capacity: greatest amount of people the environment of an area

can support

POPULATION COMPOSITION

● Sex-ratio: number of males per 100 females in the population; developed countries

have more females than males

● Age structure vary in various places

○ Ex:

■ Florida has a high percentage of people 65 and older

● Population pyramids

○ Displays a country’s distinctive population structure

○ Useful when analyzing a country’s stage in the demographic transition

model (process of change in the society of a regiPOPULATION DYNAMICS

● Fertility Rates

○ Developed areas have lower fertility rates

○ Total fertility rate (TFR): the total number of children that would be born to

each woman in her child bearing years

■ TFR for world is 2.5; exceeds 5 in sub-saharan Africa

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 ● Natural increase rate (NIR): the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate

○ Crude birth rate: amount of babies born per 1000

○ Crude death rate: amount of people that die per 1000 people in a year

● Mortality

○ Developed areas have lower infant mortality rates

○ Developing countries have higher infant mortality rates (total number of

deaths of children ages 0-1 in a year) bc lack of health care and worse

sanitary conditions

● Migration

○ Stage 4 and 5 countries have high immigration

○ Stage 2 and 3 countries have high emigration

○ H Doubling time: number of years needed for a population to double

(assuming the NIR stays constant)

● Causes of migration

○ Social:

■ Chain migration: people move to a specific location because

members or relatives of a similar nationality have already migrated

there

● Leads to ethnic enclaves: areas where people of the same

ethnicity live/reside

○ Culture:

■ People may migrate due to oppression of ethnicity or race (forced or

voluntary)

■ May move somewhere more accepting (ex: lgbtq friendly city)

○ Political:

■ Voluntary migration: permanent movement of people by choice

■ Forced Migration: permanent movement of people because of

political instability, warfare or human right violations

○ Economic:

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 ■ Moving to gain more job opportunities

■ International: from one country to another

■ Intra-national: within the region of a country

■ Interregional: from one region of a country to another

● Chandler to Gilbert

● US:

○ Historically because of land

○ Presently because of jobs

○ Shift in the center of the population (East to West)

● Russia:

○ Gov: put new factories away from existing population

concentrations and near the raw materials (people

move towards factories to find work)

● China:

○ A little less than 100 million people have emigrated

from rural interiors to large urban areas along the east

coast (manufacturing is prevalent)

● Brazil:

○ Gov. moved its capital from Rio de Janiro to Brasília (600

miles from Atlantic Coast) (people move to the capital

for jobs)

■ Intraregional: within the same region of a country

● Urbanization: rural to urban

● Counterurbanization: urban to rural

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL

● Has 5 stages that can used to explain population increase or decrease

● Demographic transition Model:

○ Stage 1: low growth (no country here)

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 ■ High birth and death rates

■ No long term natural increase

○ Stage 2: high growth

■ Rapidly declining death rates and very high birth death rate (high NIR)

○ Stage 3: moderate growth

■ Rapid decline in birth rates and steady decline in death rates

● Natural increase is moderate

■ Most of europe and NA transitioned to stage 3

○ Stage 4: low growth

■ Very low birth and death rates

■ No long term increase and possible decrease

○ Stage 5: decline

■ Low CBR, high CDR

■ Negative NIR

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 ● Epidemiological Transition Model:

○ Describes the causes of death in each stage of the DTM

○ Stage 1: (high CDR)

■ Most people die because of infectious and parasitic diseases (Malaria,

Black Plague)

■ Also die from droughts, earthquakes, floods, starvation, malnutrition

○ Stage 2: (rapidly declining CDR)

■ People begin to live longer

■ Breakthrough in medicine, improved sanitation

■ Not as many people die of infectious diseases

○ Stage 3: (moderate declining CDR)

■ People live longer

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 ■ Chronic diseases like cancer and heart disease are the leading causes

of death

○ Stage 4: (low but increasing CDR)

■ People are living longer because of better healthcare, treatments and

medical technology

■ Old people start to die

○ Stage 5:

■ Highest death rates because the population is older

■ - NIR

■ Disease evolution: infectious diseases have evolved and established

resistance to drugs and other treatments

■ Poverty: infectious diseases spread through poverty

■ Increased connections: world is highly connected

MALTHUSIAN THEORY AND GEOGRAPHY (THANOS)

● Thomas Malthus: british economist and demographer (someone who studies the

characteristics of population); lived during the industrial revolution

○ “An Essay on the Principle of Population”:

■ Population would grow geometrically (population would quadruple

over 50 years)

■ Food production would grow arithmetically

■ Theorized to cause famine, pestilence and revolution

■ Was wrong because:

● Food production rose with the industrial revolution

● Population did not rise at the same rate

● Why is the Malthusian Theory still studied?

○ Neo-Malthusians: people who advocate for stricter control of population to

not deplete the world's resources

■ Advocate for contraceptives/birth control

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 ■ Encouraged gov programs to control population growth

■ Paul Ehrlich and Stuart Brand

○ Earth has a carrying capacity and world’s resources would diminish

● Opposition Theory

○ Cornucopian Theory:

■ As population grows so will agricultural output

POPULATION POLICIES

● Pronatalist Policies

○ Pronatalist countries encourage people to have more children

■ Typically in stage 4 or 5

■ - NIR

● Anti-natalist policies

○ Discourage people from having children

○ Ex: China’s one child policy, involuntary sterilization in India,

MIGRATION

● Permanent

● Net migration: difference between the number of immigrants and the number of

emigrants

● Voluntary or Forced Migration

RAVENSTEIN’S LAWS

1. Most migration is over short distance

2. Long distance migrants usually move to urban areas

3. Counter Migration: each migration produces a movement in the opposite direction

(not the same direction)

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 4. Rural dwellers are more migratory than urban dwellers (rural to urban)

5. Females do more in country migration/Males do more out of country migration

(Gender Patterns)

6. Most migrants are young adults

7. Most migration occurs through step migration

● Large towns tend to grow more by migration than natural increase

● Migration increases with economic development

● Gravity Model of Migration: assumes the size and distance between 2 cities or

countries will influence the amount of interactions

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION PATTERNS

● Tends to be from developing countries to developed

● US has more foreign-born residents than any other country

1. Colonial Settlement

2. Mass European Immigration

3. Asian and Latin American immigration

MOTIVATIONS FOR MIGRATION

● Forced Political Migrants:

1. Refugees: been forced to migrate to avoid potential threat to his or her life;

cannot return

2. Internally displaced person: similar to a refugee but has not migrated

across an international border yet

3. Asylum Seeker: someone who has migrated to another country in hope of

being recognized as a refugee

● Push Factors

○ Environmental Pull Factors:

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 ■ Mountains, coastal, warm climates

○ Ecomigration: The migration of populations for economic or ecological

reasons, often as a result of the deterioration of land quality or a shortage of

water

● Pull Factors

○ Environmental Push Factors:

■ Water, flood, drought

UNAUTHORIZED IMMIGRATION

● Unauthorized immigrants: Those who enter a country without proper documents

● About 1 million out of 11.2 million are children

● Duration of residency increased for unauthorized immigrants

● US

○ Border patrol, civil rights, local initiatives

● Europe

○ Population growth fueled by immigration

○ Biggest fear is that host country’s culture will be lost

EFFECTS OF MIGRATION

● Policies that encourage immigration

○ Guest-worker policies

○ Family reunification policies

● Policies that discourage immigration

○ A country will make it difficult for migrants to enter the country

○ May reflect xenophobic/economic fears

○ Ex: Chinese Exclusion Act

● Economic/Cultural

○ Effects on country of origin

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 ■ Immigrants can make remittances (money back to family and friends

in country of origin)

■ Population can skew to elderly and children (dependency ratio

problem); Brain Drain

○ Effects on receiving Countries

■ Creates Ethnic enclaves

■ May cause conflict between immigrants and native-born citizens

■ Helps economy

TERMS/DEFINITIONS

● Migration: permanent or semipermanent relocation of people

● Voluntary Migration: movement made by choice

● Forced Migration: migration that is involuntary; migrants had no choice

● Push Factors: negative circumstances that compels a emigrant to leave

● Pull Factors: positive conditions that compels a immigrant to come

● Immigrant: person who migrates across an international border with the intention

of staying permanently

● Emigrant: viewed from country they are leaving

● Migration Transition Model: Zelinsky’s theory that argues that countries in Stage 2

and 3 of the demographic transition model experience rapid population growth and

overcrowding. Acts as a push factor and people migrate to less crowded stage 4 or 5

countries (offer greater economic opportunities)

● Interregional Migration: rural to urban

● Intraregional Migration: central city to suburbs

● Intervening Obstacles: barriers that make reaching their desired destination more

difficult

○ Political (laws restricting immigration and border patrol), environmental

(deserts or oceans)

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 ● Intervening Opportunities: Migrants may also encounter opportunities en route

that disrupt their original migration plan

● Counterurbanization: migration from urban to rural areas

● Step migration: a process in which migrants reach their eventual destination

through a series of smaller moves

● Rural-to-urban migration: most migration occurs from rural areas to urban areas

● Counter Migration: migration produces a movement in the opposite directions

● Return Migration: immigrants moving back to their former homes

● Refugee: been forced to migrate to avoid potential threat to his or her life; cannot

return

● Internally displaced person (IDP): similar to a refugee but has not migrated across

an international border

● Asylum Seeker: someone who has migrated to another country in hope of being

recognized as a refugee

● Asylum: protection granted by one country to an immigrant of another country who

has a legitimate fear of harm or death

● Transnational Migration: when people move from one country to another, or

internationally rather than internally

● Chain migration: people locate to a community where others from their home

country, family members, friends, or those from their culture group have previously

settled

● Guest workers: transnational migrants who relocate to a new country to provide

labor that isn’t available locally

○ Tends to be to countries nearby

● Transhumance: herders moving with their animals to different pastures during

different seasons

● Guest-worker policies: regulate the number of workers that can temporarily enter

each country to work in specific industries

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 ● Family reunification: policies that allow migrants to sponsor family members who

migrate to the country

● Xenophobia: a strong dislike of people of another culture

● Remittances: money sent to their family and friends in the country they left

● Brain Drain: migration out of a country is made up of many highly skilled people

● Ethnic Enclaves: neighborhoods filled primarily with people of the same ethnic

group

● Net Migration: difference between the number of immigrants and the number of

emigrants

Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes

INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE

● Culture: All of a group’s learned behaviors, actions, and objects

● Cultural traits: visible and invisible elements of culture

● Cultural complex: combination of cultural traits; a group of culture traits all

interrelated and dominated by one essential trait

● Cultural Hearth: defined as a place where innovations and new ideas originate and

diffuse to other places

● Habits and Customs

○ Habit: repetitive act that a particular individual performs

○ Custom: repetitive act that a particular group performs

● Material/Non-Material Culture:

○ Material culture: values items such as clothing, furniture, artifacts that are

physically tangible

○ Nonmaterial culture: values customs, traditions, folk stories, myths,

religion, oral and written languages

■ Ex: folk music

● Folk Customs

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 ○ Taboos: restrictions imposed by social customs

○ Food, Housing,

○ Governments

■ Ex: banning of news media outlets, limit freedom of speech

● Social Customs

○ Originates at a specific location/cultural hearth

○ Pop culture:

■ Practiced by a large heterogeneous group

■ Originates from more developed regions

■ Ex: blue jeans

■ Spread in popularity due to globalization, communication,

transportation, marketing networks

○ Ethnocentrism: biased perspective of one’s ethnic group as being superior

○ Cultural relativism: objective (unbiased) view of understanding others

cultural beliefs and customs

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

● Cultural Landscape: made up of structures within the physical landscape caused

by human imprint/human activities

● Cultural ecology: study of how the natural environment can influence a cultural

group

● Sequent occupancy: the theory that a place can be occupied by multiple different

groups each modifying the landscape and having its own imprint for future

occupiers

● Adaptive strategy: the way humans adapt to the physical and cultural landscape

they are living in

● Symbolic landscape: has significant meaning beyond what its appearance is

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 ● Traditional architecture: reflects a local culture’s history, beliefs, values and

community adaptations to the environment, and typically utilizes locally available

materials

● Postmodern architecture: movement away from boxy, mostly concrete or brick

structures toward high rise structures made from large amounts of steel and glass

siding

● Contemporary architecture: buildings look kinda quirky

● Cultural Regions: determined based on characteristics such as religion, language,

and ethnicity

● Culture realms: that include several regions

● Gender

○ Gender gap: differences in socioeconomic and political power. Opportunity

between men and women

○ High maternal mortality in less developed countries

○ High female infanticide rates in regions where families prefer a male child

○ Dowry deaths: husband’s family murders the bride due to her father not

paying the dowry

○ Women’s suffrage: not given until 20th century in most countries

○ Gender imbalance: men outnumber women in areas that are highly

populated

● State and Ethnicity

○ Centripetal forces: unify a state and provide stability

○ Centrifugal forces: divide a state leading to balkanization, weakening

○ Cultural shatter-belt: process where a state breaks down through Ethnic

Conflict

○ Ethnic Cleansing: ethnic group is forcibly removed to make a homogenous

nation state

○ Balkanization: process by which a state breaks down due to conflicts among

its ethnicities

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 ○ Ethnic islands: are in rural areas and have less interaction with other

groups; their cultural imprints resolve around housing types and agricultural

dwellings

CULTURAL PATTERNS

● Sense of place

○ Perception based on emotional connection and association to a certain place

○ Popular Culture: spread of cultural traits over a large area and are adopted

by various groups

○ Placelessness: similarity of places of popular cultures everywhere and the

loss of a place’s unique identity due to the influence of popular culture and

globalization

○ Sociofacts: the ways people organize their society and relate to one another

● Environmental Determinism

○ That the physical environment controls/determines behavior among humans

○ Possibilism: that the physical environment establishes limitations of the

possibilities of populations

● Cultural Determinism

○ States that the environment does not play a role towards determining

human behaviors or placing restrictions

○ Culture Region: portion of earth’s surface with inhabitant populations

sharing distinctive cultural characteristics

TYPES OF CULTURAL DIFFUSION

● Relocation Diffusion: when people move from their original location to another

and bring their innovations with them

● Expansive Diffusion: spread of an idea through a population where the amount of

those influenced grows continuously larger

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 ○ Contagious

■ Distance-controlled spreading of an idea through a local population

by contact from person to person

■ Spreads rapidly (similar to a disease)

○ Hierarchical

■ Idea spreads by passing first amount the most connected individuals,

then spreading to other individuals

○ Reverse hierarchical diffusion:

■ trait diffuses from a group of lower status to a group of higher status

○ Stimulus

■ Idea diffuses from its cultural heart outward, but the original idea is

changed by the new adopter

● Maladaptive Diffusion

○ The adoption of diffusion traits that are not practical or reflective of a

region’s environment or culture

○ Ex: popularity of blue jeans in any weather despite impracticality

HISTORICAL CAUSES OF CULTURAL DIFFUSION

● Colonialism

○ Defined as an attempt by one country to establish settlements and to impose

its political, economical, and cultural principles in another territory

○ Missionaries: people that spread religious beliefs

○ Universalizing religions: practiced worldwide

● Trade:

○ Trading of goods by merchants allowed cultural diffusion

CONTEMPORARY CAUSES OF CULTURAL DIFFUSION

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 ● Globalization: interconnection of all regions of the world through politics,

technology, communication, marketing, economics, manufacturing and

sociocultural processes

○ Positives of globalization: increased communication worldwide

○ Negatives of globalization: loss of cultural uniqueness/folk cultural traditions,

loss of indigenous languages

● Urbanization

○ The population shift from rural areas to urban areas, the gradual increase in

the proportion of people living in urban areas

DIFFUSION OF RELIGION AND LANGUAGE

● Language

○ Language family: group of languages originating from an earlier language

○ Indo-European family: largest language family

○ Sino TIbetan language family: 2nd largest family

○ Language Subfamilies:

■ Subfamilies: divisions within a language family where the

commonalities are more definite and the origin is more recent

○ Dialects:

■ Variations of speech

■ Isogloss: a geographic barrier that exists between the use of one

word over another

○ Bilingualism:

■ Speaking of 2 or more languages

■ Monolingualism: speaking of 1 language

● Religion

○ Common terms:

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 ■ Universalizing Religion: anyone can be a member of it; diversity in its

worshipers from various ethnic background (Christianity, Buddhism,

Islam)

■ Ethnic Religion: part of a particular ethnic or political group (Judaism,

Hinduism)

■ Tribal Religion: practiced in small cultural groups

■ Syncretism: combination of multiple religious beliefs and ideal

■ Fundamentalism: the literal/strict interpretation of the

fundamental(basic) principles of a religion.

■ Theocracies: governments ruled by religious laws

○ Christianity: monotheistic universalizing religion spread throughout Europe,

mostly by Hierarchical and expansion diffusion

○ Protestantism: theological system of any of the churches of western

Christendom that separated from the Roman Catholic Church during the

Reformation

■ Luteran: follows the teachings of Martin Luther

■ Baptist: member of a christian denomination that baptizes believers

by immersion and is usually calvinistic

■ Mormonism: used to describe religious, ideological, and cultural

aspects of the various denominations of the Latter Day Saint

movement

○ Islam: based on the teachings of Mohammed (2nd largest universalizing

religon)

■ Quran (Koran)/5 pillars of Islam

■ Sunni and Shia

○ Buddhism: a world religion or philosophy that does not believe in

worshiping gods but seeks the truth and self-awareness based on the

teaching of the Buddha

■ Reincarnation

28
 ○ Judaism: monotheistic ethnic religion of Jews; Torah

■ Zionism: movement that mainly seeks for indigenous return to Jewish

homelands

■ Diaspora: occurs when one group of people is dispersed to various

locations

○ Sikhism: a monotheistic universalizing religion with a cultural hearth in the

Indian Subcontinent

○ Confucianism: developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher

Confucius Is a system of ethics and family behavior that values public service.

○ Shinto: emphasizes honoring one’s ancestors

○ Interfaith Boundaries: conflicts within a major religon

○ Secularism: when religious beliefs and systems are rejected

*** SIX MAJOR RELIGIONS TO KNOW: Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism,

Hinduism, and Sikhism ***

● Ethnicity: membership in a group of people who share characteristics such as

ancestry, language, customs, history and common experiences

○ Ethnic group: a population of people that share a common nationality,

language, culture, religion, and/or more

○ b: the shared trait is place of origin

○ Charter group: ethnic groups have migrated for centuries and settle to

establish a cultural society in a certain area

○ Ghettos: separation of minority cultural groups due to involuntary

persecution or voluntary isolation

EFFECTS OF CULTURAL DIFFUSION

● Acculturation: assimilation to a different culture, typically the dominant one.

● Transculturation: an equal exchange or flow of traits between 2 cultural groups

29
 ○ Syncretism: birth of a new cultural trait from blending 2 or more culture

characteristics

● Assimilation: when the minority culture integrates, absorbs the host culture and in

the process loses aspects of their native customs

● Cultural appropriation: a situation where a dominant cultural group takes a

product or idea from an oppressed/minority cultural group and uses it for its own

benefit

● Neolocalism: the process of re-embarrassing the uniqueness

● Time-space convergence: greater interconnection between places that result from

improvements in transportation

LANGUAGES

● Language families

○ Indo-European: majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern

Indian subcontinent (not central asia)

○ Shino-Tibetan: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia

○ Austronesian: Philippines/Indonesia

○ Austro-Asiatic: Vietnam

○ Tai Kadai: southeast asia, china

○ Afro-Asiatic: Arabic

● Branches, groups, spread:

○ Branches: within a family

○ Groups: languages within a branch that share a common origin in the

relatively recent past; similar grammar and vocabulary

■ Indo-Iranian

● Isolated, extinct, revived languages

TERMS/DEFINITION

30
 ● Acculturation: assimilation to a different culture, typically the dominant one.

● Transculturation: an equal exchange or flow of traits between 2 cultural groups

● Syncretism: birth of a new cultural trait from blending 2 or more culture

characteristics

● Assimilation: when the minority culture integrates, absorbs the host culture and in

the process loses aspects of their native customs

● Cultural appropriation: a situation where a dominant cultural group takes a

product or idea from an oppressed/minority cultural group and uses it for its own

benefit

● Neolocalism: the process of re-embarrassing the uniqueness

● Time-space convergence: greater interconnection between places that result from

improvements in transportation

● Ethnic group: a population of people that share a common nationality, language,

culture, religion, and/or more

● Race: the shared trait is place of origin

● Charter group: ethnic groups have migrated for centuries and settle to establish a

cultural society in a certain area

● Ghettos: separation of minority cultural groups due to involuntary persecution or

voluntary isolation

● Universalizing Religion: anyone can be a member of it; diversity in its worshipers

from various ethnic background (Christianity, Buddhism, Islam)

● Ethnic Religion: part of a particular ethnic or political group (Judaism, Hinduism)

● Tribal Religion: practiced in small cultural groups

● Syncretism: combination of multiple religious beliefs and ideal

● Isogloss: a geographic barrier that exists between the use of one word over another

● Subfamilies: divisions within a language family where the commonalities are more

definite and the origin is more recent

● Language family: group of languages originating from an earlier language

31
 ● Globalization: interconnection of all regions of the world through politics,

technology, communication, marketing, economics, manufacturing and

sociocultural processes

○ Positives of globalization: increased communication worldwide

○ Negatives of globalization: loss of cultural uniqueness/folk cultural traditions,

loss of indigenous languages

● Maladaptive Diffusion: The adoption of diffusion traits that are not practical or

reflective of a region’s environment or culture

● Expansive Diffusion: spread of an idea through a population where the amount of

those influenced grows continuously larger

○ Contagious: Distance-controlled spreading of an idea through a local

population by contact from person to person; Spreads rapidly (similar to a

disease)

○ Hierarchical: Idea spreads by passing first amount the most connected

individuals, then spreading to other individuals

○ Reverse hierarchical diffusion: trait diffuses from a group of lower status

to a group of higher status

○ Stimulus: Idea diffuses from its cultural heart outward, but the original idea

is changed by the new adopter

● Culture Region: portion of earth’s surface with inhabitant populations sharing

distinctive cultural characteristics

● Popular Culture: spread of cultural traits over a large area and are adopted by

various groups

● Placelessness: similarity of places of popular cultures everywhere and the loss of a

place’s unique identity due to the influence of popular culture and globalization

● Sociofacts: the ways people organize their society and relate to one another

● Environmental Determinism: That the physical environment controls/determines

behavior among humans

32
 ● Possibilism: that the physical environment establishes limitations of the

possibilities of populations

● Ethnocentrism: biased perspective of one’s ethnic group as being superior

● Cultural relativism: objective (unbiased) view of understanding others cultural

beliefs and customs

● Balkanization: process by which a state breaks down due to conflicts among its

ethnicities

● Ethnic islands: are in rural areas and have less interaction with other groups; their

cultural imprints resolve around housing types and agricultural dwellings

● Cultural Landscape: made up of structures within the physical landscape caused

by human imprint/human activities

● Cultural ecology: study of how the natural environment can influence a cultural

group

● Sequent occupancy: the theory that a place can be occupied by multiple different

groups each modifying the landscape and having its own imprint for future

occupiers

● Adaptive strategy: the way humans adapt to the physical and cultural landscape

they are living in

● Symbolic landscape: has significant meaning beyond what its appearance is

● Traditional architecture: reflects a local culture’s history, beliefs, values and

community adaptations to the environment, and typically utilizes locally available

materials

● Postmodern architecture: movement away from boxy, mostly concrete or brick

structures toward high rise structures made from large amounts of steel and glass

siding

● Contemporary architecture: buildings look kinda quirky

● Cultural Regions: determined based on characteristics such as religion, language,

and ethnicity

● Culture realms: that include several regions

33
 ● Taboos: restrictions imposed by social customs

● Material culture: values items such as clothing, furniture, artifacts that are

physically tangible

● Nonmaterial culture: values customs, traditions, folk stories, myths, religion, oral

and written languages

● Habit: repetitive act that a particular individual performs

● Custom: repetitive act that a particular group performs

● Culture: All of a group’s learned behaviors, actions, and objects

● Cultural traits: visible and invisible elements of culture

● Cultural complex: combination of cultural traits; a group of culture traits all

interrelated and dominated by one essential trait

● Cultural Hearth: defined as a place where innovations and new ideas originate and

diffuse to other places

● Imperialism: broader concept that includes a variety of ways of influencing another

country or group of people by direct conquest, economic control or cultural

dominance

● Colonialism: particular type of imperialism in which people move into and settle on

the land of another country

● Animism: the belief that non-living objects, such as rivers or mountains, possess

spirits

● Native speakers: those who use the language learned from birth

● Lingua franca: common language used by people who do not share the same

native language

● Slang: words used informally by a segment of the population

● Pidgin language: simplified mixture of 2 languages, fewer grammar rules and less

vocabulary

● Creole: two or more separate languages mix and develop a more formal structure

and vocabulary

● Linguists: scientists who study language

34
 ● Language tree: shows how languages are related to each other; how one language

grows out of another

● Indo-European language family: a large group of languages that might have

descended from a language spoken around 6000 years ago

● Romance languages: languages that came from latin (portugese, spanish, french,

italian, romanian)

● Dialects: regional variations of a language

● Adages: sayings that attempt to express truths about life (early bird gets the worm);

dialects have distinct ones

● Official languages: one designated by law to be the language of the government (US

does not have one)

● Homogenous: made up largely of ethnically similar people

● Ethnicity: membership in a group of people who share characteristics such as

ancestry, language, customs, history and common experiences

● Nationality: based on people’s connection to a particular country

● Centripetal forces: those that unify a group of people or a region

● Centrifugal forces: those that divide a group of people or a region

● Sharia: legal framework of a country derived from islamic edicts taken from their

holy book (Quran)

● Blue laws: laws that restrict certain activities such as the sale of alcohol

● Fundamentalism: an attempt to follow a literal interpretation of a religious faith

● Theocracies: countries whose governments are run by religious leaders

● Regionalism: loyalty to a distinct portion of a country is more important than loyalty

to the entire country

● Nationality: identity with a group of people who share legal attachment and

personal allegiance to a particular country

● Nationalism: loyalty and devotion to a nationality

● Ethnicity: groups with distinct ancestry and cultural traditions

● Kurds: Sunni Muslims, located in Eastern Turkey, northern Iran and Syria

35
 ● Ethnic cleansing: process in which a more powerful ethnic group forcibly removes

a less powerful one to create a homogenous region

● Balkanized: small geographic area that could not successfully be organized into 1

or more stable states because the ethnicities are conflicting with each other

● Genocide: mass killing of one group of people to eliminate the entire group from

existance

● Terrior: the sum of the effects of the local environment on a food item

UNIT 4:

STATE

● People interchange country, State, and nation but they have different meanings

● State: a large political unit (formal term for country), while state is a specified

territory within a country

○ state for example: Wisconsin and Kansas

○ State for example: South Korea, Albania, Yemen

● All nations must have sovereignty, defined borders, and a permanent population in

order to be a nation

● Sovereignty: the power of a government to control its own affairs

ENTITIES

● Nation: a group of people with the following in common:

○ Shared cultural heritage

○ Unifying beliefs and values

○ A claim to a certain place as their homeland

○ Want to establish their own State or have self-rule alternatively

○ Example: Kurds, Catalans, Scots, Sicilians

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 ● Nation state: nation of people who qualify to be a State where they all have

homologous traits (ethnicity, religion)

○ Example: Denmark, Iceland, Japan, Republic of Ireland

● Multinational state: a state with more than one nation

○ Example: Canada

■ 25% speak French, mostly concentrated in Quebec, but English

dominates

■ To prevent Quebec from declaring independence, Canada declared

itself a bilingual State and gave Quebec more autonomy over its

government and education

■ Indigenous nations also get some legal rights

POLITICAL ENTITIES

● Autonomous regions: a region within a State (uppercase S) with freedom/self

governance

○ Example: Aland - part of Finland with Swedish culture and is a self-governing

entity

○ Example: Hong Kong

● Semi-Autonomous Region: state with some, but not full, self-rule

○ Example: Native American nations - US gives some rights, like self-

governance and tax exemptions, but not complete sovereignty

○ Example: Karabakh

● Stateless nation: ethnic group that isn’t recognized as a state with its own

independent government

○ Example: Navajo, Palestinians, Kurds

● Multi-State Nation: nation has its own State but stretches into borders of other

states

○ Example: Most Hungarians live in Hungary but some live in Romania too

○ Example: Most Koreans live in Korea but some also live in China and the US

37
UNIFICATION AND DISUNIFICATION

● Nationalism: shared desire among group of people to establish their own state

● Centripetal force: factor that unifies people

○ For example:

○ Mexico: shared religion of Roman Catholic

○ Japan: share the same language

● Centrifugal force: factor that separates people

○ Example: Jerusalem - different religions/conflict between people over sacred

sites

IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM

● Imperialism: variety of ways of influencing State like direct conquest, economic

control, or cultural dominance

● Colonialism: type of imperialism where people move into and settle land

○ Boundaries formed by European colonialism

○ Example: In Africa, boundaries were drawn without regard for ethnicity

● Berlin Conference: Conference that intended to divide parts of Africa for different

European empires, which led to a lot of ethnic conflict

○ People did not take into account nations/ethnicities when dividing the land

○ Example: In Africa, boundaries were drawn without regard for ethnicity

GEOPOLITICAL FORCES

● Colonial Independence Movements

○ Self-determination: ability of group of people to govern themselves without

interference by other powers

○ Decolonization: undoing of colonization where indigenous people get

sovereignty back

■ Boundaries formed cause civil war and genocide

38
 ■ Genocide: extreme form of ethnic cleansing in which groups of

people are killed based on their race, religion, ethnicity, or nationality

● Example: Belgian colonization drew boundaries that put

competing Hutu and Tutsi groups together in Rwanda, and

their previous competition led to political competition after

decolonization which led to the Rwandan Genocide

COLD WAR AND DEVOLUTION

● Period of time between 1947-1991 in which diplomatic, political, and military rivalry

between the US and USSR was high

● No direct fighting but fought proxy wars (military and financial support to other

nations involved)

○ Influenced countries emerging from colonialism (for example satellite states)

○ Satellite states: state that is controlled by another that is stronger politically

and economically

■ Ex: Poland and other Eastern European countries

● It ended with the breakup of USSR

DEVOLUTION AND FALL OF COMMUNISM

● Devolution: process by which a central government gives more political autonomy

to smaller regions within

○ Ex: Northern Ireland was given its own Parliament by Britain

○ Can be when a new country breaks off from a larger one, but for it to be

devolution, the original country must give permission (not fighting for

independence)

■ Ex: Hasn't happened yet, but if Spain were to allow Catalonia

(currently still part of Spain) to become an independent country

● Catalonia is economically better then the rest of Spain

39
 ● Many States made a peaceful transition from Communism

○ Czechoslovakia divided into the Czech Republic and the Republic of Slovakia

● The breakup of Yugoslavia was complicated and violent

○ Had Ethnic cleansing and the region was a shatterbelt

■ Shatterbelt: A place suffering with instability because it's between 2

very different and contentious regions or a group with internal conflict

between ethnic groups

● The collapse of Communism and the USSR changed the balance of power in Europe

○ More countries joined NATO

○ Economic, political and military power was mostly in West Europe and the

United States

TERRITORY CONNECTS CULTURE, POLITICS, ECONOMY

● Geopolitics: studying how geography influences political relationships among states

● Territoriality: exerting control over a space and defending it from other entities

● Religious conflicts: Sunni and Shia Muslims

○ Rivalry between Sunni-dominated Saudi Arabia and Shia-dominated Iran

○ Ethnic difference – Saudis = Arabs, Iranians = Persian

■ Each has tried to expand power over territory → tension and

instability
● Economic conflicts: Spratly Islands in South China Sea

○ Between Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Vietnam, Taiwan, and China

○ Fight over unconfirmed petroleum reserves, fishing grounds, and control

over international shipping lanes

NEOCOLONIALISM

● Neocolonialism: new form of colonialism after WWII in which the dominant country

exerts control over developing countries indirectly

40
 ○ For example, transnational corporations based in European countries

continued to control the extraction of natural resources through mining and

the export of coffee, cacao, bananas, and other crops on plantations in

developing countries

● Profitability of colonies reduced which led to them gaining independence because

they were not useful to the mother country anymore

● By 1975, almost all former colonies gained independence across Asia and Africa

● Long and difficult process, sometimes violent

● Hard for new independent nations to be economically independent →

neocolonialism (economic, political, or cultural control indirectly exerted)
● Trade barriers were reduced → globalization

● European states and US have provided loans to developing countries if they reduced

regulations and opened up to more free trade

● Some less developed countries have massive debt and are politically
dominated by stronger, wealthier nations → neocolonialism promotes similar
imbalance relationship found in traditional colonialism

DEFINING POLITICAL BOUNDARIES

● Physical geographic boundaries: natural barriers between areas such as oceans,

deserts and mountains

○ EX: Missouri River divides Iowa and Nebraska

○ EX: Himalayan Mountains divide India and China

● Cultural Boundaries: divide people according to some cultural division, such as

language, religion, or ethnicity

○ Can not be divided with an exact line

● Classification of Boundaries

○ Antecedent boundaries: preceded the development of the cultural

landscape such as oceans or mountains, before the present settlement in

that area occurred

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 ■ New World boundaries created before areas were fully discovered

■ Hinder connections and interactions between people

■ Static aspect: feature a relatively populated population with a

unpopulated zone dividing them

○ Subsequent Boundary: created while the cultural landscape is evolving and

is subject to change over time; that was created after two groups have

already settled there

■ Ethnographic: related to cultural phenomena (religion, language etc)

■ May be drawn to accommodate ethnic, religious, linguistic or

economic differences among groups

■ EX: Gerrymandering, Berlin War

○ Superimposed Boundary: drawn by outside powers and may ignore existing

cultural patterns

■ Ex: berlin conference

● Caused ethnic conflict in africa

● 17 of the african states are landlocked and causes increases in

export and import to other countries

○ Landlocked: without territory connecting to an ocean

○ Relic Boundary: boundary that has been abandoned for political purposes

but evidence of it still exists

■ Ex: the current berlin war (portions are still standing)

■ Ex: the great wall of china

● No longer has a use of separation but is visible

● Geometric and Consequent Boundaries

○ Geometric Boundary: straight up lina/arc drawn by people that does not

closely follow any physical features (historically follows latitude and

longitude)

○ Consequent Boundary: takes into account already-existing cultural or

physical landscape

42
 ■ Cultural consequent boundary: drawn taking into account language,

ethnicity, religion, or other cultural traits

● Partition of India and Pakistan

■ Physical consequent boundary: a division that uses already existing

natural features that divide a territory such as rivers, deserts, or

mountains

● Pyrenees Mountains: separate Spain and France

■ Drawn with consideration of the cultural landscape

● Protection of Boundaries

○ Open boundary: unguarded and people can cross it easily with little to no

political intervention

■ Most states within the EU

○ Militarized boundary: heavily guarded and discourage crossing

■ North Korea/South Korea DMZ (demilitarized zone)

THE FUNCTION OF POLITICAL BOUNDARIES

● International and Internal Boundaries

○ Formation of boundaries

■ Defined boundary: established by a legal document

● Ex: a treaty that divides one entity from another

■ Delimited boundary: drawn on a map by a cartographer to show the

limits of a space

■ Demarcated boundary: identified by physical objects placed on the

landscape

● May be a sign or set of fences or walls

○ International Boundary Disputes

■ Definitional boundary dispute: when 2 or more parties disagree

over how to interpret the legal documents or maps that identify the

boundary

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 ■ Locational boundary disputes: disputes that center on where a

boundary should be

● Ex: Post World War 1: germany and poland

● Territorial disputes: fundamental question of who possesses

the land

● Irredentism: type of expansion when one country seeks to

annex territory where it has cultural ties to part of the

population or historical claims to the land

■ Operational boundary dispute/functional dispute: centers on how

the boundary functions

● Transportation, trade, migration

■ Allocational boundary dispute/recourse dispute: when a boundary

separates natural resources that may be used by both countries

○ Demarcation and functions of boundaries

■ Demarcation: how a border is labeled on the physical landscape such

as with a fence, wall, stones or signs

■ Administered boundaries: a limit or border of a geographic area

under the jurisdiction of some governmental or managerial entity

● How it will function, how it will be maintained, what goods and

can people cross

● Ex: Israeli-West Bank barrier separates Israel’s claims from

those of the Palestinians through a multi-layered fence system

■ Controlled boundaries: boundaries that have checkpoints where a

passport or visa are required to enter the country

● Unique Boundaries: Exclaves and Enclaves

○ Exclaves: territories that are part of a state, yet geographically separated

from the main state by one or more countries

■ Ex: Alaska

44
 ○ Political enclaves: states, territories or parts of a state or territory that are

completely surrounded by the territory of another state

THE EFFECTS OF BOUNDARIES

● Shatterbelts

○ A place located between two very different and contentious regions

● Language and Religion

○ As people move and boundaries change, languages do too

○ Ex: Italy did not become a unified state until the 1860s because there was no

single language that united everyone

■ Unification process can be difficult within boundaries when people

have distinct dialects

○ Ex: The boundaries of India and Pakistan are contentious because they are

majority Hindu and Muslim respectively

○ Ex: The boundary between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland

separated Catholics who wanted to be together and united Catholics and

Protestants into one political entity

THE LAW OF THE SEA

● The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

○ Territorial Sea: extends up to 12 nautical miles of sovereignty where

commercial vessels may pass, but noncommercial vessels may be challenged

○ Contiguous zone: coastal states have limited sovereignty for up to 24 miles

where they can enforce laws on customs, immigration, and sanitation

○ Exclusive economic zone (EEZ): Coastal states can explore, extract minerals,

and manage natural resources up to 200 nautical miles

■ Median Line Principle: decrease the EEZ if it overlaps between

countries

45
 ○ High seas: water beyond any country;s EEZ that is open to all states

● The value of islands

○ States with islands have larger control over nautical areas

○ Extends their nautical claims

● Small island developing states (SIDS)

○ Control 30 percent of all oceans and seas

○ Blue economy: economic opportunities based on the ocean

■ Valuable minerals, natural gas, fishing stocks

○ Allow countries more power because they have more nautical land

● Arctic Opportunities

○ Have economic opportunities and sea passages for ships

○ More SIDS for countries to claim (competition)

● South China Sea: Spratly Islands

○ Series of small islands and coral reefs

○ China, Vietnam, and other neighboring countries beefing over nautical

ownership

ELECTORAL GEOGRAPHY

● Electoral Geography: using spatial thinking techniques and tools to analyze

elections and voting patterns

○ Voting districts: internal boundaries that divide a country’s electorate into

subnational regions

○ Electorate: vote for leaders in each district to govern on their behalf

● Census: a count of the population every 10 years to ensure the national

congressional districts have approximately the same number of people

○ Reapportionment: changing the number of representatives granted to each

state so it reflects the states population

○ Redistricting: redrawing district boundaries so that each district contains

roughly the same number of people

46
 ○ The number of representatives in the House of Reps has been fixed at 435

since 1912

○ House of Rep: local representation at the national level

GERRYMANDERING

● Gerrymandering: the drawing of boundaries for political districts by the party in

power to protect or increase its power

○ Allows politicians to redraw district lines to allow members of a specific party

win

● Has been often used to reduce representation of African Americans and other

minorities in government

● Some states have adopted procedures to make it less partisan

○ Bipartisan committees redraw lines

DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

● Federal and Unitary States

○ Federal State: unites separate political entities into an overarching system

that allows each entity to maintain some degree of sovereignty

■ Germany, US, Nigeria

○ Unitary State: most or all of the governing power is held by the national

government

■ Ex: France, Kenya, Japan

● Large land mass countries -such as the US, Canada, and Russia- tend to be federal

states

● Smaller land mass countries -such as Japan, Egypt, and Spain- tend to be unitary

states

PATTERNS OF LOCAL AND METROPOLITAN GOVERNANCE

47
 ● Levels of Government in the US

○ Federal or national government

○ State governments (including commonwealth and territorial)

○ Country governments

○ City and local governments and special districts

● Annexation: the process of legally adding territory to a State

FORCES LEADING TO DEVOLUTION

● Groups or regions can feel disconnects and disempowered leading to a lack of

national pride

○ May Feel like local or regional issues are being ignored by central

government

● Devolution: transfer of political power from the central government to subnational

levels of government

○ Ex: federalism

● Physical Geography

○ Can cause isolation, decrease connections, and increase the likelihood of

devolution

○ Large countries can face challenges of communication and connectivity

within their borders

● Ethnic separation: the advocacy of full political separation (or secession) from the

larger group along cultural, ethnic, tribal or governmental lines

○ Ex: Spain has 2 culturally and linguistically distinct groups

■ Basques were granted semi autonomy

■ Catalan are still seeking separation on grounds of cultural differences

and lack of power in central government

● Ethnic Cleansing: a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to

remove by violent or terror inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic

or religious group from certain geographic areas

48
 ○ Ex: Nazi Germany

○ Ex: Indonesians against the people of East Timor

● Terrorism: organized violence aimed at government and civilian targets to create

fear for the advancement of political goals

○ Most commonly used by non-governmental groups that do not have an army

○ Ex: Al Qaeda protested support of US support of Saudi Arabia and Israel

■ Did a series of attacks on World Trade Center and Pentagon on Sept

11, 2001

● Economics

● Social Issues

● Irredentism: a movement to unite people who share a language or other cultural

elements but are divided by a national boundary

CHALLENGES TO SOVEREIGNTY

● Devolution and Fragmentation

○ Autonomous Regions: have their own local and legislative bodies to govern

a region with a population that is an ethnic minority within the entire country

■ Navajo Nation

○ Subnationalism: people who have a primary allegiance to a traditional

group or ethnicity

■ Many French-speaking people in Quebec have stronger alliance to

Quebec than France

○ Balkanization: fragmentation of a state (often hostile) or region into smaller

units (these areas may be referred to as shatter belts)

■ Sudan’s civil war resulted in the split into Sudan and South Sudan

● Globalization challenging state sovereignty

○ Supranationalism: the practice of multiple countries forming an

organization for the benefit of all members

■ UN: 193 countries; to promote peace, security and human rights

49
 ■ NATO: 30 (US, Canada, Iceland, most of west/central Europe, and

turkey); to provide mutual defense of member states

■ EU: 27; to integrate member states politically and economically

■ Arctic Council: Canada, Russian, US, and Northern European

countries; to foster cooperation among arctic states

■ African Union: all african countries

○ Economic Supranationalism:

■ World Trade Organization

■ Organization of the Petroleum Exporting countries

■ Association of Southeast Asian Nations

■ EU

■ US-Mexico-Canada agreement

■ Transnational corporations: companies that conduct business on a

global scale

○ Impact of technology

■ Promoted globalization by connecting people

■ Weakened globalization by helping subnational groups connect

■ Supported democratization by helping reform movements

communicate

■ Threatened democratization where gov limits access to internet

CONSEQUENCES OF CENTRIFUGAL AND CENTRIPETAL FORCES

● Centrifugal forces

○ Regionalism: loyalty to a distinct portion of a country is more important than

loyalty to the entire country

■ Ex: US civil war: South and North

■ Ex: Quebec and the rest of Canada

○ Ethnonationalism: support for the political interests of a particular ethnic

group within a state (especially its independence/self-determination)

50
 ■ Ex: fragmentation in Syria and Iraq led to Kurdish independent

movements

● Centripetal Forces

○ Building infrastructure

■ Railroads, roads

○ Political identity

■ Unifying schools

■ Holidays

○ Cultural practices

■ Ramadan

■ Common languages

■ Sense of history

Unit 5:
CHALLENGES FOR FARMERS

● Intensive farming v extensive farming

● In developing countries

○ Rapid population growth

○ Must grow food for export instead of for direct consumption due to the

adoption of the international trade approach to development

● In developed countries

○ Consumers are willing to pay high prices for fruits and vegetables that would

otherwise be out of season locally

○ Commercial farmers suffer from low incomes because they can produce

more food than is demanded by consumers

■ US Gov has formed policies that attempt to address excess

production

● Gov pays farms when certain commodity prices are low

51
 ● Gov buys surplus production and sells or donates it to foreign

governments

VON THUNEN MODEL

● Von Thunen Model: Used to help explain the importance of proximity to market in

the choice of crops on commercial farms

● Based on the assumption the market was situated in the center of an isotropic

plain (flat and featureless with similar fertility and climate throughout)

● Farms located closer to market tend to select crops with higher transportation costs

whereas more distant farms are more likely to select crops that can be transported

less expensively

● Specific crops are grown in different rings around cities

○ Ring 1: highly perishable foods (milk)

■ Horticulture occurs

■ Tomatoes, strawberries, dairy farming

○ Ring 2: items difficult to transport (wood)

■ forests

○ Ring 3: various crops and pasture lands

■ Wheat and corn

○ Ring 4: spacious lands for animal grazing

■ cattle/beef

● The Bid-Rent curve

○ A graph that can be used to determine the starting position for each land use

relative to the market, as where each land use would end

○ Each line on the graph reflects the farmers’ willingness to pay for land at

various distances from the market

● Application/Faults

○ Non-isotropic plains

52
 ■ The model assumed land was isotropic, but real land has rivers,

mountains and other physical features

■ Some areas have comparative advantage due to better climates or

soil conditions for certain crops

○ Multiple markets:

■ Model assumes that a farmer has one primary market, but there are

usually secondary markets

○ Changes in transportation

■ Development of trains, carbs, planes and storage techniques

○ Changes in demand for products

○ No model accounts for every variation

■ For example specialty farming

GLOBAL SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURE

● Expansion of supply chains

● Regional Interdependence increases

● Increased profit margin of luxury crops

○ Take advantage of weak labor and environmental laws

■ Price for locals may increase

■ Countries may become dependent on 1 or 2 export commodities

● Political systems, infrastructure, and trade

○ Neocolonialism

■ The use of economic, political, and social pressures to control former

colonies

○ Fair trade movement

■ Started with the fair trade certificate for coffee, an effort to promote

higher incomes for producers and more sustainable farming practices

■ seeks greater equity in international trade and securing the rights of

marginalized producers and workers

53
STRATEGIES TO INCREASE THE WORLD’S FOOD SUPPLY

1. Increasing exports from countries with surpluses

2. Expanding the land area used for agriculture (not practical)

a. Lack of water; desertification

3. Expanding fishing

a. Aquaculture: the cultivation of seafood under controlled conditions

4. Increasing the productivity of land now used for agriculture

a. Green revolution (1970s and 1980s) introduced new higher-yield

seeds/miracle seeds and expanded use of fertilizers

5. Sustainable agriculture: agricultural practices that preserve and enhance

environmental quality; sensitive land management, limited use of chemicals, better

integration of crops and livestock

INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE

● Agriculture: the process by which humans alter the landscape in order to raise

crops and livestock for consumption and trade

● Climate: the long-term weather patterns in a region

● Physical Geography and Agriculture

○ Nutrient levels can affect what can be grown

○ Landforms also shape agricultural activities

■ Flat land in large, expansive valleys provide good landscapes

○ Humans have altered the physical environment to increase the agricultural

production

■ Irrigation, terrace farming, deforestation, desertification, and the

drainage of wetlands

● Climate and Agriculture

○ Economic and environmental factors are often the most important influence

on agriculture

54
 ○ The level of development of a country and its access to modern technology

can have a significant influence overcoming climatic obstacles

● Economic Factors and agriculture

○ Subsistence Agriculture:

■ The primary goal is to grow enough food or raise enough livestock to

meet the immediate needs of the farmer and his or her family. The

secondary goal is to trade/sell surplus

■ Tends to be in less developed regions of the world

○ Commercial Agriculture:

■ The primary goal is to grow enough crop/raise enough livestock to sell

for profit

■ More common in developed countries

○ Intensive and Extensive farming Practices

■ Intensive agricultural practices: those in which farmers/ranchers

use large amounts of inputs, such as energy, fertilizers, labor, or

machines per unit of land

■ Extensive agricultural practices: use fewer amounts of the inputs

and typically result in less yields

○ Types of agriculture

■ Intensive commercial agriculture: have heavy investments in labor

and capital used that result in high yields and profits

● Capital: the money invested in land, equipment and machines

■ Intensive subsistence agriculture: often labor and animal intensive

● For Example: rice paddies in Southeast Asia

○ Performed using low-paid human labor

■ Extensive Commercial agriculture: uses low inputs of resources but

has the goal of selling the product for profit

● Ex: Ranching (human labor is typically extremely low)

55
 ■ Extensive Subsistence Agriculture: have few inputs; often practiced

in areas that have climatic extremes such as tropical, semi-arid, or

arid regions

● Agricultural Practices and Regions

○ Pastoral Nomadism

■ Subsistence agriculture and herding of domestic animals

■ type/number of animals for the herd decided using local culture and

phys geo

■ Move to find water and forage

■ Takes up a large percent of world’s land area

■ Some obtain grain from sedentary farms

○ Shifting cultivation/Slash and Burn

■ Grow crops on a cleared field for only a few years and then leave it

fallow for many years (6-20 years) so the soil can recover

■ Occurs mostly in humid low-latitude

■ Takes up a large percent of world’s land area

○ Intensive subsistence (wetrice) and Intensive Subsistence

■ Feeds ¾ of the world’s people who live in developing countries

■ Work is done by hand or with animals

■ Virtually all available land is used for production, but parcels are much

smaller

○ Plantation

■ Large massive spread of land

■ Farmed by lots of workers

■ Done for profit

○ Mixed Crop and livestock

■ Most crops and land area are for the animals

■ Derives around 75 percent of income from sale of animal products

56
 ■ Permits farmers to distribute the workload more evenly through the

year

■ Crop rotation

■ Not sold for profit -> fed to animals

■ The most common form of commercial agriculture in Europe

○ Dairy Farming

■ Most important type of commercial agriculture in the first ring

(milkshed) outside the large cities (currently about 300 miles)

■ Typically sell their milk to wholesalers who later distribute it to

retailers

■ Farmers also sell milk to butter and cheese manufacturers

○ Commercial Gardening/Truck Farming

■ Southeastern US

■ Large; Machines

■ Apples, asparagus, cherries, lettuce, mushrooms and potatoes

■ Some selling fresh to consumers; most are sold to large processors

for canning or freezing

■ Migrant farm workers to keep labor costs low

● Not a lot of workers

○ Fruit Farming and Grain Farming

■ Human consumption

■ Sell to manufacturers of food products

● Breakfast cereals and bread

■ Heavily mechanized; large

○ Mediterranean Agriculture

■ Sea winds provide moisture and moderate winter temps

■ Derive a smaller percentage of income from animal products

● Goat cheese

■ Olives and grapes

57
 ■ Not subsistence

○ Livestock

■ Commercial grazing over an extensive area

■ Semiarid or arid land because vegetation is too sparse and soil too

poor to support crops

■ As far away as possible from central city

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS AND SURVEY METHODS

● Rural settlement patterns

○ clustered/nucleated settlements: had groups of homes located near each

other in a village and fostered a strong sense of place

○ Dispersed settlements

■ Patterns in which farmers lived in homes spread throughout the

countryside

■ Occur in other locations, particularly areas that have rugged or

challenging environments

○ Linear settlement:

■ Buildings and human activities are organized close to a body of water

or along a transportation route

■ Ex: along a river or railroad

● Establishing property boundaries

○ Metes and bounds system:

■ How plot boundaries were described

■ Metes were used for short distances and often referred to features of

specific points

■ identified by its natural landmarks

○ Public land survey system/township and range system

■ Created rectangular plots of lands with consistent size

■ Used in the land west of the appalachian mountains

58
 ■ Townships: areas 6 miles long and 6 miles wide

■ Section: a square mile

○ French long-lot system

■ Farms were long, thin sections of land that ran perpendicular to a

river

■ Occurred in Quebec and Louisiana

THE SECOND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION

● Second Agricultural Revolution: began in the 1700s, used the advances of the

Industrial Revolution to increase food supply and support population growth

● Property rights and farming advances:

○ The enclosure acts: series of laws enacted by the british government that

enabled landowners to purchase and enclose land for their use

○ Iron/steel plow

○ Mechanized seed drilling

○ McCormick Reaper/Harvester

○ Grain Elevator

○ Barbed Wire

○ Mixed Nitrogen and Nitric Acid Fertilizer

○ Crop Rotation:

■ Technique of planting different crops in a specific sequence on the

same plot of land in order to restore nutrients back into the soil

○ Irrigation:

■ The process of applying controlled amounts of water to crops using

canals, pipes, sprinkler systems, or other human-made devices

GREEN REVOLUTION

59
 ● Third agricultural revolution: born out of science, research, and technology and

continues today

● Green revolution: advances in plant biology of the mid-20th century

○ Higher yield, more disease resistant, and faster growing varieties of grain

○ Seed hybridization: the process of brewing 2 plants that have desirable

characteristics to produce a single seed with both characteristics

○ Genetically modified organism: a process by which humans use

engineering techniques to change the DNA of a seed

● Positive impacts of the green revolution

○ Increased food production in the developing world has prevented millions

from starvation

○ Higher rates of investment in both the public and private sectors

● Negative consequences of the green revolution:

○ Expense of the natural environment

○ Aggressive irrigation led to soil erosion

○ Polluted drinking water, species extinction, and health issues

○ Further marginalized women

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION REGIONS

● Influence of economic forces

○ Bid-rent theory: geographical economic theory that refers to how the price

and demand for real estate change as the distance from the central business

district increases

○ Farmer must use intensive agricultural practices to turn a profit on the land

closest to the market

■ Factory Farming: capital intensive livestock operation in which many

animals are kept in close quarters, and bred and fed in a controlled

environment

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 ■ Aquaculture: type of intensive farming with aquatic animals (similar

to factoring farming)

● Increasing intensity

○ Methods of planting

■ Double/Cropping: planting and harvesting a crop ⅔ times per

year on the same piece of land
■ intercropping/multicropping: when farmers grow two or more

crops simultaneously on the same field

■ Monoculture: only one crop is grown or one type of animal is raised

per season on a piece of land

○ Feedlots: confined spaces in which cattle and hogs have limited movement

■ Animals grow bigger in a shorter amount of time

SPATIAL ORGANIZATION

● Large corporate farms

○ Vertical integration: ownership of other businesses involved in the steps of

producing a particular good

○ Large-scale replacing small-scale farms

■ Large scale become more specialized and practice monoculture

■ Easier to take advantage of economies of scale

○ Commodity chains:

■ A process used by corporations to gather resources, transform into

goods and then transported to consumers

○ Technological improvements:

■ US farmers have increased the carrying capacity

■ Cool chains: transportation networks that keep food cool through a

trip

CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

61
 ● Environmental effects of modern food production

○ Land cover change

■ The study of how land is used and the impact of changing land use

○ Desertification

■ Alteration of the natural vegetation in arid areas causes fertile land to

become fertile

○ Salinization

■ When salts from water used by plants remain in the soil

■ Decreases a plant’s ability to uptake water and nutrients

● Terrace farming

○ Farmers build a series of steps into the side of a hill

○ Collects rainfall and reduces water run down

● Irrigation: process of applying controlled amounts of water to crops using dams,

canals, sprinkler systems

○ Center-pivot irrigation: watering equipment rotates around a pivot and

delivers specific amounts of water, fertilizer, or pesticides to the field

○ Problems from irrigation:

■ Disruption of natural water drainage

■ Reduces amount of surface water in rivers/lakes

● Draining Wetlands

○ Wetlands: low-lying areas that contain a significant amount of water at or

near the surface

● Deforestation: removal of large tracts of forest

● Societal effects of agricultural practices

○ Changing diets

○ Role of women

○ Economic purposes

○ Inadequate income in developed and less developed countries

62
CHALLENGES OF CONTEMPORARY AGRICULTURE

● Agricultural innovations

○ Genetically modified organisms

■ Plants or animals that scientists have modified by extracting genes of

one species and inserting them into the DNA of another species

○ aquaculture/aquafarming: the practice of raising and harvesting fish and

other forms of food that live in water

● Environmental issues related to agriculture

○ Fossil fuels

○ Depletion of water supplies

○ Loss of biodiversity

○ Soil degradation and erosion

■ Overgraze: if density of animals is greater than the grasslands, they

will take too much food

○ Sustainability and agriculture

● Changes in food production and consumption

○ Fair trade

○ Organic foods: non-GMO, produced without pesticides or synthetic

fertilizers, and use sustainable growing practices

○ Value-added speciality crops: consumers are willing to pay more for because

of special qualities or because they are so difficult to acquire

■ Value added farming: occurs when farmers process their crops into

high-value products, rather than simply selling it as it comes from the

field

○ Local-food movement: seeking out food produced nearby (farmers

markers)

○ Urban farming: the production of farm goods within an urban area with the

goal of providing locally grown food

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 ■ Community gardens: allow people to grow and harvest their own

fresh food

■ Vertical farms: grow crops inside in stackable trays, using

greenhouses, artificial lights and hydroponics

● Hydroponics: allow crops to grow without soil using mineral-

enriched solutions

○ Community-supported agriculture: consumers buy a share of crops and

the food is made available to the consumer the entire growing season;

ensures farmers a stream of revenue throughout the season

● Challenges of feeding a global population

○ Food insecurity: when people lack access to adequate food because of

limited money or other resources

○ Food desert: a neighborhood where residents have little to no access to

healthy affordable food

○ Problems with food distribution system

■ Food distribution system: network of trade and transportation that

gets food from farms to consumers

○ Adverse weather

○ Land use lost to suburbanization

● Factors affecting food production

○ Location of food processing facilities and markets

■ Food processing: transformation of agricultural products into food or

taking food items and transforming them into a different type of food

○ Economies of scale

○ Distribution systems

○ Government policies

WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE

● Gender roles in the food system

64
 ○ In developing regions women tend to do most of the farm work

○ Women tend to take on additional roles of management, sales, distribution

and research

○ Men have begun working more in food preparation

○ Gender equality and agriculture

■ Gender inequality: unequal opportunities, treatment, or rights of a

person based on gender

■ Gender-specific obstacles: discriminatory practices towards a gender

● Denied finance and capital

● Denied Training and education

● Denied Property ownership

● Limited mobility

● Lack of political power

■ Crop gap: female-run farms are much less productive because of

gender-specific obstacles

UNIT 6: Cities and urban land-use patterns and

processes
● Consumer services: principal purpose is to provide services to individual

consumers who desire them and can afford to pay for them

● Business services: principal purpose is to facilitate other businesses (¼ of all jobs)

● Public services: provide security and protection for citizens and businesses

○ Federal government: ⅙ of public sector employees

○ State government: ¼ of public sector employees

○ Local government: ⅗ of public sector employees

BUSINESS SERVICES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

● Tend to offer supporting laws, weak regulations, and low-wage workers

65
 ○ Offshore financial services

■ Tax breaks include little to no taxes on income, profits, and capital

gains

■ Bank secrecy laws

○ Business-processing outsourcing

■ Back-office functions: insurance claims processing, payroll

management, transcription work; portion of a company made up of

administration and support personnel who are not client-facing

■ Countries with a large labor force fluent in English are relatively more

attractive to firms seeking a place to outsource some of their routine

work

● Developed countries have numerous small settlements with small thresholds and

ranges and far fewer large settlements with large thresholds and ranges

MARKET AREA ANALYSIS

● Steps to determine profitability of a location

1. Compute the range

2. Compute the threshold

3. Draw the market area

● Gravity model: the best location will be the one that minimizes travel for all

potential customers

○ The more people, the more customers

○ The farther a service, the less likely people are to use it

○ People are counted only if they have sufficient income to shop regularly at

the store

○ Leads to food deserts because they won't go into predominantly low income

households

RANK-SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF SETTLEMENTS

66
 ● The country’s nth-largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest

settlement

○ Indicates that the society is sufficiently wealthy to justify the provision of

goods and services to consumers throughout the country

● Primate city (a city more than twice the population of the second-ranking

settlement)

○ Indicates that there is not enough wealth in the society to pay for a variety of

services

GLOBAL/WORLD CITIES

● Center of the flow of information and capital in the global economy

● Corporation headquarters

● Divided into 3 levels: alpha, beta, and gamma; subdivided based on economic,

political, cultural, and infrastructure factors

○ Ex: alpha++ (NY), Alpha+ (chicago)

LAND USE IN THE CBD

● Usually less than 1 percent of the urban land area

1. Public services

a. City hall, courts, county and state agencies, libraries

b. Centrally located for ease of access

2. Business services: advertising agencies, banks, financial institutions, law

firms

3. Consumer servicesSports and convention centers (commerce)

a. Retailers with a threshold and/or a high range

b. Retailers that serve people who worked in CBD

c. Changing shopping habits and a shift to the suburbs have reduced

their significance

67
 ● High demand and limited space=vertical development

● Telephone, electric, broadband cables (underground)

ORIGIN AND INFLUENCE OF URBANIZATION

● Ecumene: a variety of community types with a range of population densities

● Rural areas: farms/villages with low concentrations of people

● Urban areas: cities with high concentrations of people

● Suburbs: primarily residential areas near cities

● Settlement: a place with a permanent human population

● Factors driving urbanization

○ Presence of an agricultural surplus

○ The rise of social stratification and a leadership class or urban elite

○ The beginning of job specialization

● Urbanization: the process of developing towns and cities

○ Percent urban: a common statistic associated with regions, countries, and

even continents; an indicator of the proportion of the population that lives in

cities and towns

● Influence of site and situation on cities

○ Site: describes the characteristics at the immediate location

○ Situation: refers to the location of a place relative to its surroundings and its

connectivity to other places

○ Early city states

■ City-state: consisted of an urban center and its surrounding territory

and agricultural villages

■ Urban hearth: generally associated with defensible sites and river

valleys in which seasonal floods and fertile soils allowed for an

agricultural surplus

● Defining cities:

○ A place with relatively high concentration of people

68
 ○ Urban area: central city plus land developed for commercial, industrial, or

residential purposes (including surrounding suburbs)

○ Legal definition of a city: a higher density area with territory inside officially

recognized political boundaries

○ Metropolitan areas/metro areas: a collection of adjacent cities

economically connected, across which population density is high and

continuous

■ Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA): consists of a city of at least 50k

people, the county in which it is located, and adjacent counties that

have a high degree of social and economic integration, or connection,

with the urban core

■ Micropolitan statistical areas: cities of more than 10k people, the

county in which they are located , and surrounding counties with a

high degree of integration

● City is a nodal region

○ Population characteristics

■ Social heterogeneity is high

● Social heterogeneity: the population of cities, as compared to

other areas, contains a greater variety of people

■ Immigration

■ Diversity among residents

● Transportation and Communication

○ Borchet’s Transportation Model

■ Created by John Borchert

■ Used to describe urban growth based on transportation technology

■ Divided urban history into 4 periods (epoch)

■ Borchert’s model of urban growth

Epoch Time Period Conditions and

69
 Sail-wagon 1790-1830 Water ports bec
Poor road cond
long-distance tr
cities difficult

Iron horse 1830-1870 Steam engines

which promote
river cities
Regional rail ne
connected citie
Rail lines conne
and industrial s

Steel Rail 1870-1920 Transcontinent

emerged
Cities emerges
the interior of c

Auto-Air-Amenity 1920-1970 Cars allowed cit

out
Airport hubs em
Cities became f
interconnected

○ Transportation’s impact on cities

■ Pedestrian cities: cities shaped by distances people could walk

■ Streetcar suburbs: communities that grew up along rail lines,

emerged, often creating a pinwheel shaped city

CITIES ACROSS THE WORLD

● Suburbanization: the process of people moving, usually from cities, to residential

areas on the outskirts of cities; american dream

○ Caused by economic expansion, increase in purchasing power, growth of a

car-centered lifestyle

○ Sprawl: rapid expansion of the spatial extent of a city and occurs for

numerous reasons like growth of suburbs, weak planning laws, continuing

growth of car culture, and lower density single family housing

70
 ○ Leap-frog development: developers purchase land and build communities

beyond the periphery of the city’s built area

○ New forms of land use

■ Boomburbs: rapidly growing communities that have a total

population of over 100k and are not the largest city in the metro area

● Ex: Mesa, Arizona; Plano, Texas

■ Edge cities: nodes of economic activity that have developed in the

periphery of large cities (El Segundo)

■ Counter urbanization/deurbanization: residents leaving urban

cities

■ Exurbs: the prosperous residential districts beyond the suburbs

■ Reurbanization: suburbanites returning to live in the city

● Megacities and metacities

○ Megacities: have a population of more than 10 million people; chaotic

unplanned sprawling growth, pollution, and widespread poverty

○ Metacities: continuous urban areas with a population greater than 20

million people; attributes of a network of urban areas that have grown

together to form a larger interconnected urban system;growing without

planning, adequate services, and the social institutions that reinforce civic

order

○ Megalopolis: describes a chain of connected cities

■ Ex: string of cities from Boston, NYC, Philadelphia and Baltimore

■ Conurbation: uninterrupted urban area made of towns, suburbs, and

cities

CITIES AND GLOBALIZATION

● World cities/global cities: NY, London, Tokyo, and Paris

○ Ex: NY is home to UN

● Urban hierarchy: ranking based on influence/population size

71
 ○ City must be connected to be influential

● Nodal cities: command centers on a regional and sometimes national level

THE SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CITIES

● Urban system: an interdependent set of cities that interact on a regional, national,

and global scale

● Rank-size rule: describes one in which the sizes of cities within a region may

develop; the highest city population divided by the rank of the city is the population

● Higher-order services: usually expensive, need a large number of people to

support, and are only occasionally utilized (large malls, major sports teams)

● Lower-order services: usually less expensive than higher-order services, require a

small population to support and are used on a daily/weekly basis (gas stations,

grocery stores)

● Gravity model states larger and closer places will have more interactions than

places that are smaller and farther from each other

○ Can be used to predict the flow of workers, shoppers, migrants, mail,

information

○ Limitations include political borders, physical features (walls/rivers), cultural

(language, religion)

● Central Place theory: created by Walter Christaller

○ Explains the distribution of cities of different sizes across a region

○ Central place: a location where people go to receive goods and services

○ Larger cities will be further spaced from each other compared to smaller

towns/villages

○ Shape of market Areas

■ Market areas: a zone that contains people who will purchase goods

or services that surrounds each central place

■ Depicted by hexagonal hinterlands

72
 ● area surrounding a service from which customers are

attracted

○ Threshold and range

■ Threshold: the size of the population necessary for any particular

service to exist and remain profitable

■ Range: maximum distance people are willing to travel to use the

service

● People travel short distances for everyday services and greater

distances for services offered exclusively in specific places

● Range tends to be larger in developing countries

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF CITIES

● Urban models:

○ Classify and categorize land use in urban areas

○ Describe how various urban land uses are segregated spatially

○ Offer explanations for the location of different urban land uses

A. Urban zones

■ Functional zonations: the idea that portions of an urban area have

specific and distinct purposes

1. Central Business District: the commercial heart of the city; often

located near the physical center of the city, or the crossroads where

the city was founded

● Landuse closest to the CBD is often higher value

2. Industrial/Commercial Zone: the zone outside the CBD; include

manufacturing, warehousing, and transportation

● Associated with air/noise pollution

● Commensal relationship: commercial interests benefit each

other (restaurants/theaters; clothing stores/shoe stores)

73
 3. Residential Zone: areas where people live; may be separated by

density, income, ethnic group, religion, culture, social status

● Models of North American Cities

○ Concentric Zone: a city with a series of rings that surrounds a CBD; mostly

pre-WWII and US focused

■ E. W. Burgess

■ Bid rent theory: shops and offices can afford to bid for higher rents

in the center of the city so they occupy the center ring (CBD) and

residential areas are on cheaper land at the edge of the city

■ Order: CBD, manufacturing, working class residential, more

expensive, larger homes

■ Old chicago

○ Sectors/Hoyt’s Model: rather then rings, there are sectors of land for low,

medium and high income; low income is located near

industrial/transportation zones

■ Highly influenced by transportation patterns

■ Homer Hoyt

74
 ■

○ Multiple Nuclei: functional zonation occurs around multiple centers/nodes;

either attract or repel certain activities; Chauncey Harris and Edward Ullman

■ Most like US cities

○ Peripheral model/galactical city: describes suburban neighborhoods

surrounding an inner city served by nodes of commercial activity along a

beltway; tied together by transportation nodes

■ Increase in edge cities that started as suburban residences for people

who work in central city; post-industrial society

■ Chancey Harris

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 ■ Detroit

● European cities: dense mix of commercial and residential land use with narrow,

winding streets; distinct land zones are difficult to find; supports a walkable lifestyle

● Middle Eastern and Islamic Cities: mosque at the center surrounded by a complex

of structures meant to serve the public (schools/soup kitchens); built with defensive

citadels; suqs (ones with more valuable goods closer to the city center)

○ Citadel: a fort designed to protect the city

○ Suqs: traditional outdoor markets/covered bazaars

● Griffon-Ford: used to describe Latin American countries; 2 part CBD at the center of

the city: traditional market center and a modern high-rise

○ Most desirable are next to the modern high-rises, creates a commercial spine

of development

○ Grows into a secondary center (a mall)

○ As distance from the center increases, quality of housing decreases

○ Periférico/slums: outer ring of the city, shows poverty, lack of infrastructure,

and areas of poorly built housing (shantytowns)

○ favelas/barrios: neighborhoods marked by extreme poverty, homelessness

and lawlessness; most are in disamenity zones (not connected to city

services)

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 ○ Disamenity sectors: lack regular city services; early phase of the slums

● African cities:

○ Fastest growing cities/impacted by colonialism (on the coast)

○ 3 CBDs

■ Traditional CBD: existed before European colonization; small shops

with narrow twisting streets; formal economy; periodic/Informal

Economy zone

● Informal economy zone: thrives with curbside, car-side, and

stall based businesses; people hired temporarily; contains

periodic markets

■ Colonial CBD: broad, straight avenues and large homes, parks and

administrative services

■ Transitional CBD: mixture of the 2

○ Residential zones with mining/manufacturing nearby

○ Contain informal settlements/squatter settlements: lack sufficient public

services for electricity, water and sewage

● McGee Model:

○ Southeast Asia

77
 ○ Focus of the city is a former colonial port zone; export oriented; might

include a gov zone or commercial zone; surrounded by a belt of market

gardening that supplies and surrounds the city

○ Slums are mixed with middle class housing before the market gardening

● North American cities v Latin American

○ NA:

■ Do not have slums/disamenity sectors

■ Does not connect CBD to a mall

■ Retail in CBD/outside city near residential areas

■ Wealthiest on outskirts

■ CBD/market are one

○ LA:

■ Wealthiest closest to city

■ Have slums, barrios, shantytowns, favelas

DENSITY AND LAND USE

● Local regulations on land use

○ Zoning ordinances: regulations that define how property in specific

geographic regions may be used in Residential, commercial, industrial zones

■ Can result in land segregation

○ Urban planning: a process of promoting growth and controlling change in

land use

○ Residential zones: areas of the city devoted to where people live rather than

to commercial or industrial functions

■ Inner city: residential areas surrounding the CBD

■ Residential density gradient: as one moves farther away from the

inner city, population and housing-unit density declines, and types of

housing change

● Cycles of residential zones

78
 ○ Filtering: houses pass from one social group to another; people with less

wealth move into the houses after wealthier residents move

○ Invasion and succession: refers to the process by which one social or ethnic

group gradually replaces another through filtering

○ Urban infill: the process of increasing the residential density of an area by

replacing open spaces and vacant housing with residences

○ Suburbanization of business: the movement of commerce out of cities to

suburbs where rents are cheaper and commutes for employees are shorter

INFRASTRUCTURE

● Political organization and infrastructure

○ Municipal: the local government of a city or town and the services it

provides

○ Municipality: a local entity that is all under the same jurisdiction

○ Incorporation: the act of legally joining together to form a new city; normally

lack true CBD and function as bedroom communities

■ Bedroom Communities: commuter suburbs within the larger metro

area

○ Unincorporated areas: populated regions that do not fall within the legal

boundary of any city or municipality

○ Urban infrastructure:

■ Public transportation: buses, subways, light rails, and trains

URBAN SUSTAINABILITY

● Sustainability: using the earth’s resources while not causing permanent damage to

the environment

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 ● Smart-growth policies: focuses on city planning and transportation systems of an

urban region; limit suburban growth and preserve farmland, wildlife, outdoor

recreation

● Greenbelts: areas of undeveloped land around an urban area

● Slow-growth cities: adopt policies to slow the outward spread of urban areas and

place limits on building permits in order to encourage a denser, more compact city

● Urban infill: process of building up underused lands within a city

● Transit-oriented development: locates mixed-use residential and business

communities near mass transit stops

● Livability: refers to a set of a principles that supports sustainable urban designs

● New Urbanism: walkable blocks and streets, housing and shopping in close

proximity, and accessible public spaces

● Brownfield: property that may be contaminated with hazardous substances (about

450,000 places classify as brownfields)

○ Can increase local tax bases, facilitate job growth, take development

pressure off open land, improve/protect the environment

URBAN DATA

● Quantitative data: can be counted, measured, or sequenced by numeric value

● Population composition: description of people’s income, age, gender, ethnicity,

race, family size and other details

● Census tracts: contiguous geographic regions that function as the foundation of a

census

● Census block: densely populated urban area is often very small, consisting of a

single block bounded by 4 streets

CHALLENGES OF URBAN CHANGES

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 ● Redlining: the process by which banks refuse loans to those who want to purchase

and improve properties in certain urban areas; drawing lines on a map to identify

areas in which bank will refuse to loan money to purchase or fix up a house - is

illegal

● Blockbusting: when people of an ethnic group were moving into the neighborhood

and white americans would sell their house and run away (white flight)

● Ghettos: areas of poverty occupied by a minority group as result of discrimination

● Government support for affordable housing

○ Inclusionary zoning: keep units affordable, offer incentives for developers

to set aside a percentage of housing for low-income renters

○ Scattered site: approach to alleviate the problems of public housing

● Urban renewal: allowed governments to clear out the blighted inner-city slums

○ Eminent domain: allows the government to claim private property from

individuals

● Gentrification: the process of converting an urban inner-city neighborhood from a

mostly low-income, renter-occupied area to a predominately wealthier, owner-

occupied area of a city

○ Newcomers of gentrified areas are normally: young urban professionals with

high-paying jobs, LGBTQ looking for neighborhoods that are more inclusive,

accepting, and safe; older couples whose children have moved out

● Housing in periphery countries

○ Informal settlements: densely populated areas built without coordinated

planning and without sufficient public services for electricity, water, and

sewage

○ Tend to lack land tenures

■ Land tenure: the legal protection of contracts to show ownership of

the land or structures

○ Zones of abandonment: areas of a city that have been deserted by their

owners for either economic or environmental reasons

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 ○ Environmental injustice/environmental racism: the disproportionate

exposure of minorities and the poor to pollution and its impacts, plus the

unequal protection of their rights under the law

○ Gated communities: building of walled or fenced neighborhoods with

limited access and entry points

CHALLENGES OF URBAN SUSTAINABILITY

● Environmental problems in cities

○ Urban canyons: streets lined with tall buildings, can channel and intensify

wind and prevent natural sunlight from reaching the ground

○ Urban heat island: an area of a city warmer than surrounding areas

○ Urban wildlife: rats, raccoons, and pigeons can thrive in cities, but they can

spread diseases and be a nuisance to people

○ Smog, air pollutants

○ Suburban sprawl: rapid development outward from the inner city

○ Ecological footprint: the impact of human activity on the environment

○ Urban redevelopment: renovating a site within a city by removing the

existing landscape and rebuilding from the ground up

GENTRIFICATION

● Middle-class people move into deteriorated inner-city neighborhoods and renovate

the housing

○ Architectural character, proximity to cultural and recreational activities,

reduced commute to CBD

○ Yuppies: new college graduates who gentrify cities, SINK: single income, no

kids, DINK: double income no kids, Empty Nester: old people who don’t want

a yard

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 ● Criticisms: increased housing costs, de facto segregation, loss of historical

character/architecture

● Inclusionary zoning: encourage the development of affordable housing in low

poverty neighborhoods; helping foster greater social and economic mobility and

integration

Unit 7:

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

● Concentrated in Europe, North America, and East Asia (¼ of the global output)

○ 2nd are Brazil and India

○ Because of new technologies( steam engines, natural resources, iron,

water, coal) → Industrial revolution → increased food supply
(urbanization and changing class structure)
● Increased industrialization led to demands for raw materials and the search for new

markets and was a factors in the rise of colonialism and imperialism

● Industry: the process of using machines and large-scale processes to convert raw

materials into manufactured goods

○ Requires raw materials (the basic substances such as minerals and crops

needed to manufacturer finished goods)

● Growth and diffusion of industrialization

○ Before the 18th century, people made most things for themselves and

sometimes bought things at markets (places where products sold)

○ They mostly bought from cottage industries (small home-based businesses

that made goods)

○ Starting in the 18th century , the Industrial Revolution resulted in more

complex machinery driven by water/steam power

■ It could make products faster and at lower costs than could cottage

industries

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 ○ Cities/factories grew quickly

○ Disease was rampant and there was a lot of smog

● Cities grew horizontally and vertically

● Most industrialized regions were often found in large urban areas that provided a

significant workforce and along coasts or rivers

○ Industrial belt: stretched across the midlatitudes of the Northern

hemisphere

○ Near the end of the 1900s, these areas began to deindustrialize (process of

decreasing reliance on manufacturing jobs)

ECONOMIC SECTORS AND PATTERNS

● Economic sectors

○ Primary : Agriculture, mining, fishing, forestry

○ Secondary: manufacturing raw materials

○ Tertiary: goods and services in exchange for money, retail, banking , law,

education, bureau

○ Quaternary: research , development, and IT

■ Service sectors, high technology, and growth poles

■ Site Factors: related to the costs of factors of production inside the

plant, such as land, labor, and capital.

● private investments, government funded research, educated

workforce, special trade zones

○ Quinary: CEO’s, high ranking government officials, and university deans

○ As it goes down required education level goes up

● As the country industrialized, the agricultural sector became mechanized and

efficient enough to free up workers for other jobs

○ Multiplier effect: the potential of a job to produce additional jobs

● Theories on industrial location

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 ○ Weber’s least cost model: explains the key decisions made by businesses

about where to locate factories

■ Minimizing transportation costs

■ Minimizing labor costs

■ Maximizing agglomeration economies

○ Locational triangle: 3 points of the triangle are the market for a good and 2

resources needed to make the good

○ Bulk-reducing industry: final product weighs less or comprises a lower

volume than the inputs

■ weight losing, raw-material-oriented, or raw-material-dependent

industry

○ Bulk-gaining industries: final product weighs more or comprises a greater

volume than the inputs.

■ usually located close to the market and weight-gaining, market-

oriented or market-dependent industries

○ Single Market Manufacturers set up factories close to customers of their with

specialized components ( buttons, zippers)

■ As well as manufacturers of perishable products: food products and

time-sensitive products

● Labor costs

○ Labor-oriented industry/labor-dependent industry: highly dependent on

a workforce and will want to be near a source of those workers

○ Companies more dependent on a large quantity of labor will try to locate

near a community with a potential workforce

○ High-tech companies that depend on skilled workers will often locate next to

major universities

○ Developing countries

■ Production of textiles and apparel generally requires less skilled, low-

cost labor

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 ■ China (60%) and India (30%) of fabric

■ Lower labor costs offset the expense of shipping the products

■ Labor intensive industry : compensation paid to employees are a

higher % of expenses

● Bulk, containerization, and transportation

○ Break of bulk: the procedure of transferring cargo from one mode of

transportation to another

○ Containerization: system in which goods are loaded into a standardized

shipping unit

○ Intermodal: can be carried on truck, train, ship, or plane

● Additional locational considerations

○ Footloose industry: industry that can be located anywhere without worrying

about resources or transport

○ Spatially fixed costs: costs of the products don’t change no matter where

it’s assembled

○ Front offices: designed to impress clients

○ Back offices: less expensive office spaces only seen by employees

MEASURES OF DEVELOPMENT

● Gross National Product(GNP)/Gross National Income(GNI): money generated by

the citizens and businesses of a country regardless of where they are

● Gross Domestic Product (GDP): money generated in the country, regardless of

who does it

○ Per capita: total output/total population

■ UK and India have similar GDPS but the GDP per capita of UK is much

higher

● Purchasing power parity (PPP): a measure of what similar goods cost in different

countries; accounts for value of currency in different countries

● Countries with high GDP/capita, GNP/capita, or GNI/capita are wealthy countries

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 ● Sectors

○ Formal sectors: portion of the economy that is monitored by government,

so people in it follow regulations and pay taxes

○ Informal sectors: the portion of the economy that is not monitored by

government

● Income distribution

○ Gini coefficient/Gini index: values range between 0 and 1 and measures

distribution of wealth

■ 0 = same income for everyone; 1 = one person has all the income

● Social measures of development

○ Life expectancy: the number of years a person is expected to live, has a

positive correlation with development

○ Literacy rate: percentage of population that can read and write, usually at

an 8th grade level or higher

● Gender inequality Index: a composite measure of several factors indicating gender

disparity

○ Reproductive healthy

○ Empowerment

○ Labor market participation

● Human development Index: combines one economic measure with 3 social

measures in a range of 0-1

○ Higher the number represents greater values of development

WOMEN AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

● Glass ceiling: trend where women rarely obtain upper-level jobs in companies, the

civil service, or in governments, particularly in developing countries

● NGOs

● microcredit/microfinance programs: help provide loans to women to

start/expand a business

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THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

● Stages of economic growth model: linear progress of countries through stages of

the model

● Core-Periphery model/World systems theory: dependency model; countries don't

exist in isolation but are part of an intertwined world system in which all countries

are dependent on each other

● Labor trends

○ Periphery: many primary workers

○ Semi Periphery: factory workers, secondary and tertiary workers

○ Core countries: tertiary, quinary, and quaternary workers

● Commodity dependence

○ Commodities: raw materials such as coffee, cocoa, and oil

○ Commodity dependence: over 60 percent of its exports are raw materials

TRADE AND THE WORLD ECONOMY

● Trade: occurs when one party desires a good or service that it does not

have/produce and another party has it

○ Sometimes occurs through barter (a system of exchange in which no money

changes hands)

○ Groups tend to trade goods in which they have comparative advantage (the

ability to produce a good or service at a lower cost than others)

○ Complementarity: when a country has the income, goods, or services that

another country desires

■ Ex: canada has maple syrup and costa rica has coffee

■ When complementarity is not equal between countries there can be

political tensions (China/US)

● Increase in international trade in past several decades

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 ○ larger/faster ships, containerization, improvements to major canals, and new

port facilities, and increases in air cargo have made moving goods less

expensive

● Government in trade

○ In the late 19th century and early 20th century, most industrializing countries

imposed trade barriers to protect their young industries from foreign

competition

○ As they grew wealthier they reduced barriers

■ Free trade policies/laws: reduce barriers to trade

○ Support for free trade created neoliberal policies (a set of reforms that

reduced government regulations and taxation)

○ Because of the desire for economic development, governments at all levels

provide various incentives to encourage the expansion of existing economic

activities or the creation of new ones

● Supranational trading blocs

○ Trading blocs: groups of countries that agree to a common set of trade rules

■ US-Mexico-Canada Agreement

■ Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

■ Mercosur (several South American countries)

○ World trade Organization (WTO): global organization; settle disputes,

negotiating trade deals, supporting the needs of trade policies, and helping

companies follow similar international trade policies

● International monetary fund: created to aid countries caught in need of financial

assistance; promotes economic stability for countries dealing with financial

struggles

CHANGES AS A RESULT OF THE WORLD ECONOMY

● outsourcing/offshoring

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 ○ Outsourcing: contracting work to non company employees or other

companies

○ Offshoring: companies move their back offices to other countries

● Economic restructuring

○ New international division of labor

■ Transfer of production operations requiring highly skilled workers to

factories located in developed countries and those requiring less skill

to factories located in developing countries

■ Closed shop: must be unionized to work

■ Open shop: does not have to be unioned

■ Core countries: design and develop products

● Tend to have tertiary, quaternary, and quinary jobs

■ Semi Periphery countries: people often manufacture goods that are

marketed in core countries

■ Periphery countries: have large primary sectors and export minerals

and resources to core and semi periphery countries

● Basic and Non-Basic activities

○ Basic economic activity: actions that create new wealth for a region

○ Non-basic economic activity: does not generate new money for the area;

recirculates the existing money in the area

● Transnationals, multinationals, EPZs

○ Transnational corporation/multinational corporations: businesses that

operate in multiple countries

○ Export-processing zones: offer major tax savings, inexpensive labor, fewer

environmental regulations

○ Special manufacturing zones

■ Special economic zone, maquiladoras, free-trade zones

● Post Industrial landscape

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 ○ Postindustrial economy: one that no longer employs large numbers of

people in factories but has people who provide services and process

information

○ Assembly line: in which an item is moved from worker to worker

○ Fordism: system of mass production (assembly lines) that became standard

practice

○ Substitution principle: businesses maximize profit by substituting one

factor of product for another

○ post-Fordist system: industrial adaptability for efficiency

○ Just-in-time delivery: inputs needed in the assembly process arrive at the

assembly plant very close to when they are needed; reduces expensive

storage costs

● Locational interdependence: location decision for one factory is dependent upon

the location of other related factories

● Agglomeration economies: benefits that come when firms and people locate near

one another

○ for example large shopping districts

● Technopole: hub for information-based industry and high-tech manufacturing

○ Act as Growth poles/growth centers

○ Growth poles often have spin-off benefits or spread effects

○ Downsides of growth poles are backwash effects

● Brownfields: sites of abandoned factories

○ Rust belt: area hit hardest by deindustrialization -- the northeast and lands

around the Great Lakes

● Corporate parks/business parks: places where office buildings congregate to take

advantage of agglomeration economies

● Pollution (bad)

○ High temperature → melting polar ice sheets → rising sea levels →

rising precipitation rates

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 ○ Air pollution

■ Solid waste pollution, 2kg solid waste per person

○ Water pollution

■ Point source pollution: enters a body of water at a specific location

and tends to be smaller/easier to control/main sources are

manufacturers and municipal sewage systems

■ Non-point source pollution: comes from a large area; pollutes in

greater quantities/harder to control → main source is agriculture

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

● Sustainability: using earth’s resources without doing permanent damage to the

environment

● Sustainable development: addressing problems caused by depletion of natural

resources, mass consumption of goods, pollution of air and water, and the impact

of climate change

○ Ecological footprint: impact on the environment

○ Ecotourism: strategy used by some countries to help the environment and

generate jobs

● Sustainable Development Goals: 17 new goals intended to finish the job that the

MDGs have begun but with more awareness of environmental challenges

1. End poverty

2. Food security

3. Healthy lives

4. inclusivity/equitability

5. Gender equality

6. Access to clean water

7. Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy

8. Economic growth, productive employment and decent work for all

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EMERGING INDUSTRIAL REGIONS

● NAFTA:

○ Mexico, US and Canada

○ Mexico attracts labor-intensive industries because of its relatively low-cost

labor and its proximity to the US

GENDER INEQUALITY INDEX

● Inequality among men and women is a major factor that keeps a country from

higher development

1. Empowerment: ability of women to achieve improvement in status

a. % of seats held by women in national legislature

b. % of women who have completed highschool

2. Labor force: % women holding full-time jobs outside home

3. Reproduction health

a. Maternal mortality ratio (# of deaths of mothers in childbirth compared to #

of live birth) and adolescent fertility rate

● Gender inequality trends

○ UN asserts gender inequality has declined nearly every country since the

1990s with the greatest improvements in southwest asia and north america

○ Except for the US

ROSTOW MODEL FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

● Countries open themselves up to foreign investment and international markets

1. Traditional society: marked by a very high percentage of people engaged in

agriculture and a high percentage of national wealth allocated to non-productive

activities

2. Preconditions for take-off: elite group initiate innovation that stimulates an

increase in productivity

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 3. Take off: rapid growth is generated in a limited number of economic activities

4. Drive to maturity: modern technology persuades from the few take-off industries

to other economic sectors, thus sparking rapid growth

5. Age of mass consumption: marked by a shift from heavy industry to consumer

goods

● Limitations

○ Uneven resource distribution

○ Dependence on developed countries

○ Isolate resources to take-off countries

■ Neglect essentials

○ Market decline

● Triumphs

○ Worked before

○ Sale of raw materials help develop other infrastructure

○ Benefits from expose to other culture (increase globalization)

WALLERSTEIN’S WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY

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Core: dem groups, high
wages, import: raw materials,
export: manufacturers, high
investment, welfare services

Semi Periphery:
authoritarian gov, export:
mature manufacturers and
raw materials, import
manufacturers and raw
materials, low wages, low
Periphery: non-dem welfare services
gov, export raw
materials, import
manufacturers,
below subsistence
wages, no welfare
services

ENCOURAGING GLOBALIZATION

● EU: promotes development within the member states through economic and

political cooperation

● WTO: reduces tariffs and other barriers to trade between the signatory countries

● OPEC: 13 oil-exporting developing nations that coordinate and unify the petroleum

polciies of its member countries

● Complementarily: the degree to which 1 place can supply something that another

demands

● Comparative advantage: situation in which a country, individual company, or region

can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than a competitor

FINANCING DEVELOPMENT

● Direct investment by transnational corporations

● Loans from banks and international organizations

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 ● World Banks: provide loans to countries to reform public administration and legal

institutions, develop and strengthen financial institutions and implement

transportation and social service projects

● International monetary fund (IMF): provides loans to countries experiencing

balance of payment problems that threaten expansion of international trade

● Microloans: provided opportunities for women to create small local

businesses → improved standard of living
● Challenges

○ Fear that granting, canceling, or refinancing debts without strings attached

will perpetuate bad habits in developing countries

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