Contents

Topic 1: Anatomy ............................................................................... 3

1.1 The skeletal system ....................................................................................................... 3
1.2 The muscular system .................................................................................................... 8
Topic 2: Exercise physiology ............................................................. 11
2.1 Structure and function of the ventilatory system ........................................................ 11
2.2 Structure and function of the cardiovascular system .................................................. 15
Topic 3: Energy systems ................................................................... 23
3.1 Nutrition ..................................................................................................................... 23
3.2 Carbohydrate and fat metabolism .............................................................................. 28
3.3 Nutrition and energy systems ..................................................................................... 32
Topic 4: Movement analysis ............................................................. 39
4.1 Neuromuscular function ............................................................................................. 39
4.2 Joint and movement type ........................................................................................... 42
4.3 Fundamentals of biomechanics................................................................................... 45
Topic 5: Skill in sports ...................................................................... 53
5.1 The characteristics and classification of skill ............................................................... 53
5.2 Information processing ............................................................................................... 58
5.3 Principles of skill learning ............................................................................................ 67
Topic 6: Measurement and evaluation of human performance ........ 73
6.1 Statistical analysis ....................................................................................................... 73
6.2 Study design................................................................................................................ 76
6.3 Components of fitness ................................................................................................ 80
6.4 Principles of training programme design..................................................................... 89

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Topic 7: Further anatomy (HL only) .................................................. 92
7.1 The skin system ........................................................................................................... 92
7.2 Structure and function of the brain............................................................................. 94
Topic 8: The endocrine system (HL only) .......................................... 98
Topic 9: Fatigue (HL only) ............................................................... 102
Topic 10: Friction and drag (HL only) .............................................. 105
Topic 11: Skill acquisition and analysis (HL only) ............................ 109
11.1 Pedagogy for skill acquisition .................................................................................. 109
11.2 Notation and analysis.............................................................................................. 112
Topic 12: Genetics and athletic performance (HL only)................... 116
Topic 13: Exercise and immunity (HL only) ..................................... 120

Option A: Optimizing physiological performance ........................... 123

A.1 Training..................................................................................................................... 123
A.2 Environmental factors and physical performance ..................................................... 127
A.3 Non-nutritional ergogenic aids ................................................................................. 136
A.4 Recovery from sports and exercise (HL only) ............................................................ 140
A.5 Training and performance at altitude (HL only) ........................................................ 144
Option B: Psychology of sports ...................................................... 148
B.1 Individual differences................................................................................................ 148
B.2 Motivation ................................................................................................................ 152
B.3 Mental preparation for sports .................................................................................. 155
B.4 Psychological skills training ....................................................................................... 160
B.5 Talent identification and development (HL only) ...................................................... 163
B.6 Self-determination theory and self-regulated learning (HL only) .............................. 168

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Topic 1: Anatomy
1.1 The skeletal system
Assessment Obj Teacher’s notes Notes
statement
1.1.1 Distinguish 2 Axial skeleton: limit to the AXIAL SKELETON
anatomically skull, ribs, sternum and Skull
between the vertebral column Ribs
axial and consisting of cervical—7 Sternum
appendicular bones; thoracic—12 Vertebral column
skeleton. bones; lumbar—5 bones; • Cervical (7 bones)
sacral—5 bones (fused as • Thoracic (12 bones)
1); coccyx—4 bones (fused • Lumbar (5 bones)
as 1). • Sacral (5 bones fused as 1)
• Coccyx (4 bones fused as 1)
Appendicular skeleton:
limit to the pectoral girdle APPENDICULAR SKELETON
(scapulae and clavicles), Pectoral girdle
humerus, radius, ulna,
• Scapulae
carpals, metacarpals,
• Clavicles
phalanges, pelvic girdle Humerus
(ilium, ischium and pubis), Radius
femur, patella, tibia, fibula, Ulna
tarsals, metatarsals and Carpals
phalanges. Metacarpals
Phalanges
Pelvic girdle
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges

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2.2.11 Discuss how 3 BLOOD PRESSURE WITH DYNAMIC AND STATIC
systolic and EXERCISE
diastolic blood The nature of muscle contraction during static and
pressure dynamic exercise affect the peripheral vascular
respond to resistance differently ✔
dynamic and
static exercise. During static exercise muscles create higher pressure on
the blood vessels in contrast to dynamic exercise which
results in lower pressure on the blood vessels ✔

During static exercise there is an increase even in

diastolic BP because the muscles exert continuous
pressure on the vascular system/the loss of the vascular
pump ✔

2.2.12 Compare the 3 Movement of blood in DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD AT REST

distribution of favour of muscles. Blood flow is 5 L min-1
blood at rest
and the 20% of blood flow is directed to the muscle tissue
redistribution
of blood during 80% of blood flow is directed to organs
exercise.
DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD DURING EXERCISE
Cardiac output is redirected to working muscles✔

Sympathetic stimulation of blood vessels <areas of blood

flow reduction e.g., kidneys>✔

Increases in acidity/temperature/CO2 causes

vasodilation in skeletal muscles✔

Enhanced venous return in large muscle groups due to

muscular & respiratory pumps✔

Vasodilation of arterioles to working muscle✔

Vasoconstriction of arterioles to non-active tissue✔

Pre-capillary sphincters within non-active tissue

vasoconstrict✔

Pre-capillary sphincters within working muscles

vasodilate✔

Vasodilation to skin for cooling purposes✔

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3.2.6 Outline the 2 GLUCAGON AND ADRENALINE
functions of Glucagon
glucagon and Produced by the pancreas/alpha cells ✔
adrenaline
during fasting Released into the blood stream ✔
and exercise.
Is released when blood glucose levels are too low ✔

Promotes glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis / lipolysis ✔

Role of Adrenaline during Exercise

Stimulate glycogenolysis <in the liver and active
muscles>✔

Stimulate lipolysis <in adipose tissue and active

muscles>✔

Block glucose storage by the muscles <by inhibiting

insulin>✔

Facilitate sympathetic nervous activity within the

body✔

Increase heart rate/cardiac output/contractility of the

heart✔

Increase vasodilation of blood vessels within the

muscles✔

Stimulates release of glucagon✔

Increases alertness/focus✔

Role of Adrenaline during Fasting

Fasting can cause hypoglycemia ✔

Adrenaline is released to increase <liver>

glycogenolysis✔

If fasting persists it can stimulate gluconeogenesis in

the liver and kidneys ✔

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4.1.3 Explain how 3 Include the terms: SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY
skeletal • myofibril Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions✔
muscle • myofilament
contracts by • sarcomere Calcium ions bind to troponin✔
the sliding • actin
filament • myosin Tropomyosin/troponin complex exposes the actin
theory. • H zone binding site✔
• A band
• Z line Myosin <head> creates a cross-bridge with the actin✔
• tropomyosin
• troponin Myosin heads tilt and drag the actin filaments, referred
• sarcoplasmic reticulum to as the power stroke✔
• calcium ions
• ATP Cross bridge breaks as ATP splits ✔

Z lines come closer together/H zone gets

smaller/sarcomere shorten✔

Myosin releases actin if new ATP appears✔

Myosin heads attached further down the actin

filament repeating the cycle <ratchet mechanism>✔
• Myosin heads continue the cross bridge cycle
until insufficient calcium is present in the
muscle cell✔

Process goes on until acetylcholine-esterase breaks the

acetylcholine down ✔

Ratchet mechanism continues until the ends of the

myosin filaments reach the ends of the Z lines ✔

Concentric Isotonic Contraction

Power stroke takes place <releasing ADP & Pi>✔
• Pulling Z lines together/shortening the
sarcomere✔
• H zones shrink/A band is unchanged✔

Eccentric Isotonic Contraction

Power stroke resists stretch <releasing ADP & Pi>;
• Z lines move apart/lengthening the sarcomere
• H zone expands/A band is unchanged

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 Third Law (Law of Reaction)
Applying a force has an equal and opposite force
applied back to them✔
• <When jumping> the athlete pushes against
the ground, the ground pushes back with an
equal force✔

4.3.9 State the 1 ANGULAR MOMENTUM & INERTIA & ANGULAR

relationship VELOCITY
between Angular momentum = angular velocity x moment of
angular inertia✔
momentum,
moment of Newton’s first law = A rotating body will continue to
inertia and rotate with constant momentum unless an external
angular force/torque is applied✔
velocity.
4.3.10 Explain the 3 Include consideration of ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN SPORT
concept of moments of inertia, major
angular axes of rotation and an
momentum in appreciation of the law of
relation to conservation of angular
sporting momentum.
activities.

Start
Starts off with a high moment of inertia before
jumping✔
Torque is applied to start somersault/pirouette✔
• The greater the torque the greater the angular
momentum created✔

During
Tucks body in towards centre of mass to rotate
quickly✔
• Reduces the moment of inertia, causing an
increase in angular velocity✔

End
Opening out body increases moment of inertia✔
• Slows them down and reduces their angular
velocity✔

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5.2.4 Explain the 3 Often referred to as the SIGNAL-DETECTION PROCESS
signal- detection–comparison– Signal detection process consists of detection,
detection recognition process (DCR). comparison and recognition ‹DCR›✔
process. Limit to background noise,
It is the process by which the brain interprets and
intensity of the stimulus,
makes sense of the information it is receiving from the
efficiency of the sense
organs, early signal sensory organs✔
detection and improving
signal detection. The most important sensory information present in the
environment, are generally visual and auditory✔

Detection is the process by which the brain identifies

that a stimulus is present✔

Comparison is when we attend to something we have

sensed and compare it to information in long-term
memory✔

Recognition occurs when the code of the incoming

information matches a code stored in the long-term
memory✔

Detection of a signal is dependent on the intensity of

the signal compared to the intensity of the background
noise✔

Background noise is non-essential information such as

auditory information or information from within the
individual such as worrying about failure✔

Likelihood of detection is influenced by sensitivity of

sense organs eg eyes✔
Likelihood of detection is influenced by experience
with familiar signals✔

Arousal level can impact on detection. Low arousal will

see the signal missed, over arousal can see detection
of a signal that does not exist✔

Signal detection proficiency can be improved by

ensuring the performer is optimally aroused and be
aided by selective attention✔

Selective attention can be improved through learning

from past experience✔

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 Difficulty of Task
A difficult task may be physically difficult or complex in
application/could put performers off trying✔

The simpler the task the easier it should be to learn✔

• e.g. Simple tasks compared to complex tasks

Teaching Environment
Can determine the opportunities that there are for
practice✔
• e.g. Is there enough equipment to maximise
time practising?✔

Motivation
A highly motivated player will persevere during
difficult tasks until they have mastered the task✔

5.3.5 Define the 1 THE CONCEPT OF TRANSFER

concept of The effect of learning/performance of one skill on the
transfer. learning/performance of another✔

5.3.6 Outline the 2 Limit to positive and TYPES OF TRANSFER

types of negative, as they apply to: Skill to Skill
transfer. • skill to skill eg Rugby union to rugby league✔
• practice to performance
• abilities to skills Practice to Performance
• bilateral Likely only to occur if environmental conditions are
• stage to stage similar in both situations✔
• principles to skills. • eg Attack versus defence at set plays in
soccer✔
Refer to an example in each
case. Abilities to Skills
eg Balance to balance on the beam in gymnastics✔

Bilateral
Occurs between limbs «hand to hand, leg to leg» ✔
• eg Striking a football with the right/left foot✔

Stage to Stage
eg Skills that are learned in the cognitive phase of
named activity will develop until the associative stage
of named activity✔

Principles to Skill
eg Principles of defensive play in invasion games such
as football✔

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6.3 Components of fitness

Assessment Obj Teacher’s notes Notes

statement
6.3.1 Distinguish 2 Health-related fitness HEALTH-RELATED FITNESS
between the includes body composition, Components required to meet the demands of
concepts of cardio-respiratory fitness everyday life/activities <without causing injury>✔
health- (aerobic capacity), flexibility,
related muscular endurance, Components
fitness and strength. Body composition
performance- Cardio-respiratory fitness (aerobic capacity)
related (skill- Performance-related (skill- Flexibility
related) related) fitness includes Muscular endurance
fitness. agility, balance, Strength
coordination, power,
reaction time and speed. (Agility, balance, coordination)*
Some performance-related components could become
Some components of health-related for certain groups such as the elderly
performance-related fitness and those suffering from hypokinetic diseases
(agility, balance,
coordination) could become
health-related for certain PERFORMANCE-RELATED FITNESS
groups such as the elderly Components required to execute desired skills with
and those suffering from success during a sport/physical activity✔
hypokinetic diseases.
Components
Agility
Balance
Coordination
Power
Reaction time
Speed

6.3.2 Outline the 2 COMPONENTS OF FITNESS (11)

major Aerobic Capacity (Cardio-Respiratory Fitness)
components Ability to take in, deliver + use O2 for use by the
of fitness aerobic/oxidative energy system
identified in
6.3.1. Flexibility
Ability to move through the full range of movement
around a joint
• e.g., A gymnast requires high levels of
flexibility to complete the splits during a floor
routine✔

Muscle Endurance
Ability of a muscle (group) to maintain force/power
• e.g., A rower repeatedly pulling their oar
against the water to propel the boat towards
the line✔

Agility
Ability to rapidly change direction/speed in a precise
manner
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 Resistance Training
Loading the muscles while doing exercise to help
promote the maintenance and growth of muscle
tissue✔

Incorporation of Recreational Activities and Sports

This could be walking or jogging with others/this is to
help motivate individuals✔

6.4.2 Discuss the 3 Limit to: PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING

key principles • Progression Progression
of training • Overload (frequency, Coaches gradually increase challenge of sessions
programme intensity and
design. duration)
• Specificity Overload (FIT)
• Reversibility Coaches use overload by increasing
• Variety intensity/frequency/time/FIT of sessions✔
• Periodization. • e.g. Increasing frequency of training per week

Specificity
Coaches use specificity so that sessions are focused
on developing muscles/skills that are relevant for
their performance✔
• e.g. Sprinter focusing on developing leg
muscles

Reversibility
Ensure that sufficient rest/recovery is planned within
training to prevent periods of on-training which could
lead to loss of fitness✔

Variety
To maintain motivation/prevent boredom, coach
plans a range of activities/methods✔
• e.g. Crossfit training

Periodization
Gradual cycling of specificity, intensity and volume of
training to achieve peak levels of fitness for
competition✔
• Includes breaking up a long period of training
into sections✔
o Incorporate microcycles, mesocycles,
and macrocycles and phases into their
training programme

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 Regulation of Blood Glucose
Negative feedback loop counteracts a change to
return blood glucose levels to an acceptable level for
the body✔

Receptors in the pancreas detect changes in blood

glucose✔
• Elevated blood glucose levels stimulate the
release of insulin <by the pancreas>✔
• Lower blood glucose levels inhibit release of
insulin <by the pancreas>✔

Insulin stimulates glucose uptake/promotes

glycogenesis to lower blood sugar levels✔

Lower blood glucose levels stimulate the release of

glucagon <by the pancreas>
Elevated blood glucose levels inhibit release of
glucagon✔

Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis to increase blood

sugar levels;✔

Regulation of Adrenaline and Insulin

Regulated by complex feedback loops✔

Adrenaline
Can be managed by activity level✔
Can be managed by relaxation techniques (eg
meditation)✔
Regulated by «nervous stimulation» of the adrenal
gland✔
Stress/anxiety/fear anger can promote adrenaline
release✔

Insulin
Regulated by chemical stimulation of the pancreas✔
Receptors respond to increase in blood glucose / high
carbohydrate intake✔
Can be managed by injection / inhalation / infusion✔
Stress can reduce insulin levels✔

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 Environmental constraints Environmental Constraints
include: Physical factors
• Physical factors such Gravity, altitude, light, music or noise as well as floor
as gravity, altitude, space, court surface and net or lines on the area of
light, music or noise play
as well as floor space, • Modifying the size/shape/surface of playing
court surface and net areas
or lines on the area of
play
• Social factors, such as Social factors
peer pressure, social Peer pressure, social and cultural expectations.
and cultural • Controlling spectators/social conditions
expectations.

Task constraints include:

• The goal of the
specific task Task constraints
• Rules on actions or The goal of the specific task
conditions on tasks • Setting relevant goals or modifying tasks to
• Rules on the add challenge
equipment used.

Examples of ways that Rules on actions or conditions on tasks

coaches can manipulate • Modifying the rules to increase challenge
constraints include: o Shortening time or reducing playing
• Modifying equipment numbers
available
• Modifying the size of
playing areas Rules on the equipment used
• Setting relevant task Manipulating
goals in games • Modifying equipment available to increase
• Choosing beat/tempo success
in dance
• Suggesting imagery
ideas
• Enforcing specific
rules/conditions for
performance.

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Topic 13: Exercise and immunity (HL only)

Assessment Obj Teacher’s notes Notes

statement
13.1.1 State the 1 The immune system protects FUNCTION OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
function of the body from infectious Protects the body from infectious disease✔
the immune disease. It is involved in tissue Involved in tissue repair and protection against
system. repair and protection against potential pathogens✔
potential pathogens.
13.1.2 Outline the 2 Limit to the following. INNATE IMMUNE MECHANISMS
mechanisms Innate: Present before exposure to pathogens + effective
the body • Physical: skin, epithelial from birth
uses in linings, mucosal Physical
response to secretions Skin
damage or an • Chemical: pH of bodily Skin provides a physical barrier from invasion of
infectious fluids, hormones and pathogens✔
agent. other soluble factors
• Leucocytes: white blood Epithelial linings
cells that fight disease Epithelial linings have cilia which help to reduce
foreign bodies entering the body✔
Adaptive:
• Inflammation
Mucosal secretions
• Clotting Mucosal secretions e.g., those found in the
• Lymphocyte and antibody respiratory tract which trap bacteria and small
protection
particles✔

Chemical
pH of bodily fluids
pH of bodily fluids helps to destroy pathogens e.g.,
low pH within the stomach✔

Hormones and other soluble factors (Cytokines)

Leucocytes
White blood cells that fight disease

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A.2.7 Discuss the 3 Heat-related disorders HEALTH RISKS WITH EXERCISING IN HEAT
health risks include heat cramps, heat Children are more susceptible to complications
associated exhaustion and heat stroke. associated with exercise performed in the heat and
with the cold
Because of their relatively
exercising in • Due to their relatively large body surface
large body surface area and area and immature sweat response
the heat. immature sweat response,
infants, children and young
adolescents are more Heat Cramps
susceptible to complications Painful, involuntary muscle spasms caused by
associated with exercise excessive loss of electrolytes and dehydration during
performed in the heat and prolonged exercise in the heat
the cold.
Typically occur in muscles that are heavily used, such
as the legs

More common in individuals who sweat profusely

and do not replenish sodium and potassium levels
adequately

Heat Exhaustion
Typically accompanied by symptoms of extreme
fatigue✔

If heat exhaustion is not treated, an individual may

suffer from heat stroke which is a life-threatening
heat disorder✔

Individuals who are poorly conditioned or not

acclimatised are more susceptible to heat
exhaustion✔

Heat exhaustion often occurs when blood plasma

volume deceases by excessive fluid/mineral loss
through sweating✔

Blood often pools in the peripheral vessels reducing

central blood volume required to maintain cardiac
output✔

During heat exhaustion thermoregulatory

mechanisms are unable to remove heat quickly
enough due to low blood volume✔

Reduction in sweating capabilities✔

Typically, an increase in muscle sympathetic nerve

activation increases skin blood flow reducing blood
flow to muscles causing a decline in muscle force
production✔

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A.4 Recovery from sports and exercise (HL only)

Assessment Obj Teacher’s notes Notes

statement
A.4.1 Define active 1 Low-intensity exercise to ACTIVE RECOVERY
recovery. promote recovery either Low-intensity exercise to promote recovery following
immediately after, or in the an intense training session/competition✔
days following, an intense
training session or
competition.
A.4.2 Outline the 2 Consider: REASONS FOR IMMEDIATE ACTIVE RECOVERY
reasons for • raised circulation rate To raise circulation rate/cardiac output✔
active • enhanced blood lactate
recovery removal To enhance blood lactate removal✔
immediately • accelerated raising of
after a blood pH. To accelerate raising of blood pH
training • Blood capillaries remain dilated therefore
session or Link to topic 9: Fatigue assisting the movement of blood around the
competition. body✔

Replenishment of muscle glycogen/PC stores✔

Improves oxygen supply to the working muscles✔

Aids in reducing the effect of DOMS✔

A.4.3 Describe the 2 Include: INDICATORS OF RECOVERY

indicators of • physiological indicators Physiological Indicators
recovery. (for example, reduced Reduction in blood lactate concentration, allowing
blood lactate muscles to function efficiently
concentration)
• symptomatic indicators Restoration of heart rate and blood pressure to pre-
(for example, reduced exercise levels
muscle soreness)
• psychological indicators Replenishment of muscle glycogen stores for
(for example, improved sustained energy production
preparedness for the next
session/ competition).
Symptomatic Indicators
Decreased muscle soreness (DOMS), reducing
stiffness and improving mobility

Reduced inflammation and swelling, allowing normal

joint and muscle function

Improved range of motion, indicating recovery from

fatigue and micro-tears

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B.1.4 Outline issues 2 Limit to: ISSUES WITH MEASURING PERSONALITY
associated • data collection Data Collection
with the (interviews, Interviews
measurement questionnaires, observing Responses may be influenced by the interviewer,
of behaviour) leading to biased or socially desirable answers
personality. • validity and reliability
issues Athletes may alter responses based on the perceived
• ethical issues: expectations of the interviewer
confidentiality, use of
results, predicting Interviews rely on self-reporting, which can be
performance. subjective and inconsistent

Results may lack standardization, making

comparisons difficult across different athletes

Questionnaires
Not all questionnaires are valid ✔

The context within which the questionnaires are used

is important✔
• e.g. Not appropriate for use in young children
«when validated in adult samples»✔

Questionnaire administration could be in breach of

confidentiality✔

Athletes may fake responses to conceal a perceived

weakness ✔

Use of results determines the effectiveness rather

than the test itself✔
• e.g. Feedback given or knowledge of test
administrator✔

Observing behaviour
Behaviour can vary depending on the environment,
making it hard to measure personality traits
consistently

Observers may interpret actions differently, leading

to subjectivity and bias

Athletes may alter their behaviour if they know they

are being observed, affecting the accuracy of the
assessment

Context and situational factors influence how

personality traits are expressed, reducing reliability

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B.4 Psychological skills training

Assessment Obj Teacher’s notes Notes

statement
B.4.1 Discuss 3 Refers to the systematic and PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TRAINING (PST)
psychological consistent practice of mental Is not a quick fix✔
skills training or psychological skills. Not only used by elite/problem athletes✔
(PST). Include the following issues.
PST:
Phases of PST Program
• is not just for elite
Education
athletes
The athlete learns about the importance of
• is not just for problem psychological skills and how they can affect
athletes performance✔
• does not provide quick-fix Clarification of the role/level of commitment of the
solutions. psychologist/coach/athlete✔

Consider the three phases of

a PST program: Acquisition
• education Phase between the education and practice phases✔
• acquisition The athlete learns about the strategies and
• practice techniques to improve the specific psychological
skills that they require✔
A needs analysis of the athlete would be carried out
to ensure that any potential PST is centred around
the needs of the athlete✔
Formal/informal meetings to evaluate athlete’s
progress✔
Leaning specific strategies to performer’s unique
needs and abilities✔
Individual sessions to practice or apply strategies✔

Practice
To automate skills through over-learning or repeated
practice✔
To teach athletes to systematically integrate
psychological skills into their performance
situations✔

B.4.2 Outline goal 2 Include: GOAL SETTING

setting. • associated with Enhances self-confidence and motivation to
enhancing self- maximize performance
confidence and
motivation
SMARTER
• SMARTER (specific, An acronym/tool that promotes effective goal-
measurable, achievable, setting✔
realistic, time, evaluate, • Specific, measurable, achievable, realistic,
review) goals time, evaluate, review goals
• types of goals (outcome,
performance, process).

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 Athletes who are motivated Impact of Motivation on SRL Phases
to learn are more likely to Forethought Phase
invest the time and energy Athletes must see value in task to spend time
needed to learn and apply planning for it✔
SRL skills. Similarly, athletes
who are able to successfully More motivated to plan better/invest the time and
employ self-regulation energy✔
strategies often become
more motivated to complete Higher self-efficacy beliefs increase the use of self-
learning tasks. regulation strategies✔

Monitoring Phase
Intrinsic motivation affects level of effort in
completing tasks and use of self-regulation
strategies✔

Kinaesthetic awareness improves performance✔

Reflection Phase
Athlete attributions affect future engagement in self-
regulation strategies/result in clearer goal setting✔

Higher self-efficacy beliefs increase the use of self-

regulation strategies✔

Success with the process can add to the motivation

of the athlete and encourage further improvement✔

Reflection can regulate emotions that subsequently

determine motivation✔

Causal attributions affect motivation for future

behaviour✔

Athletes learn to attribute success to internal stable

controllable factors and to attribute failure to
external, unstable, uncontrollable factors✔

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